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E = Ee + Ef
Note that when static fields are assumed, the time derivative on the right
hand side of the dynamic (complete) version of Faradays law goes to zero
and the equation reduces to the electrostatic form.
For the open-circuited loop, the polarity of the induced emf is defined
by the emf line integral.
Induction Types
1.
2.
3.
The time derivative is written as a partial derivative since the magnetic flux
density is, in general, a function of both time and space. The polarity of
the induced emf is assigned when the direction of ds is chosen. If we
choose ds = az ds (then dl = aN dl for the line integral of E), the polarity of
the induced emf is that shown above. For this problem, both B [B = :o H]
and ds are az-directed so that the dot product in the transformer induction
integral is one.
Choose dl counterclockwise
dl = dyay (on moving conductor)
Y ds out
ds = dxdyaz
Transformer
(Toroidal core)
Toroid cross
= A = B a2
sectional area
Toroid
= l = 2BDo
mean length
where the surface integration is over the cross-section of the toroid. The
polarity assumed for the primary voltage yields ds = ds a N (dl is the path
along the primary winding from the ! terminal to the + terminal). The
partial derivative of B and ds are in opposite directions so that
Note that these partial derivatives are independent of position so that they
can be brought outside the surface integral. The resulting surface integral
of ds over S yields the cross-sectional surface area of the toroid (A = Ba2).
Displacement Current
(Maxwells contribution to Maxwells equations)
The concept of displacement current can be illustrated by considering
the currents in a simple parallel RC network (assume ideal circuit
elements, for simplicity).
iR(t) ! conduction
current
iC(t) !
displacement
current
displacement
current
conduction
convection
+
current
current
Since the two surface integrals above are valid for any surface S, we may
equate the integrands.
Equivalent circuit
V(t) = Vo sin Tt
Note that:
1. The peak conduction current density is independent of
frequency.
2. The peak displacement current density is directly proportional
to frequency.
3. The displacement current density leads the conduction current
density by 90o.
Since typical material permittivities are in the 1-100 pF/m range, the
displacement current density is typically negligible at low frequencies in
comparison to the conduction current density (especially in good
conductors). At high frequencies, the displacement current density
becomes more significant and can even dominate the conduction current
density in good insulators.
Maxwells Equations
(Dynamic fields)
In addition to his contribution of displacement current, Maxwell
brought together the four basic laws governing electric and magnetic fields
into one set of four equations which, as a set, completely describe the
behavior of any electromagnetic field. All of the vector field, flux, current
and charge terms in Maxwells equations are, in general, functions of both
time and space [e.g., E(x,y,z,t)]. The form of these quantities is referred
to as the instantaneous form (we can describe the fields at any point in
time and space). The instantaneous form of Maxwells equations may be
used to analyze electromagnetic fields with any arbitrary time-variation.
Maxwells Equations [instantaneous, differential form]
Boundary Conditions
Note that the unit normal n points into region 2.
Time-Harmonic Fields
Given a linear circuit with a sinusoidal source, all resulting circuit
currents and voltages have the same harmonic time dependence so that
phasors may be used to simplify the mathematics of the circuit analysis.
In the same way, given electromagnetic fields produced by sinusoidal
sources (currents and charges), the resulting electric and magnetic fields
have the same harmonic time dependence so that phasors may be used to
simplify the analysis of the fields.
For the circuit analysis example, based on Eulers identity
jx
(e =cosx+jsinx), the instantaneous voltage and current [v(t), i(t)] are
related to the phasor voltage and current [I s(T), Vs (T)] by
p h a s or va lu es [ I s ( T ),
Vs (T)]
(Frequency domain)
Note that the time-domain derivative and integral yield terms of jT and
(jT)!1 respectively, in the frequency domain according to
Maxwells equations in
instantaneous form
Maxwells equations in
time-harmonic form
(Time domain)
(Frequency domain)
The phasor electric and magnetic fields are related by the time-harmonic
Maxwells equations in a source-free region (J=0, D =0). Es and Hs must
satisfy all four equations.
Insert
The potentials at this point have been defined using only two of the four
Maxwells equations (the potentials are not completely described yet). If
we take the divergence of equation , we may employ Gausss law.
Equations
and become