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Structural
Interpretation
Methods
2
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Dip domains are separated by axial surfaces; imaginary planes which, when viewed in two dimensions,
form axial traces. Anticlinal axial surfaces occupy concave-downward fold hinges; synclinal axial surfaces
occupy concave-upward fold hinges.
Basic concepts
Folds are bends or flexures of layered rock that form in response to motion along faults,
diapirism, compaction, and regional subsidence or uplift. Folds are expressed in seismic
reflection profiles as one or more regions of dipping reflections (dip domains) that correspond to inclined stratigraphic contacts.
axial trace
anticlines
synclines
angular hinge
curved hinge
Folds are composed of one or more dip domains, and may have angular or curved fold
shapes:
anticlines
fold limbs
crest
single hinge
curved hinge
Axial surfaces often occur in pairs that bound fold limbs, which are also called kink bands:
single hinge
multiple hinges
curved hinge
paired
axial surfaces
synclines
single hinge
multiple hinges
curved hinge
kink band
kink bands
3
Monocline,
San Joaquin
Valley,
California,
U.S.A.
Syncline,
Santa Barbara
Channel,
California,
U.S.A.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
slip surfaces
Migration moves dipping reflections upward and laterally to properly image the fold geometry,
but reflections on non-migrated or under-migrated sections do not accurately represent fold
shape. However, axial surfaces can be inferred on these sections by mapping the truncations of
horizontal reflections.
Model
Balanced model
Synthetic seismic
reflection
truncations
diffractions
Stacked
section
Migrated section (synthetic)
Migrated
section
axial surface
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Poorly imaged zones on folds are commonly caused by, and interpreted as, faults or
steep limbs. Both solutions are often permissible and should be evaluated. Here, we
describe a method of interpreting parallel folds in poorly imaged zones.
water-bottom
multiples
fold
reflection
truncations
D: Confirmation of fold geometry with dipmeter log and 3-D seismic image
cutoff
Cutoffs and fault plane reflections (criteria 1 and 3) directly constrain fault positions. Thrust
faults and their cutoffs, however, are generally difficult to image and identify, and thus the recognition of kink-band terminations (criterion 2) is a vital component of interpreting these faults. In
this section, we describe how these criteria can be used together to identify and interpret thrust
and reverse faults in seismic sections.
kink-band terminations
Thrust faults and bed-parallel detachments can be identified by the abrupt, downward terminations of kink bands. Terminations are generally marked by regions of dipping reflections above
horizontal or more gently dipping reflections, and may contain fault cutoffs. Dipping reflections
in kink bands represent strata folded in the hanging wall of a thrust/reverse fault or detachment;
whereas, horizontal or more gently dipping reflections represent footwall strata below the fault
or detachment. Thus faults and/or detachments should be interpreted at the transition between
these two dip domains.
footwall cutoffs
in outcrop
Fault cutoffs in outcrop, Mississippian Joana limestone, Nevada, U.S.A.
inferred
detachment
in synthetic seismic
Seismic forward model showing fault
cutoffs (1) and downward terminating
kink-bands (2).
fault-plane
reflection
inferred fault
fault
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
dipping over
horizontal reflections
dipping over
horizontal reflections
interpreted faults
VE of 1:1
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Recognizing detachments
Detachments are faults that run along bedding or other stratigraphic horizons, and thus
generally are horizontal or dip at low angles. In fold and thrust belts, detachments are
commonly referred to as decollements. Detachments are generally not imaged directly
on seismic sections, but rather are interpreted at the base and/or top of thrust ramps.
Basal detachments can be located in seismic sections by defining the downward terminations of kink bands, as described on the preceding pages.
ramp
detachment
ramp
detachment
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
onlapping
growth strata
onlapping
growth strata
pre-growth strata
growth strata
pre-growth strata
In cases where the sedimentation rate exceeds the uplift rate, growth strata are typically characterized as sequences, bounded by two or more seismic reflections, that thin toward the
structural high. Growth strata are generally folded in one or more limbs of the structure. In this
seismic section, growth strata thin onto the fold crest, with the lowermost growth units exhibiting the greatest thickness changes. (2-D seismic data, reprinted from Shaw et al., 1997).
In cases where the uplift rate exceeds the sedimentation rate, growth strata typically
thin toward, and onlap, the structural high. Growth strata are generally not present
above the fold crest, but are folded in one or more limbs of the structure. In this seismic section, growth strata onlap the backlimb and forelimb of a fault-related fold. The
growth strata are overlain by post-tectonic strata, which are described later in this section. (This structure is interpreted more completely in sections 1B-1 and 1B-4).
11
Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
growth
strata
growth
strata
growth triangle
pre-growth strata
pre-growth strata
In fault-related folds that develop purely by kink-band migration, fold limbs widen through time
while maintaining a fixed dip (Suppe et al., 1992), as illustrated in the sequential model involving pre-growth strata only (above left). Material is incorporated into the fold limb by passing
through an active axial surface, which at depth is generally pinned to a bend or tip of a fault
(Suppe, 1983; Suppe and Medwedeff, 1990). The fold limb in growth strata is bounded by the
active axial surface and the growth axial surface, an inactive axial surface that defines the locus
of particles originally deposited along the active axial surface. In these sequential models, the
synclinal axial surface is active, and the anticlinal axial surface is inactive.
In the case where sedimentation rate exceeds uplift rate (above center), strata are folded
through the synclinal axis and incorporated into the widening fold limb. The dip of folded
growth strata is equal to dip of the fold limb in pre-growth strata. The width of the dip panel
for each growth horizon corresponds to the amount of fold growth that occurred subsequent
to the deposition of that marker. As a result, younger horizons have narrower fold limbs than
do older horizons, forming narrowing upward fold limbs or kink bands in growth strata (growth
triangles). In the case where uplift rate exceeds sedimentation rate (above right), each increment of folding produces a discrete fold scarp located where the active axial surface projects
to the Earths surface (Shaw et al., 2004). Subsequent deposits onlap the fold scarp, producing
stratigraphic pinchouts above the fold limb. Fold scarps and stratigraphic pinch-outs are displaced laterally and folded as they are incorporated into widening limbs.
onlaps
In fault-related folds that develop purely by limb rotation with fixed hinges (i.e., inactive axial
surfaces), the dip of the fold limb increases with each increment of folding as illustrated in the
sequential model involving pre-growth strata only (left). In the case where sedimentation rate
exceeds uplift rate (center), strata are progressively rotated with each increment of folding.
Thus, older growth horizons dip more steeply than do younger horizons, yielding a pronounced fanning of limb dips in growth strata. Fold limb width, however, remains constant. In
the case where uplift rate exceeds sedimentation rate, growth strata also exhibit a fanning of
limb dips. However, growth strata typically onlap the fold limb.
Contractional fault-related folding theories that exclusively invoke limb rotation include certain classes of detachment folds (Dahlstrom, 1990; Hardy and Poblet, 1994).
Contractional fault-related folding theories that exclusively invoke kink-band migration include
fault-bend folding (Suppe, 1983), constant-thickness and fixed axis fault-propagation folding
(Suppe and Medwedeff, 1983), and basement-involved (triple junction) folding (Narr and Suppe,
1994).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Growth structures imaged in seismic sections commonly exhibit patterns that are similar to
the kink-band migration or limb-rotation models that were described on the previous page. In
other cases, folds may develop by a combination of kink-band migration and limb rotation,
resulting in hybrid patterns of growth structure. This section presents three seismic profiles
as examples of kink-band migration, limb rotation, and hybrid growth structures.
growth triangle
salt mound
limb rotation model
growth
strata
detachment
(top) The seismic section above shows a narrowing upward fold limb, or growth triangle,
where bed dips within the fold limb generally do not shallow upward, consistent with folding
by kink-band migration. Dipmeter data in the wells corroborates the reflector dips. (upper
right) In this section, a fanning and upward shallowing of limb dips within growth strata are
consistent with folding by progressive limb rotation. The core of the anticline is filled with
salt, which presumably thickened during deformation, leading to progressive rotation of the
overlying fold limbs. (lower right) The growth structure in this section contains both a growth
triangle and a fanning of limb dips, suggesting folding by a combination of kink-band migration and limb rotation mechanisms. Kinematic theories that employ hybrid folding mechanisms include shear fault-bend folds (Suppe et al., 2004; see section 1A-4), certain classes of
detachment folds (Dahlstrom, 1990; Hardy and Poblet, 1994; see section 1B-3), and trishear
fault-propagation folds (Erslev, 1991; Hardy and Ford, 1997; Allmendinger, 1998; see section
1B-2).
hybrid model
growth
strata
growth triangle
13
Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Drape folding
Kinematic models
Drape sequence
drape
Growth fold
axial surfaces
dips toward crest
growth
strata
The top model shows a post-tectonic drape sequence above a rigid basement
high. The drape sequence thins toward the crest of the structure, with
younger strata having less relief than older units. The lower model shows
growth strata above a fold developed by progressive limb rotation. The two
stratigraphic patterns are similar, and in some cases difficult to distinguish.
Incorrect interpretations of drape and growth sequences can lead to flawed
estimates of structural timing and kinematics. Thus, care should be taken in
trying to distinguish between drape and growth sequences.
One common difference between drape and growth sequences is the orientation of axial surfaces. Axial surfaces in drape sequences often are vertical
or dip away from the structural crest, reflecting a state of tension and due, in
some cases, to compaction (Laubach et al., 2000). In contrast, axial surfaces
in contractional folds generally dip toward the structural crest, reflecting a
state of compression. Thus, careful interpretation of axial surfaces, along
with consideration of regional tectonic history, can, in some cases, help to
distinguish between drape and growth sequences.
drape
basement
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Fault-bend folds form as hanging wall-rocks move over bends in an underlying fault. This section describes the geometry and kinematics of fault-bend folding after Suppe (1983) and introduces basic techniques for interpreting these structures in seismic data.
Synclinal fault-bend folds form at concave-upward fault bends. Synclinal axial surfaces are
pinned to the fault bend and are generally active; whereas anticlinal axial surfaces are inactive
and move with the hanging wall block. Figures below show a kinematic model, a field example,
and a seismic example of synclinal fault-bend folds.
To describe the basic concept of fault-bend folding, we will consider the hypothetical case of a
fault in cross section with one bend joining upper and lower segments. Rigid-block translation
of the hanging wall parallel to the upper fault segment produces a void between the fault
blocks; whereas, translation of the hanging wall parallel to the lower fault segment produces an
overlap. Both of these cases are unreasonable.
Field Example
axial surface
Kinematic Model
Rigid-Block
Translation
fault
In contrast, folding of the hanging wall block through the development of a kink band accommodates fault slip without generating an unreasonable overlap or void. This fault-bend folding
(Suppe, 1983) is localized along an active axial surface, which is fixed with respect to the fault
bend. After strata are folded at the active axial surface, they are translated above the upper
fault segment. The inactive axial surface marks the locus of particles that were located along
the active axial surface at the initiation of fault slip. The inactive axial surface moves away from
the active axial surface with progressive fault slip, and thus the width of the intervening kink
band is proportional to the amount of fault slip.
Fault-Bend
Folding
fault
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Anticlinal fault-bend folds form at concave-downward fault bends. Anticlinal axial surfaces
are pinned to the fault bend and are generally active; whereas, synclinal axial surfaces are
inactive and move with the hanging wall block. Figures below show a kinematic model, a
field example, and seismic examples of anticlinal fault-bend folds.
axial surface
Kinematic Model
fault
fault
fault
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Where is the hanging wall cutoff angle before the fault bend;
is the change in fault dip; is the hanging wall cutoff after the
fault bend, and; is one half of the interlimb angle, such that the
axial surfaces bisect the interlimb angles and bed thicknesses
are preserved. If two of these values are known, the remaining
two values can be determined.
The fault-bend fold relations are displayed in the graph below.
The left side of the graph describes anticlinal fault-bend folds,
where the fold is concave toward the fault; the right side of the
graph describes synclinal fault-bend folds, where the fold is convex toward the fault.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
This section describes the interpretation of a synclinal fault-bend fold imaged in seismic reflection data. The lower portion of the fault and the syncline are well imaged, and fault-bend folding theory is used to predict the orientation of the upper portion of the fault.
In Figure 1, fault-plane reflections define the position of a thrust ramp located
beneath a syncline. Based on the imaged fold shape and fault ramp, the initial cutoff angle () and interlimb angle () can be measured as:
= 15; = 82
Using the synclinal fault bend fold graph (Figure 2), and are used to determine
the change in fault dip () and the hanging wall cutoff after the fault bend ():
= 15; = 14
and values are used to model the structure in Figure 3. Note that the predicted
upper fault segment agrees closely with the fault position as constrained by reflection terminations and potential fault-plane reflections.
3. Prediction
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
This section describes the interpretation of an anticlinal fault-bend fold imaged in seismic
reflection data.
In Figure 1, fault-plane reflections and reflection truncations define the position of a thrust
ramp located beneath an anticline. Based on the imaged fold shape and fault ramp, the initial
cut-off angle () and interlimb angle () can be defined as:
= 24; = 80
Using the anticlinal fault bend fold graph (Figure 2), and are used to determine the change
in fault dip () and the hanging wall cutoff after the fault bend ():
= 16; = 28
and values are used to model the structure in Figure 3. Note that the predicted upper fault
segment agrees closely with the fault position as constrained by reflection terminations and
the downward termination of the forelimb.
In this example, slip below the fault bend (S0) is also interpreted based on offset reflections.
Based on the slip ratio R predicted for this fault-bend fold (obtained using the graph presented in the previous section), the slip above the fault bend (S1) is calculated as follows:
R = (S0/S1) = 0.87; given S0 = 1.7 km, then S1 = 1.5 km
3. Prediction
20
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Interpreted section
bends
fault
Interpreted section
refolded
refolded
axial surface
axial surface
fault
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Multibend Hinge
Uninterpreted section
Curved Hinge
incipient axial surface
Interpreted section
Sequential models of a syncli- Sequential models of a multi- Sequential models of a curved hinge synnal fault-bend fold with an bend synclinal fault-bend fold clinal fault-bend fold. 0: Two incipient acangular hinge.
with two fault ramp segments. tive axial surfaces bound the zone of curvature on the fault. 1: Slip causes folding
of the hanging wall rocks. Folding begins
as rocks pass through the entry active
axial surface (A), and ceases as rocks
pass through the exit active axial surface
(B). 2: Progressive slip widens the kink
band, as inactive axial surfaces (A and
B) are passively translated up the fault
ramp.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Fault-bend folds develop by kink-band migration, where fold limbs maintain a constant dip but generally widen as fault slip increases. When sedimentation rate exceeds uplift rate, folds that develop by kink-band migration have syntectonic (growth) strata that form narrowing upward dip
domains, or growth triangles, above fold limbs (see section 1A-3). Below, we use kinematic models
to describe how these growth structures develop in a composite fault-bend fold, and show examples of growth structures in seismic sections.
Sequential model of a growth fault-bend fold (Suppe et al., 1992; Shaw et al., 1996) with sedimentation rate > uplift rate. Model 1 consists of a composite fault-bend fold developed above a ramp
between detachments. The fold is in the crestal uplift stage of growth (Shaw et al., 1994b), as fault
slip is less than ramp width. In Model 2, additional slip widens the kink bands, which narrow
upward in the growth section (see section 1A-4). In Model 3, fault slip is greater than ramp width.
Thus, strata are refolded from the back limb (A-A) onto the crest of the structure, which widens
with fault slip (crestal broadening stage, Shaw et al., 1994b). Growth strata are also folded above
the crest, as they pass through active axial surface A. Forelimb axial surfaces (B-B) are released
from the fault bend and passively translated above the upper detachment, and thus do not deform
young growth strata.
24
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
growth
pre-growth
forelimb
backlimb
onlapping
growth strata
folded
growth strata
folded
growth strata
onlapping
growth strata
time transgressive
angular unconformity
Sequential model of a growth fault-bend fold (Medwedeff, 1989; Suppe et al., 1992) with a sedimentation rate equal to the uplift rate. Model 1 consists of a composite fault-bend fold developed
above a ramp between detachments. Growth strata in the backlimb are folded concordantly with
the underlying kink band. In contrast, undeformed growth strata onlap the forelimb. In Model 2,
additional slip widens kink bands and the growth pattern is maintained. In Model 3, fault slip is
greater than ramp width. Thus, strata are refolded from the back limb (A-A) onto the crest of
the structure, which widens with fault slip. Growth strata are also re-folded above the crest, as
they pass through active axial surface A. Formerly inclined growth strata from the backlimb
become horizontal. Coeval deposition above the fold crest forms a time trangressive angular
unconformity. In Model 3, the sedimentation rate is held constant and equal to the uplift rate of
particles within the back limb.
Seismic reflection profile across the Western San Joaquin basin (Lost Hills anticline) showing
contrasting patterns of growth strata between backlimb (west) and forelimb (east) that are
consistent with fault-bend folding where sedimentation rate is less than or equal to uplift rate
(see model 2, left). The fanning of limb dips above the front limb may be due to sedimentary
drape and compaction, or may reflect a component of limb rotation in fold growth (see section
1A-3).
25
Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Examples
Fault-propagation folds form at the tips of faults and consume slip. These folds are generally asymmetric, with forelimbs that are much steeper and narrower than their corresponding backlimbs. Several modes of folding at fault tips have been described to explain these
structures, including: constant thickness and fixed axis fault propagation folding (Suppe and
Medwedeff, 1990); trishear folding (Erslev, 1991; Hardy and Ford, 1997; Allmendinger, 1998);
and basement-involved (triple junction) folding (Narr and Suppe, 1994). In this section, we
describe these kinematic theories, emphasizing their common characteristics, and introduce
basic techniques for interpreting fault-propagation folds in seismic data.
Field Example
fault
fault tip
Common characteristics
Although fault-propagation folds exhibit a
wide range of geometries, several characteristics are common to most structures,
including:
1) folds are asymmetric, with forelimbs that
are generally much steeper and more narrow than their corresponding backlimbs;
fault
26
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Kinematic Model
Constant thickness fault-propagation
folds develop as a fault propagates
upward from a bend. An active, synclinal axial surface is pinned to the fault
tip. As strata pass through this axial
surface, they are folded into the forelimb. Depending on the fault geometry, strata may also pass through the
anticlinal axial surface into the forelimb, or from the forelimb onto the
fold crest. The backlimb develops
much like a fault-bend fold, although
the limb width is typically greater than
fault slip.
Fault-propagation folds have several
geometric relations that are useful in
constructing models and interpreting
structures, including:
1) The distance between the fault
bend and the point where the anticlinal axial surface meets the fault equals
the fault dip-slip at the bend.
2) The bifurcation point of the anticlinal axial surface occurs along the
same bedding horizon as the fault tip.
FPF terminology
The following terms are used in the derivation
and graphs that describe fault-propagation folds.
1 = hanging wall cut-off (lower fault segment)
2 = footwall cut-off (upper fault segment)
= change in fault dip
= forelimb syncline interlimb angle
* = anticlinal interlimb angle
b = backlimb dip
f = forelimb dip
27
Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Kinematic Models
forelimb thickens
forelimb thins
FPF terminology
Fixed-axis theory redefines the axial angles (
values) associated with a fault-propagation
fold. The remaining parameters (, , b, and f)
are the same as in constant thickness faultpropagation folds.
e = forelimb syncline exterior axial angle
i = forelimb syncline interior axial angle
e*= anticlinal exterior axial angle
i* = anticlinal exterior axial angle
These graphs show the relationships between fault shape (2) and fold shape (e, e*, i, and i*) for
fixed-axis fault-propagations folds. The special case of ramping from a detachment is shown on the two
graphs at left as the lines 2 = . Note that separate graphs must be used to define the interior (i, and
i*) and exterior (e and e*) axial angles.
28
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Step 1: Limb dips are estimated in the seismic profile by interpretation of the reflector dips on the backlimb, and by correlation of
horizons 1 and 2 across the poorly imaged forelimb.
Step 2: Based on the forelimb (f = 58) and backlimb (b = 11) dips estimated on the seismic profile, the fold is inconsistent with fixed-axis theory. However, the structure may be
interpreted as a constant thickness fault-propagation fold with a change in fault dip () of 7
and an initial cutoff angle (1) of 42. On the following page, these values are used to predict
the fold shape ( and *) and cutoff (2) angles, and to generate an interpretation of the
structure.
29
Step 3: To interpret the structure using constant-thickness fault propagation fold theory,
the upper portion of the fold is interpreted
using the kink method, where axial surfaces
bisect the interlimb angles (see section 1A-1).
This interpretation yields a forelimb interlimb
angle () of 61.
Initial Interpretation
Complete Interpretation
30
Step 5: The interpretation is completed by extending the fault down from its tip at an angle of
49 (based on 2) to the point where it intersects the backlimb synclinal axial surface. At this
point, the fault shallows by 7 (based on ) to a dip of 42. The interior anticlinal axial surface
bisects the interlimb angle between the forelimb and backlimb, and extends down to the fault.
The distance between the point where this axial surface intersects the fault and the fault bend
equals the fault slip at the bend.
In summary, this model-based interpretation provides an internally consistent, area balanced
description of the structure that honors the seismic data. In general, constant-thickness and
fixed-axis fault-propagation fold theories are most applicable to structures with pairs of discrete, parallel axial surfaces bounding fold limbs with roughly constant bed dips. Bed thickness
changes in the forelimb, relative to other parts of the structure, are best explained with fixedaxis theory. Comparisons of the forelimb and backlimb dips can also be used to distinguish
between these two alternative theories. On the following pages, we describe other modes of
folding that may better describe structures with broadly curved fold hinges, variable forelimb
dips, non-parallel axial surfaces, and/or substantial footwall deformation.
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Seismic section
Erslev (1991) proposed an another mode of fault-propagation folding, known as trishear. Trishear folds form
by distributed shear within a triangular (trishear) zone that expands outward from a fault tip. Folds develop
in the trishear zone and cross sectional area, but not bed thickness or length, and are preserved through
deformation. The displacement field, and thus fold shape, is straightforward to calculate. However, it must be
done iteratively. Hence, the method cannot be applied graphically or analytically (Allmendinger, 1998). Here,
we describe some of the basic characteristics of trishear folds, and use the theory as implemented by Hardy
and Ford (1997) and Allmendinger (1998) to model and interpret these structures.
Theory
Kinematic model
Trishear interpretation
The trishear zone (a-b-c) is bound by two surfaces that define an intervening apical angle.
The surfaces may or may not be symmetric
with respect to the fault (Zehnder and
Allmendinger, 2000). To preserve cross sectional area (a-b-c = a-a-b-c) during deformation, there must be a component of displacement toward the footwall, as reflected by the
velocity vectors. To model a trishear fold, the
apical angle, the fault dip, and the propagation
to slip ratio (P/S) of the fault are specified.
(after Erslev, 1991; and Allmendinger, 1998).
Kinematic model
In the Narr and Suppe (1994) basementinvolved model, folding is driven by the
migration of a fault-fault-fold (axial surface) triple junction. The triple junction
moves upward with progressive fault slip,
causing shear of the footwall that forms a
monocline. Uplift of the hanging wall also
induces folding of the sedimentary cover,
producing a forelimb with bed dips that
are parallel to the dip of the upper fault
segment. Stages 02 show progress development of a migrating triple junction fold
model.
32
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Syntectonic (growth) strata are folded in distinctive patterns above fault-propagation folds. Forelimb growth structures, in particular, vary among the different fault-propagation fold models and thus can be diagnostic of the folding
mechanism. In this section, we contrast growth patterns developed above fault propagation folds as described by
Suppe and Medwedeff (1990) and trishear folds (Erslev, 1993), using kinematic models and examples imaged in seismic
sections.
Growth fault-propagation fold
Kinematic models
Growth axial surface
Seismic example of
a forelimb growth
truncations
triangle in a faultpropagation fold
from the Bermejo
foreland basin, central Argentina from
Active axial surface
Zapata and Allmendinger (1996).
Reproduced courtesy of the American Geophysical
Union.
Seismic Example: Tarim basin, China
Sedimentation rate relative to uplift rate can have a pronounced impact on resultant growth geometries. These three
examples (a-c) show the effects of local non-deposition and erosion on growth structures in fault-propagation folds
(after Suppe et al., 1992).
Kinematic models
This sequential model (12) shows a constant-thickness fault propagation fold (1) where
the fault breaks through the middle of the forelimb (2). The fault modifies the original fold
geometry by offsetting the hanging wall portion of the forelimb, and producing an additional kink band within the backlimb that develops by fault-bend folding.
Breakthrough styles
Faults in trishear and triple-junction fault-propagation folds may also breakthrough at any stage
of fold growth. These models are examples of synclinal fault breakthroughs in: a) trishear fold
after Allmendinger (1998); and b) a triple junction model after Narr and Suppe (1994). The geometries of breakthrough structures in all classes of fault-propagation folds vary substantially based
on the fault path and, if the fault is non-planar, on folding kinematics after breakthrough.
Seismic Example: Argentina
Models showing possible types of breakthrough structures after Suppe and Medwedeff
(1990). a and b) decollement breakthroughs; c) synclinal breakthrough; d) anticlinal breakthrough; e) high-angle (forelimb) breakthrough; and f) low-angle breakthrough.
This seismic section illustrates a common forelimb breakthrough pattern. Although the forelimb
is poorly imaged, reflection truncations and the hanging wall and footwall positions of the correlated horizon suggest that the fault extends through the structure. Nevertheless, the basic geometry of the fold is consistent with a fault-propagation folding mechanism, implying that this is a
breakthrough structure.
34
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Examples
Detachment folds are common in outcrop and at scales typically imaged by seismic reflection
data. They have been documented in the foreland of fold and thrust belts such as the Jura,
Appalachian Plateau (Wiltschko and Chapple, 1977), and Tian Shan (Ferrari et al., section 2-14,
this volume). Detachment folds are also common in passive margin fold belts, such as the
Mississippi Fan (Rowan, 1997) and Perdido Fold Belts (Carmilo et al., section 2-24, this volume)
in the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Campos Basin, Brazil, (Demercian et al., 1993), and the Niger
Delta (Bilotti et al., section 2-12, this volume).
Common characteristics
Detachment folds generally share the following
characteristics:
1) An incompetent, ductile basal unit thickened in
core of fold, with no visible thrust ramp.
2) A detachment that defines the downward termination of the fold.
3) Competent pregrowth units that, if present, generally maintain layer thickness.
4) Growth units, if present, that thin onto the fold
crest and exhibit a fanning of limb dips.
35
Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
There is no unique, quantitative relationship between fold shape and underlying fault shape for
detachment folds, due in part to the ductile thicknening occurring in the fold core that generally does not preserve bed length or thickness. Thus, it is often difficult to uniquely constrain
the geometry of these structures unless they are completely imaged. Nevertheless, several geometric and kinematic models have been developed (Dahlstrom, 1990; Ephard and Groshong,
1995; Homza and Wallace, 1995; Poblet and McClay, 1996) that can serve as guides for interpreting detachment folds in seismic images.
In this section, we present a geometric and kinematic model of detachment folding developed
by Poblet and McClay (1996) that is particularly useful when analyzing growth strata associated with detachment folding that involves a competent unit. These authors propose three distinct mechanisms by which a fold can develop above a propagating detachment. In each of the
models, it is the geometry and kinematics of folding in the competent layer (in particular, limb
lengths and limb dips) that controls the folding. The incompetent, or ductile layer, is able to
flow into, or out of, the fold core as deformation progresses. Layer thickness, line length, and
area are conserved in the competent layers. If the detachment level is allowed to change, or if
differential shortening occurs in the incompetent unit, then area is conserved in the ductile
layer as well.
Poblet and McClay (1996) present three modes of detachment fold growth that are illustrated
in the figure to the upper right (models 13), and differentiated based on their folding mechanisms as follows:
1) Primarily Limb Rotation. In this model, the limb lengths remain constant but the limbs
rotate to accommodate shortening. A small amount of material must move through the axial
surfaces, inducing a minor component of kink-band migration, as folding progresses. The
incompetent unit is area balanced only if the detachment level varies or differential shortening
occurs in the incompetent unit.
2) Kink-band Migration. In this model, limb dips remain constant, but their lengths increase to
accommodate shortening. Material moves through the synclinal axial surfaces as folding progresses. The incompetent unit is area balanced only if the detachment level varies or differential shortening occurs in the incompetent unit.
S = Slip
3) Limb Rotation and Kink-band Migration. In this model, limb dips vary, as do limb lengths,
but the ratio of the limb lengths remains the same. Strata moves through axial surfaces (primarily the synclinal surfaces), and rotate to accommodate shortening. The incompetent unit
area is balanced.
Two fundamental equations relate the shortening and uplift to the limb lengths and limb dips
of these detachment folds: (equations)
S = Lb (1 - cos b) + Lf (1 - cos f + Lt sin f)
u = Lb (sin b) = Lf (sin f)
based on the detachment fold terminology defined in the figure to the lower right.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
It is usually not possible to determine the folding mechanism of a detachment anticline from the
geometry of pregrowth strata alone. For example, the three models on the previous page have
identical final geometries, but the paths they took to get there (i.e., the fold kinematics), and the
folding mechanisms, were quite different. Growth strata are, however, typically diagnostic of folding mechanism because they record the kinematic history of fold growth (see section 1A-3). Thus,
growth strata can be used to distinguish between the modes of detachment folding described by
Poblet and McClay (1996).
As illustrated in section 1A-3, kink-band migration causes growth strata to form narrowingupward kink bands, or growth triangles, with bed dips that are parallel to those of the underlying
pregrowth strata. Growth triangles are bounded by at least one active axial surface. In contrast,
limb rotation causes progressive changes in limb dips that result in a fanning of limb dips in
growth strata. In limb rotation structures, a minor amount of material may still move through
axial surfaces that are continuously changing orientation, resulting in a minor amount of kinkband migration. Poblet and McClay (1996) refer to these as limited-activity axial surfaces.
These models define the activity of axial surfaces that are involved in the three types of detachment folds defined by Poblet and McClay (1996):
Based on these fold kinematics, growth strata have distinctive patterns in each type of detachment folds that are shown in the models (13) at upper right, which are described as follows:
1) Primarily Limb Rotation. In this model, growth strata predominantly display fanning of dips,
recording the progressive rotation of the fold limbs. Small growth triangles form that define
growth strata which migrated through the limited-activity axial surfaces.
2) Kink-band Migration. In this model, growth strata form growth triangles because strata have
migrated through the active synclinal axial surfaces.
3) Limb Rotation and Kink-band Migration. In this model, growth strata display some fanning of
dip due to rotation of the fold limbs as well as growth triangles that record the migration of strata through the active synclinal axial surfaces.
This seismic line images a detachment anticline with patterns of growth strata that reflect folding by both limb rotation and kink-band migration, suggesting that the structure is compatible
with model 3 shown above.
37
Initial observations
Structural Interpretation. Based on the initial observations, this structure is interpreted as a detachment fold in the section at lower right. The detachment is interpreted to separate folded layers above from undeformed strata below. Above
the detachment, a poorly imaged stratigraphic interval is thickened in the core of the fold (1). This incompetent unit represents an Aptian salt bed. The units directly above the salt broadly conserve layer thickness (3), indicating these strata
have acted competently during deformation, probably deforming by flexural slip (see section 1A-2). The constant thickness
of the units also indicates that they were deposited prior to folding. Above these units, layers that thin onto the crest of
the fold (4) are growth strata. The growth strata generally fan above the fold limbs, with only small panels in the limbs having the same stratigraphic thickness that they do in the synclines. Thus, the fold grew mostly by limb rotation with only
minor kink-band migration, similar to the model 1 detachment fold of Poblet and McClay (1996).
Structural interpretation
Depth-to-detachment calculations
Model A shows the classic method of calculating the depth to detachment, based on the assumption that the uplift area
is equal to the displaced area. The shortening, which is typically determined by unfolding a layer while conserving line
length, and the uplift area are used to calculate the detachment depth by:
depth-to-detachment = displaced area / shortening
Model B shows a typical detachment fold where the uplift area greatly exceeds the displaced area. In these cases, standard depth-to-detachment calculations inaccurately predict detachment depths.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Shear fault-bend folding produces ramp anticlines with very distinctive shapes that
reflect a significant non-flexural-slip component to the deformation. The structural style
typically shows long back-limbs that dip less than the fault ramp, in contrast with classical fault-bend folding. This section describes the geometry and kinematics of shear
fault-bend folding after Suppe, Connors, and Zhang (2004) and introduces basic techniques for recognizing and interpreting these structures in seismic images.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Classical fault-bend folds (section 1B-1) deform by flexural slip of the beds as they slide over
fault bends (A), conserving layer thickness. In contrast, shear fault-bend folds undergo additional distortion of the hanging wall or footwall, that is they undergo additional shear. This
additional shear usually is concentrated in a weak detachment interval such as shale or evaporite that deforms by bedding-parallel simple shear like the geometric model below (B).
Alternatively, shear may be more distributed as in the analog model from David Elliott (1976)
based on sheets of paper (C) or it may involve a bedding-parallel shortening and thickening,
which is called pure shear. Shear fault-bend folds can also form by some combination of pure
and simple shear or by more heterogeneous deformation as shown below in the distinct-element mechanical simulation by Luther Strayer (D).
Flexural-slip unfolding of a shear fault-bend fold yields a hanging wall shape that doesnt match the
footwall because there has been deformation in addition to flexural slip. In this example from the
Cascadia accretionary wedge, offshore western Canada, the hanging-wall fault shape is determined by unfolding the layers while conserving line length. The difference between the unfolded
hanging-wall fault shape and the actual fault shape yields the shear profile, showing that there has
been layer-parallel simple shear. The shear is concentrated in the yellow and red basal layers.
Interpreted section
Models
A: Classic fault-bend fold
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Fold types
End-member shear fault-bend folding. We can understand the fundamentals of shear fault-bend
folding and quantitatively check our seismic interpretations by using two simple end-member theories, both involving a weak basal decollement layer of thickness h (shown in yellow). In the simpleshear end member, the decollement layer undergoes bedding-parallel simple shear with no actual
basal fault, just a distributed zone of shear. In the pure-shear end member, the decollement layer
slides above a basal fault and shortens and thickens in a triangular area above the ramp. Mixtures
between these end members are possible, as shown at right, but many actual folds are close to the
end members. Classical fault-bend folding is also an end member, with a basal layer of zero thickness
(h = 0).
The shape of the fold shows us which stratigraphic interval is the decollement layer. The anticlinal
axial surface terminates at the top of the decollement interval at (A). The synclinal axial surface terminates at the bottom (B). Also, if there is pure shear, the synclinal axial surface (C) doesnt bisect
within the decollement layer because the latter is thickened above the ramp. These properties are
useful in seismic interpretation.
Simple-shear end-member
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Fault picks
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Note that in this heterogeneous simple-shear fold that the highest shear interval
defines the base of the backlimb panel that most closely approaches the ramp dip.
Growth strata. The combination of limb rotation and limb lengthening that
occurs in shear fault-bend folding is recorded by growth strata, as illustrated in
the sequential kinematic models (A1-A3) shown below. Fanning of dips recording limb rotation (1) and growth triangles recording kink-band migration (2)
(see section 1A-4). Growth strata in the example from the Niger delta at right
show evidence of limb rotation.
As mentioned above, the fold geometry in pre-growth strata approaches the
geometry of classical fault-bend folding, with bed dips (3) approaching the
ramp dip, in the limit of large shear (i.e., displacement). The sequential large
shear model at right (B1B2), however, demonstrates that the component of
limb rotation is recorded in growth strata (4), and thus can be used to distinguish large shear fault-bend folds from classical fault-bend folds.
Given a constant ramp dip, the backlimb dip (b) steepens as shear (e and ) increases. Points A1 to A3 correspond
to models presented at lower left.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Fault and limb geometry. In the seismic section shown at upper right, the faultramp is located based on reflector terminations shown as red arrows and by core
from the ODP-808 hole (1). This gives a remarkably straight ramp, dipping at = 35,
which is much greater than the average dip of the irregular backlimb (b = 11-13),
suggesting that this is a shear fault-bend fold. The back syncline in the strong reflectors (2) is displaced substantially to the hinterland of the base of the ramp, which
favors pure-shear or mixed-shear models that we now test.
Comparing with the end-member theory. Plotting the backlimb dip b = 13 and
ramp dip = 35 on the pure-shear graph at far right (3) predicts a back synclinal dip
= 31 in the basal decollement layer, which quantitatively agrees with the seismic
image at right. In theory, the location of the top of the decollement layer (in orange)
is at the inflection in the back syncline, which agrees with the location indicated
independently by the fault cutoff of the back anticline (4) supporting our pureshear fault-bend fold interpretation. A complete interpretation is shown on the seismic image at lower right (see also Suppe et al., 2004).
Fault slip. The back-dip and ramp angles plotted on the graph (3) also give us the
shear = 69 of the basal layer. From this we can calculate the fault slip d = 390 m,
based on a basal layer thickness h of about 230 m (tan = d/h = 1.7).
Depth section
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Imbricate structures form by the stacking of two or more thrust sheets and are common in fold
and thrust belts worldwide. Imbricate structures can form by break-forward propagation of thrust
sheets, by break-backward thrusting, or with coeval motion on both deep and shallow faults. In this
section, we describe the basic characteristics of imbricate structures, and outline an approach to
interpret these structures in seismic profiles using imbricate fault-bend fold theory (Suppe, 1983;
Shaw et al., 1999).
Break-forward imbricate
Break-backward imbricate
Kinematic Models
Imbricate structures develop where two or more thrust sheets are stacked vertically. These thrust
faults may or may not involve detachments, but imbricate structures are more common in regions
with detachments. In the sequential break-forward model (02) shown above, slip on the deep
thrust fault produces a fault-bend fold that refolds the overlying thrust sheet. In the sequential
break-backward model (02), a pre-existing fault-bend fold is cut by a shallow, younger thrust ramp.
Common characteristics
Imbricate fault-bend folds typically contain:
1) Two or more vertically stacked thrust ramps;
2) Bedding dips that change across thrust ramps; and
3) Fold limbs at high structural levels with multiple
dip domains, reflecting refolding caused by multiple ramps.
(Note: multiple dip domains may also be produced by
multi-bend fault-bend folds, see section 1B-1).
These seismic sections show the three common characteristics described in the model
at left, including (1) multiple ramps, (2) changes in bedding dip across ramps, and (3)
multiple dip domains in fold limbs
47
Theory
Imbricate fault-bend fold theory describes the increases in dip order caused by refolding of shallow thrust
sheets by younger and deeper faults. In model 0, with a
single thrust ramp A, the forelimb and backlimb dip values are first order (-I and +I), because each limb was
formed by strata passing over a single fault bend.
Incipient thrust B is shown in the footwall of thrust A. In
model 1, slip on fault B refolds the shallow thrust sheet,
producing second order (-II and +II) dip panels. These
second order panels were folded once by thrust A, and
again by thrust B. The dips of the forelimb and backlimb
panels (-I, +I, -II, and +II) are prescribed by fault-bend
fold theory based on the initial cutoff angles ().
Two backlimb dip values are observed in this seismic section near the well. The lesser value (-I = 13)
occurs between faults A and B, and in the hanging wall of fault A to the right of the well. The steeper
value (-II = 25) is restricted to the hanging wall of fault A. These two backlimb dip values are compared with the values shown in the table at lower left, to determine if they are consistent with imbricate fault-bend fold theory.
Interpreted section
Forelimb and backlimb dip values are based on the initial cutoff angle () and the number of imbricated thrusts. This table shows the prescribed forelimb and backlimb dips for first- through seventh-order (I-VII) panels based on 8 to 24 fundamental cutoff angles. The order of the dip panel (IVII) generally corresponds to the number of imbricated faults.
Dip panels are typically measured on seismic sections, and then compared with rows of prescribed
values. If a general match between observed and prescribed dip values is obtained, then the structure can be interpreted using this table. If a match is not obtained, it may suggest that the initial
cutoff angles of the ramps are not equal, requiring use of values different that those on this table
(see Mount et al., 1990). These more complex situations can be interpreted using the folding vector technique presented on the next page.
The two backlimb dip values (-I = 13 and -II = 25) correspond to a 13initial cutoff angle based on the
table at left (see row highlighted in yellow). Thus, the geometries of faults A and B can be interpreted
as part of a break-forward thrust sequence. The lower fault (B) dips at 13, corresponding to the prescribed initial cutoff angle. It shallows to upper and lower detachments based on simple fault-bend
fold theory (see section 1B-1) with = = 13. The upper fault (A) dips at the second-order value (-II
= 25) where it lies above the backlimb kink band formed by fault B. Where fault A extends beyond the
underlying backlimb kink band, it dips at -I = 13, corresponding to the prescribed initial cutoff angle.
The geometries prescribed by the table match the reflection patterns closely. Note, however, that
other faults in the section further complicate some aspects of the geometry.
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*Note that folding vectors must be measured parallel to, but not necessarily along,
axial surfaces. In this case, the paired
axial surface corresponding to S is located
off the right side of the section, so the folding vector is measured at an arbitrary
point in the direction parallel to axial surface S.
Note: This method can also be used to model the folding of angular
unconformities, sedimentary growth wedges, and other cases where
bed dips within a kink band are not parallel.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
To describe structural patterns common in break-back imbricate structures, we will consider some
simple patterns for a shallow, break-backward thrust ramp (model A1) and detachment (model A2)
cutting across a fold limb (S-S) related to an older and deeper thrust. The shallow thrust ramp may
cut across and offset a part of the fold limb without changing fault orientation (model B1).
Alternatively, the shallow thrust could change its orientation across the fold limb, offsetting and
refolding parts of the structure (model C1). In the case of model C1, note that the deep folding vector (U) need not equal the deflection of the break-backward thrust (X), in contrast to the break-forward example described on the previous page. In the case of the detachment, the shallow fault
could follow bedding planes across the fold limb (model B2). Based on fault-bend fold theory
(Suppe, 1983), slip on this shallow detachment would not modify the fold shape. Alternatively, the
shallow detachment could follow bedding across the fold limb but cut up section beyond the fold
(model C2). In this case the shallow fault conforms to one axial surface and offsets the other.
These seismic sections show patterns that reflect thrusting sequence. In section A,
axial surface S terminates upward into a thrust that is overlain by gently dipping strata. This pattern is comparable to that shown in model B1 (at left) and reflects breakback thrusting. In sections B and C, axial surfaces S are offset by shallow thrust faults.
These patterns are comparable to model C2 (at left) and are consistent with breakbackward or coeval, but not break-forward, thrusting.
B: Peruvian Andes
A: Permian Basin, Texas, U.S.A.
C: La Puna, Argentina
A: Break-forward thrusting
These seismic sections both image two faults (X and Y) that are separated horizontally at shallow levels, but vertically overlap one another
at depth. In section A, the fold associated with fault Y does not deform,
and thus pre-dates, the annotated horizon. The fold related to fault X
clearly deforms, and thus post-dates this horizon, reflecting a breakforward thrusting sequence. In section B, the fold associated with fault
X does not deform, and thus pre-dates, the annotated horizon. The fold
related to fault Y clearly deforms, and thus post-dates, this horizon,
reflecting a break-backward thrusting sequence. Both seismic images
are from the deepwater Niger Delta, Nigeria.
B: Break-back thrusting
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Examples
Field Example
Basic concept
Structural wedges contain two connected fault segments that bound a triangular, or wedgeshaped fault block. The two fault segments, which typically include two ramps or one ramp and
one detachment, merge at the tip of the wedge. Slip on both faults accommodates propagation
of the wedge tip and causes folding (Medwedeff, 1989). Wedges occur at a variety of scales. At
large scales associated with mountain fronts, wedges are typically referred to as triangle zones
(Gordy et al., 1975). In this section, we describe common types of wedges and illustrate how
these structures are interpreted in seismic sections.
Kinematic Model
(above left) Brittle failure of rocks in compression commonly leads to the development of two conjugate
thrust faults that dip in opposite directions (Anderson, 1942). Planes of weakness, such as bedding, can
also lead to the development of detachments. In cross section (above right), two conjugate thrusts
bound a wedge-shaped fault block and merge at the wedge tip (model 0). Slip on both bounding faults
causing propagation of the wedge (model 1). In this case, the wedge propagates along a detachment, and
causes folding of the hanging wall block. The lower thrust is commonly referred to as the forethrust or
sole thrust, and the upper thrust is called the back thrust or roof thrust (Boyer and Elliot, 1982).
Common characteristics
Wedges exhibit a wide range of geometries.
However, several characteristics are common
to most wedge structure, including:
1) presence of coeval fore- and back-thrusts;
2) folding localized along an active axial surface pinned to the wedge tip; and
3) folds may exist in the footwall of the back
thrust that produce structural relief.
This seismic section images a large structural wedge, or triangle zone, at the eastern front of the
Canadian Rocky Mountain fold and thrust belt. The common characteristics of structural wedges,
(13) as described at left, are present in this structure. Note that a second, smaller back thrust is
present within the main wedge block.
When the back or roof thrust and its hanging wall are gently tilted or warped, but not deformed to
the extent exhibited within the wedge block, the term passive roof thrust is sometimes used. Passive
roof thrusts are common in triangle zones, as shown in this example.
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53
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Kinematic models
Wedges
Interpreted section
In wedges that are governed by fault-bend fold theory (see section 1B-1), folds grow by kink-band migration.
Folding generally occurs along an active axial surface that is pinned to the propagating wedge tip. In cases
where sedimentation rate exceeds uplift rate, syntectonic strata form growth triangles above the wedge tip
that are bounded by a planar synclinal (active) axial surface and a curved anticlinal (inactive) axial surface
(model W1). In contrast, simple forelimb fault-bend folds have growth triangles bound by a curved synclinal
(inactive) axial surface and a planar anticlinal (active) axial surface (model F1). In cases where uplift rate
exceeds sedimentation rate, the contrast between wedges and simple fault-bend folds is even more distinct.
In a structural wedge, growth strata are folded about an active synclinal axial surface and are parallel to the
underlying forelimb dip (model W2). In contrast, syntectonic strata are not folded above the forelimb of a
simple fault-bend fold (model F2), because they have not passed through an active axial surface. Growth strata, therefore, are horizontal, or maintain a primary sedimentary dip, and onlap the forelimb.
(right) This seismic section images a structure with characteristics of a growth wedge. The structure consists of a forelimb developed above a south-dipping forethrust. Growth strata thin onto the crest of the structure, and are folded above the forelimb. The synclinal axial surface is roughly planar and folds the growth
strata. In contrast, the anticlinal axial surface is curved, with an abrupt change in orientation at the contact
between pre-growth and growth strata. Based on this growth pattern, which is similar to model W1 above,
the structure is interpreted as a wedge. (For more details on this interpretation, see Shaw and Brennan, section 2-23, this volume).
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
Structural wedges can form with non-flexural-slip components of deformation, resulting in fold geometries that differ from those presented on the
previous pages. Here, we describe a class of these wedges that form by
shear fault-bend folding (Suppe et al., 2004; see section 1B-4), and show an
example in a seismic section.
Kinematic models
Interpreted section
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Interference structures form when two or more monoclinal kink bands intersect, often yielding distinctive patterns in cross section with anticlines perched above synclines. Interference structures have been documented in
the field and laboratory (e.g., Dewey, 1965; Paterson and Weiss, 1966; Stewart and Alvarez, 1991), and have been
proposed as the origin of structures imaged in seismic profiles (e.g., Mount, 1989; Novoa et al., 1998; Camerlo et
al., section 2-24, this volume). In this section, we describe a simple style of interference structure comprised of
two kink bands with opposing dips, and present examples of these structures imaged in seismic sections.
Kinematic Models
These models (A and B) illustrate interference structures formed by the intersection of two kink bands (1 and 2) that dip
in opposite directions. Model A forms by clockwise shear of the through-going kink band (2), whereas model B forms by
counter-clockwise shear of the through-going kink band (1). In both models the through-going kink band separates the other
kink band into two pieces that are joined along two shear surfaces that are parallel to bedding. As a result, the shear surfaces connect points where the axial surfaces bifurcate. The axial surfaces in these models bisect the interlimb angles (see
section 1A-1), and thus bed length and thickness are preserved. The most distinctive aspect of these structures is that they
yield anticlines perched above synclines.
Kink-band interference can result from many different structural configurations, involving various types of fault-related
folds (Mount, 1989; Medwedeff and Suppe, 1997; Novoa et al., 1998). These three models (CE) illustrate general structural configurations that can yield kink-band interference. The interfering kink bands are developed: C) above two bends
in the same fault; D) by imbrication of two faults; and E) as forelimbs developed above faults that dip in opposite directions. Note that the shallow fold geometries are identical in each of these models. Thus, the geometries of interference
folds are not always diagnostic of the underlying fault configurations. The different structural configurations do, however, involve different patterns of active (green) and inactive (red) axial surfaces, which may, in some cases, be distinguished using growth structures (Novoa et al., 1998; see section 1A-3).
This seismic section images an interference structure from the Perdido fold and thrust
belt (after Mount, 1989; Novoa et al., 1998). The structure is comprised of two monoclinal kink bands that intersect at about 5.2 seconds (TWTT). The interfering kink
bands produce an anticline that is perched above a syncline, similar to the models
shown at left. The sense of shear in the interference structure appears to be counterclockwise, similar to model B. This section is displayed in TWTT, with a V.E. of about
1:1 for a velocity of 2000 m/s, which is representative of the shallow section.
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Part 1: Structural Interpretation Methods
A: Uninterpreted section
C: Geologic section
B: Interpreted section
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Case
Studies
59
Part 2: Case Studies
Figure 1: Map of fold trends in the eastern Santa Barbara Channel, California, showing locations
of the Pitas Point trend and seismic profile shown in Figure 2. RT = Rincon trend; ORT = offshore
Oak Ridge trend; ORF = Oak Ridge fault; MCT = Mid-Channel (Blue Bottle) trend.
Figure 2: Post-stack, time-migrated, and depth converted 3-D seismic reflection profile across the Pitas Point trend, with formation tops and dipmeter from the Texaco 234 #7 well. Downward
terminating kink bands (2) indicate a detachment at about 5 km depth (see section 1A-2, Recognizing thrust and reverse faults). Shallow gas sag is documented by Mastoris (1990).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
growth
pre-growth
crestal uplift stage
2
Figure 4: Post-stack, time-migrated and depth converted 3-D seismic reflection profile across the Pitas Point trend, with formation tops and dipmeter from the Texaco 234 #7 well. Downward terminating kink bands, that are highlighted in Figure 2, indicate a detachment at about 5 km depth (see section 1A-2, Recognizing thrust and reverse faults). Labeled axial surfaces correspond to those
modeled in Figure 3.
Fault-bend folds in the crestal broadening stage exhibit dipping over horizontal strata in the growth section on the fold crest
(Figure 3). This pattern is observed in the seismic image of the Pitas Point anticline and in the dipmeter of the Texaco 234 #7
well. In Figure 4, we interpret the anticline as a simple fault-bend fold developed above a north-dipping (13N) thrust ramp that
connects detachments in the Miocene Monterey Formation. Based on fault-bend fold theory, where = = 13, the forelimb
should dip 14S ( = 14) and be slightly narrower than the backlimb (R=.95). These values were used to guide the interpretation, which generally conforms to reflection geometries. The fold is slightly modified by slip on the shallow Montalvo thrust,
which is described by Shaw et al. (1996).
61
Figure 7: Axial surface map at the top of the Pliocene Repetto Formation, superimposed on a structure contour map of the same horizon that was generated independently
from well control. The plunge of the fold is reflected by pairs of axial surfaces (A-Aand B-B) that converge toward the fold terminations. In the center of the trend, the forelimb
axial surfaces (B-B) are deflected southward. This pattern is consistent with the crestal uplift stage of growth (Figure 6) in the center of the trend and along section X-X. For a
more detailed discussion of the map pattern, see Shaw et al. (1994).
Figure 5: Perspective view of a plunging fault-bend fold. (top): Between sections 3 and 2, fault slip is greater than
the ramp width and the fold is in the crestal broadening stage. As slip decreases to the right of section 2, the fold
enters the crestal uplift stage. Fold plunge is denoted by converging pairs of axial surfaces. (bottom): Axial surfaces
are mapped by projecting their intersections with the mapped horizon vertically to a horizontal datum.
Figure 8: Enlarged (2X) portion of the axial surface map superimposed on a time slice (2.3s TWTT) from the 3-D seismic survey. Note that in the zone of crestal broadening
the trend of axial surfaces B and B are parallel to the seismic reflections in the forelimb. The wide fold crest is imaged as a broad negative (white) amplitude surrounding platform Habitat.
Conclusions:
Figure 6: The axial surface map pattern of a doubly plunging fault-bend fold is characterized by pairs of axial
surfaces that converge at the fold terminations. The zone where the fold is in the crestal broadening stage is
defined by the deflection of the forelimb kink band (B-B) away from the backlimb kink band (A-A), yielding a
wider fold crest.
The Pitas Point anticline is a south-vergent, fault-bend fold developed above a thrust ramp and detachment
within the Miocene Monterey Formation. Maximum slip on the fault is about 3.5 km.
Upper Pliocene and Quaternary strata are syntectonic units folded by displacement on the thrust.
The fold is in the crestal broadening stage of growth in the center of the trend beneath platform Habitat.
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Figure 1: Location map of the Toldado anticline, showing the main structural features of the
study area. Note that the Toldado anticline is located close to the trace of the Avechucos syncline. Location of the seismic line on Figure 2 is shown.
Figure 2: Post-stack, time-migrated, 2-D seismic reflection profile across the Toldado anticline. The line is in TWT but is displayed in 1:1 scale using the velocity function of the Toldado-3 well.
Toldado-3 well and formation tops are shown. Note thinning of Paleocene growth strata (1) across the fold crest. Minor erosion occurs along the crest of the fold associated with the Eocene unconformity. The forelimb downward termination (2) defines an intra-Villeta detachment.
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The resulting interpretation implies that the fault-bend fold is in the crestal broadening stage. The
models presented by Shaw et al. (section 2-1, this volume) show that at this stage there should
be dipping growing-strata on top of horizontal crestal beds (see Figure 3, insert). The seismic
does not support this geometry and thus this model is discarded.
dipping over
horizontal strata
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Note that in this interpretation the shortening and slip is smaller than in interpretation #1, and that the axial surface (A) is not
fixed to the top of the ramp (where the ramp meets the upper
detachment). This implies that this fold is on the crestal uplift
stage (Suppe, 1983; Shaw et al., 1999). In this case, the horizontal growth strata seen on the seismic above the fold crest agrees
with the crestal uplift model (see insert), making this second
interpretation more plausible than the previous one.
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Figure 1: Generalized geological map of the Sequatchie anticline in Cumberland and Rhea Counties,
Tennessee (modified from Hardeman, 1966), showing the location of the seismic profile shown in Figures 2
and 3. Omu-S = Middle to Upper Ordovician and Silurian. D-M = Devonian to Mississippian. Pg-Pco =
Pennsylvanian Gizzard Group and Crab Orchard Mountains Group. Pl = Lower Pennsylvanian units above
the Crab Orchard Mountains Group.
The Sequatchie anticline (Figures 1 and 2) is the frontal structure of the Southern Appalachian thrust belt
in southern Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. An interpretation of the northern part of the structure in
Cumberland and Rhea counties, Tennessee, is presented based on surface data, a seismic profile, and data
from the ARCO-Ladd #1 well. The structure has a low relief and exposes Mississippian to Pennsylvanian
units on the crest of the structure (Figure 1). Farther south, the relief increases, and Middle Ordovician to
Devonian units are exposed at the surface (Hardeman, 1966; Harris and Milici, 1977).
Figure 2: Part of time-migrated seismic profile through the Sequatchie anticline, Tennessee.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
The Sequatchie anticline is interpreted to be a low-displacement fault-bend fold, related to a multi-bend ramp (Figure 4a).
There are four bends in the fault, each of which defines an
active axial plane. Movement of the hanging wall over the fault
bends results in the development of a series of passive axial surfaces, which originate at the active axial surfaces and migrate
away from them. The active and and passive axial surfaces separate panels of relatively constant dip, which can be identified
from surface and seismic data, and from the dipmeter data in
the ARCO-Ladd #1 well.
DATUM =
1100 feet
Figure 3: Uninterpreted (a) and interpreted (b) time-migrated sections through the Sequatchie anticline. Active axial surfaces are
shown in green, and passive axial surfaces in orange. The seismic section and the interpretation do not correlate 1:1 with the structural
cross section because of crooked line effects.
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This inclined shear profile and proposed penetrative deformation is consistent with the steep front limb of the fold, and the
small fault displacement in the Mississippian units.
ARCO-LADD #1
JEWETT HEIRS
Figure 4: Structural cross section through the Sequatchie anticline, Tennessee, based on seismic data (Figure 2), surface data, and data from the ARCO-Ladd #1
Jewett Heirs well. Active axial surfaces are shown in green and passive axial surfaces in orange. b. Line-length restoration of the structural cross section in a.
Conclusions
The Sequatchie anticline is a fault-bend fold related to a multibend fault ramp connecting major detachments in the
Cambrian Rome Formation and the Pennsylvanian Gizzard
Group.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 2: A depth-migrated 3-D seismic reflection profile that images El Furrial structure. Notice that the image deteriorates between X and X. The blue
ticks show the top of Oligocene picks in the wells. Profile provided by PDVSA E&P.
Figure 1: El Furrial trend (B) is located in the Eastern Basin of Venezuela (A).
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Figure 3: A balanced, retrodeformable cross section (X-X)across El Furrial Trend that integrates seismic reflection (Figure 2) and well data. El Furrial trend develops above a two-bend
thrust fault, which causes a very wide backlimb and a narrow forelimb. The steeper portion of the thrust fault is short and the gentle part is very long. The backlimb is interpreted to be
composed of two inclined dip domains (A-C and C-C) which are parallel to the El Furrial fault. On the other hand, the forelimb is composed of a single inclined dip domain (B-B). The
seismic data illuminate the kink bands B-B and C-C very well, however the dip panels A-C and C-A are not well defined by the data. Notice the growth axial surface (G) on top of the
kink band B-B which shows a growth triangle in the early-middle Miocene sequence. This structural trend accommodates around 14 km of total slip.
Figure 4: A balanced, kinematic model of development of the El Furrial trend. a: Incipient fault and
active axial surfaces (A and B) in undeformed strata. b: Slip on the two-bend thrust fault generates
inactive axial surfaces A and Bthat are rigidly translated away from active axial surfaces A and B.
Once axial surface A arrives at the convex bend of the fault, an incipient active surface (C) is generated. Moreover, axial surfaces A, B, and B become inactive and will be rigidly translated along the
upper portion of the thrust fault. c: Additional slip on the fault causes the development of an inactive
axial surface Cand the kink band C-Cstarts to grow until the present geometry is reached. Similar
kinematic models for multibend faults are shown by Medwedeff and Suppe (1997).
Conclusions:
El Furrial field is located within a very asymmetric fault-bend fold where the backlimb is much wider than the forelimb.
Growth strata and geochemical data suggest that it started to grow during early-middle Miocene times.
The fault plane has two bends and is divided into two sections: a narrow, steep ramp and a long, more gentle ramp.
The fault accommodates about 14 km of shortening.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 1: Principal structural features of the western Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. The Rosario
oil field (white box) was discovered in 1954, with production from fractured Cretaceous carbonates and Eocene fluvial clastic reservoirs (Molina, 1992). The La Luna Quarry is highlighted in
red.
primary geometric elements are best imaged. Two highimpedance and continuous reflections mark the top and bottom
of the carbonate section (Figure 3A, B). The first reflection
occurs between the Colon Shale and the top of the carbonates,
and marks the mechanical transition between the stiff unit
below and the weak clastic unit above. A second strong
impedance contrast occurs at the base of the carbonate section
and the top of the underlying Rio Negro clastic section. These
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Figure 3: 2-D time-migrated seismic lines over the Rosario structure (see Figure 4 for location). Seismic lines are about 1:1 in the vicinity of the Cretaceous section.
(A) uninterpreted line CCT-90c-14. Tie-line locations are labeled in gray. (B) interpreted line CCT-90c-14. Formation tops are labeled on the right; the approximate
middle-Miocene surface is dashed. RF = Rosario Fault.; REF = Rosario East Fault. (C) line CAT-85-1. (continued on the next page).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
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Part 2: Case Studies
Figure 4: (A) Top La Luna Formation sub-sea depth structure (blue reflector in Figure 3). Solid red lines represent the position of seismic lines published in this section of this volume. Other lines are published in Apotria and Wilkerson (2002). Dashed lines mark fold hinges for Rosario and
Rosario East. Contour depths range from -4925 m (blue) to -4025 m (red) with a contour interval of 50 m. (B) Top La Luna dip magnitude map with superposed structure contours. Dip is a maximum of 22 (red) and a minimum of 0 (blue). (C) Top Colon Shale sub-sea depth structure map (green
reflector in Figure 3). Dashed line represents a single fold axis for both Rosario and Rosario East. Contour interval is 50 m. (D) Top Colon Shale dip magnitude map with a maximum of 18 (red) and a minimum of 0 (blue) with superposed structure contours. (E) Sub-sea depth structure-contour
map of the Rosario Fault. Contour interval is 100 m. Red arrow indicates the assumed regional transport direction perpendicular to the Perija Mountain Front (Figure 1). Dashed lines represent boundaries between the ramp and the two flats. The flats die out to the south, with only a ramp near the
termination. The Rosario Fault also changes attitude toward the north, defining an oblique ramp. The oblique ramp is associated with fold closure to the north, but does not appear to directly influence the fold termination to the south.
The present-day geometry at the crest of the Rosario structure has the essential characteristics
of a fault-bend fold (Figure 3AC). However, the lateral variation in fold and fault geometry suggests that a flat-ramp-flat is not present near the termination, and may have been absent during
the structures early development. Eisenstadt and DePaor (1987) proposed a 2-D model for fault
growth in which a fault ramp initially nucleates in the stiff layer with associated tip strains
accommodated by folding. As shortening accrues, the ramp grows up and down section, eventually linking with upper and lower stratigraphically-controlled flats. In the kinematic model that follows, we extend Eisenstadt and DePaors (1987) 2-D model to 3-D, and assert that spatial variation
in geometry is also a proxy for temporal variation.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 5: Outcrop analog from the La Luna quarry (see Figure 1 for location). The lower massive unit is the Maraca Member of the
Cogollo Group carbonates, which is overlain by the thin-bedded, La Luna Formation. The deformation style that occurs at outcrop scale
where the fault emerges from the Maraca is similar to that seen at seismic scale where faults emerge from the stiff carbonate section
into the weak Colon Shale (Figure 3). This style of deformation at the tip of an emerging thrust fault could account for some of the
apparent thickening in the Colon Shale seen on seismic sections near the ramp upper-flat transition.
Figure 6: Model for the 3-D development of the Rosario structure. Each profile represents stages in both the temporal and spatial evolution of the
structure from (A) earliest/least displacement to (D) latest/most displacement. See explanation in text below.
ment places the hanging-wall ramp onto the upper flat, and the
forelimb begins to steepen. This is supported by the decrease in
forelimb dip toward the present-day termination (Figure 4B, D).
Stage 4 (Figure 6D). As displacement accrues, the Rosario Fault
continues to propagate downward and eventually connects to
the basal flat within the Rio Negro or La Quinta Formations. This
produces a discrete backlimb-lower flat transition that is
observed at the present-day fold crest (e.g., Figure 3AD). When
both upper and lower flats are operative, additional fault displacement is accommodated by fault-bend folding.
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Conclusions
Figure 7: (A) Seismic line CAT-85-1 (Figure 3C) with the addition of interpreted dip domain
boundaries (red). (B) Angular measures of fold geometry where = axial angle, = forelimb dip,
= ramp dip. The geometric elements of this single profile are consistent with the Suppe (1983)
fault-bend fold model. However, based on interpretation of the structure in 3-D, the inferred kinematic development is different. Instead, the structure develops from a fault-propagation fold (active
fold above a buried fault tip) into a fault-bend fold (passive fold above an existing fault) as slip
increases (Figure 6).
The southern termination of the Rosario structure likely formed due to an along-strike decrease in displacement.
Key elements of the interpretation include: a) the fault geometry changes from flat-ramp-flat at the crest to a fault
ramp near the southern tip of the structure, b) forelimb dip decreases toward the southern termination, and c) the
backlimb is indistinct toward the southern termination.
These observations suggest kinematics in which the structure initially developed as a simple fault ramp in the
stiff layer (fault-propagation fold stage) and later propagated to connect with upper and lower detachments
(fault-bend fold stage). Our model is a 3-D extension of a 2-D model proposed by Eisenstadt and DePaor (1987) in
which fault ramps nucleate in stiff units.
Rosario provides a natural example of a structure where spatial differences may reflect temporal stages in the evolution of a fault-related fold. The model departs from previous models of rigid self-similarity and permits variations
in fold style and deformation mechanisms influenced by mechanical stratigraphy.
Acknowledgments
Permission to reproduce the seismic data was provided by Elsevier Press and The Journal of Structural Geology. We
also thank ExxonMobil Exploration Company, ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, and PDVSA (Venezuela) for
permission to publish.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
The Medina Anticline is located in the Llanos Foothills province along the border of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia, approximately 100 km southwest of the giant fields of Cusiana and Cupiagua (Figure 1). It is interpreted as a simple fault-bend fold
because of its symmetrical shape, kink-band geometry, and horizontal crestal domain (Figure 2). Shallow structural levels are well
imaged, but the deep geometry and the detachment level and trajectory of the underlying fault are unknown. In order to address
these issues, we use a grid of time-migrated, 2-D seismic data to generate an axial-trace map (Shaw et al., 1994) of the anticline.
We then generate fold-evolution matrices and models, which illustrate the effects of two independent variables on fold geometry
(Rowan and Linares, 2000), to determine the factors controlling the three-dimensional geometry of the fold. This allows us to
identify active and inactive axial planes, construct the three-dimensional fault geometry, and complete the structural interpretation to depth. Axial-surface analysis shows that the three-dimensional geometry of the Medina Anticline is compatible with a faultbend fold interpretation in which displacement increases to the northeast, the ramp dip decreases to the southwest, and the
length of an intermediate flat increases to the northeast.
Figure 2: Uninterpreted 2-D time-migrated seismic profile across the Medina Anticline, the adjacent Rio Amarillo Syncline, and the frontal Aguaclara Fault (location shown on Figure 4). The fold
geometry, with symmetrical limbs, a horizontal crestal domain, and sharp hinges separating planar dip domains, suggests a fault-bend fold origin. Seismic data courtesy of Ecopetrol.
Figure 1: Map showing the location of the Medina anticline along the eastern border of
the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, between the Quetame basement massif and the frontal
Aguaclara fault. Insert shows the location of the larger map in the northwestern corner of
South America.
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Part 2: Case Studies
Figure 5: Time-structure map of the top of the Mirador Formation (contour interval is 400 msec; depth is relative
to arbitrary datum near surface). Contours are in black (tick marks point downdip), seismic lines are in grey, faults
are in red, wells are in orange, and erosional truncation is shown by the thick dashed line. The blue lines are the
axial traces at this structural level, and the arrows point in the dip direction. The Medina Anticline is bounded by
the broad Nazareth Syncline to the northwest and the tight Rio Amarillo Syncline to the southeast. The crestal
domain is most narrow at the fold culmination and plunges to the southwest and then south to where it intersects
the Aguaclara Fault where it curves west. Similarly, the backlimb curves and becomes less steep toward the
southwest and south.
Figure 4: Partial interpretation of the line shown in Figure 2. The red dashed line is the top of the upper Eocene Mirador sandstone (the main reservoir in the area),
which is constrained by nearby well control in both the hanging wall and footwall (see Figure 5). The steep grey lines are axial traces along the fold hinges separating
planar dip domains; the offset of axial traces in the Medina Anticline is caused by a minor detachment at the base of the Oligocene to lower Miocene Carbonera shales.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 7: Axial-trace maps of the six panel combinations indicated in Figure 6, in which displacement and/or ramp dip vary linearly along
strike. Black lines are structure contours, and dip symbols show the orientation of dip domains.
Figure 6: Fold evolution matrix for linear increase in displacement and linear decrease in ramp dip (28.5, 22.5, 16.5, and 10.5
degrees). (a) through (e) indicate six different combinations of four profile geometries used to construct the corresponding axialtrace maps (Figure 7) and perspective views (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Perspective views corresponding to the axial-trace maps of Figure 7, in which displacement and/or ramp dip vary linearly along
strike.
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Figure 10: Axial-trace maps of the six panel combinations indicated in Figure 9, in which displacement and/or flat length vary linearly along
strike. Thin black lines are structure contours, thick black lines are faults, and dip symbols show the orientation of dip domains.
Figure 9: Fold evolution matrix for linear increase in displacement and linear increase in flat length. (a) through (e) indicate six
different combinations of four profile geometries used to construct the corresponding axial-trace maps (Figure 10) and perspective views (Figure 11). Red numbers (16) indicate geometries used to construct the model axial-trace map in Figure 12; 3 is
intermediate between the middle two profiles in the top row, and 4 is intermediate between the top two profiles in the second column.
Figure 11: Perspective views corresponding to the axial-trace maps of Figure 10, in which displacement and/or flat length vary linearly
along strike.
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To model the Medina Anticline, selected profiles from Figure 9 are joined
in map view to create the synthetic axial-trace map in Figure 12a. This
model accurately depicts most of the features of the Medina Anticline,
so that axial traces can now be identified (Figure 12b). However, the
model has a narrow backlimb and horizontal crest to the southwest
(Figure 12a), whereas the observed geometry shows a widening backlimb and dipping, curving crestal domain (Figure 12b). We infer that this
is caused by a southwestern decrease in ramp dip, as modeled in Figures
7c and 8c.
The model-constrained map interpretation is then used to complete the
interpretation. Where the crestal domain is narrowest (location 1, Figure
12b), axial traces A and B should intersect at the top of the lower ramp
(Shaw et al., 1994). The fault geometry on each profile is then determined as shown and explained in Figure 13.
Figure 13: Finished interpretation of the line shown in Figure 2. The axial-trace analysis and comparison of the observed map to the model map (Figure 12) allows the axial traces
to be identified. The level of the flat is determined by the intersection of A and B where the crestal domain is narrowest (location 1 on Figure 12b) and then correlated along strike.
The length of the flat is determined by the intersection of active axial traces B and C at the top of the lower ramp and base of the upper ramp, respectively. Note that the length of the
hanging-wall flat (B-C) approximately balances that of the footwall flat (B-C).
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Figure 15: (a) Regional 1:1 cross section through the culmination of the Median Anticline showing its relationship to the inverted Quetame basement massif; and (b)
Schematic reconstruction (not to scale) showing the infilled rift geometry at the end of the Cretaceous. Aguaclara fault is shown as an out-of-the-syncline thrust, but it
could also be rooted in basement. Tan = prerift basement; blue = Jurassic synrift; green = Lower Cretaceous; orange = Upper Cretaceous; yellow = Tertiary/Quaternary.
Conclusions:
Figure 14: Map of the fault geometry underlying the Medina Anticline as constructed using the axial-surface analysis. Most of the fault consists of a lower ramp, an intermediate flat that widens to the northeast, and an upper ramp.
To the southwest, the fault curves westward, forming an oblique ramp and thus a lower ramp angle. This is apparently
in response to curving traces of deeper, rift-related normal faults that offset prerift basement (blue). Contour interval is
400 msec; depth is relative to an arbitrary datum near surface.
The Medina Anticline is a fault-bend fold, probably formed as the Aguaclara Fault ramped up over a
basement normal fault during Tertiary inversion of a Jurassic rift basin.
The three-dimensional geometry is controlled by: (1) An increase in displacement to the northeast;
(2) An increase in flat length to the northeast; and (3) A decrease in ramp dip to the southwest.
Axial-surface analysis is a useful tool for constraining subsurface geometry where axial traces are easily
defined, but must be used in conjunction with other data/techniques to avoid model-driven interpretations.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
El Furrial is the easternmost of three major structures (El Furrial, Carito, and Tejero, from east to west) that form the
North Monagas fields in the Serrania del Interior fold and thrust belt (Figure 1). The trend has 11 billion bbl of oil in
place and presently produces 400,000 bbl/day. The structures trend northeast-southwest across northeastern
Venezuela, and are offset in a dextral en echelon relationship to each other (Figure 3). These offsets are caused by
northwest trending lateral ramps in the underlying major thrust faults (Bischke et al., 1997). These structures are the
result of mid to late Miocene dextral transpressional displacements south of the El Pilar strike-slip fault (Figure 1).
In the northern part of the South American Plate, the transpressional displacements produced a series of northnorthwest-trending dextral tear faults and lateral ramps that turn to the east-northeast to become ramp and flat
thrust faults (Figure 2). Maps constructed of the fault surfaces indicate that many of the faults interconnect to form
a linked fault system (Boyer and Elliott, 1982). Figures 4 and 5 describe these general relationships. In Figure 4, the
Tejero ramp branches off the Urica Fault trend, and the offset Carito ramp creates another lateral ramp that trends
subparallel to the Urica Trend. In turn, the Carito ramp is offset from the Furrial ramp by another lateral ramp.
Figure 1: Simplified regional map showing the main structural elements of the Serrania del Interior fold and
thrust belt. See Figure 2 for a depth-corrected profile.
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Part 2: Case Studies
Figure 3: Simplified depth map of the El Furrial trend showing offset fields.
The El Furrial trend is overlain by the Pirital thrust, one of the largest faults in the regional system. The Pirital
thrust dips to the north over a horizontal distance of 20 km (Figure 6, sp 100 to 600 between 3 to 10 s). In the west,
the Pirital branches off the northwest-southeast trending Urica lateral ramp system, forming the western flank of
the Serrania del Interior fold and thrust belt (Figure 1) (Bischke et al., 1997). The Pirital fault overthrusts the
Oligocene Naricual reservoir unit, repeating about 500 m (16,000 ft) of the Cretaceous San Juan Formation (Figure
6). The main reservoir unit in the area is the Oligocene Naricual Formation, which contains fluvial deltaic to shallow marine sands (Prieto et al., 1990). The Naricual sands are approximately 500 m (1700 ft) thick (Figure 6), and
can contain 250 m (800 ft) of net pay. This northeastward prograding sequence of sands is contemporaneous with
the trailing shelf margin of the South American Plate. Later overthrusting loaded and down warped the plate forming a foredeep basin and most likely an outer rise, similar to the outer rise and gravity high observed seaward of
oceanic trenches (Watts and Talwani, 1974). Seaward of the trenches normal faults tend to occur on the
upwarped highs, which extend due to flexure. The Naricual Formation contains many normal faults that may have
originated in a similar fashion when the overthrust sheets of the Serrania del Interior advanced toward the south,
loading and flexing the South American Plate.
Figure 4: Block diagram illustrating a linked ramp-flat and lateral ramp system.
Figure 6: Regional cross section and stratigraphic column showing the main tectonostratigraphic elements from the Caribbean plate to the Orinoco tar belt (modified from
PDVSA Report).
Figure 5: Block diagram showing the hanging wall above the El Furrial, Carito, and Tejero ramps forming three
offset fault-bend folds.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 7: Section A Seismic time profile images dip panels forming a south-verging anticlinal fault-bend fold. Intersection with section B is shown in black line.
Arrows highlight fault position.
Figure 8: Section B Strike seismic profile in time showing dip panels formed above the main detachment surface.
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In summary, the El Furrial anticline is a well-defined example of fault-bend fold, similar to structures initially
described in the Appalachian Mountains, U.S.A. (Rich,
1934) and the Canadian Rockies (Bally et al., 1966). This
fold style is common in other parts of South America (e.g.
Dengo and Covey, 1993) and across Venezuela. Thus, faultrelated folding techniques serve as powerful tools for
describing many of the hydrocarbon-producing structures
in these regions.
Conclusions
The super giant El Furrial trend is formed by three offset fault-bend folds.
The folds are related to a linked dextral en echelon
ramp-flat and lateral ramp system.
Shortening is estimated at 50%.
Figure 10: Area-balanced interpreted of dip line A.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
planar backlimbs with increasingly shallower dips to growth strata, suggesting a component of progressive limb rotation.
Forelimbs are short compared to backlimbs, but growth strata
show more consistent dips that suggests a component of folding
by kink-band migration. Combined mechanisms of kink-band
migration and limb rotation are thus invoked to model the kinematics of this fault-realted fold.
Figure 1: Uninterpreted, migrated, and depth-converted 2-D seismic profile through a fault-related fold in the deep-water Niger Delta. We observed three basic structural patterns that are consistent with pure shear fault-bend folding kinematics: First, a long planar backlimb that dips less than the fault ramp
with increasing shallower dips of growth strata, second, a short forelimb compared to the backlimb, and third, a synclinal axial surface that does not bysect the syncline. Seismic data courtesy of MABON LTD.
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Figure 3: 2-D seismic section through the fault-related fold interpreted in this contribution showing some important characteristics including (1) sea floor reflection, (2)
top of oceanic crust reflector, and thrust fault plane seismic reflection indicated by red arrows. Notice how the backlimb dips much less than the fault ramp. See text for
detail of (3) and (4).
The stratigraphic sequences imaged in the seismic profile shown above (Figure 3) correspond to Tertiary deepmarine and deltaic sediments. At the bottom of this sequence, the Akata Formation, which can be observed above
the Top of oceanic crust reflection (2), is up to 3000 m thick in this portion of the delta, and is composed of thick
deep marine shale sequences (potential source rocks), and may contain some interbedded turbidite sands (potential reservoirs in deep water environments). On seismic sections, the Akata Formation is generally devoid of internal reflections (3), and exhibits low P-wave velocities that produce a pull-down velocity effect in time sections, and
may indicate regional fluid overpressures. This Formation corresponds to the weak decollement layer that undergoes an externally imposed shear deformation in this fault-related fold. We use shear fault-bend fold kinematics (section 1B-4, this volume) to interpret this structure. Shear fault-bend folds are characterized by long planar backlimbs
that dip less, or much less than the fault ramp, as observed in Figure 3 (4), and shows increasingly shallower dips
to growth strata suggesting a component of folding by limb rotation. A fault plane reflection is clearly observed (red
arrows) that constrains the fault geometry and its planar nature. The fault ramp dips at an angle of 26. The long planar backlimb dips at an angle of 7.5, which is much less than the dip of the fault. Also notice that, unlike conventional fault-bend folds, the length of the backlimb does not represent the amount of slip along the fault, and that is
represented by the distance between the green dots. This difference between the fault displacement and backlimb
length is due to the combined limb rotation and kink-band migration folding mechanisms that occur in shear faultbend folding kinematics. Two end-member interpretations are possible: Simple shear and pure shear fault-bend folding. We will discuss the main structural and stratigraphic features to distinguish between these two end members.
Figure 2: High-resolution shaded relief and seafloor bathymetry image of the Niger Delta showing the approximate location of the seismic line used in this study (1).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
axial surfaces
axial surfaces
Figure 4: Two kinematic models of simple and pure shear fault-bend folds constructed using the end member theory graphs of Figure 5. A) Simple kinematic model of a pure shear fault-bend fold
showing downward propagation of shear with the resulting patterns of growth strata, where the slip rates along the fault ramp are equal to the rates of growth sedimentation. The distance between the
bottom of the growth axial surface and the synclinal axial surface at the top of the pre-growth sequence is equal to the maximun slip along the basal fault. B) Simple kinematic model of a simple shear
fault-bend fold with patterns of growth strata, where the slip rates along the fault ramp are equal to the rates of growth sedimentation. The final geometry of the fault-related fold is the same in both
models. Pure shear fault-bend folding kinematics require a shallower detachment level compared to the calculated detachment using simple shear fault-bend folding.
Figure 5: A) Pure shear fault-bend folding end member theory graph (section 1B-4, this volume)
showing the relationship between ramp dip, back dip, and dip of the syncline axial surface within the
weak decollement layer. The yellow square in the graph corresponds to the fault-related fold interpreted in this contribution. B) Simple shear fault-bend folding end member theory graph (section
1B-4, this volume). The yellow squares in the graphs correspond to the fault-related fold interpreted
using the backlimb and cut-off angles interpreted in this section (2-8).
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Figure 6: Simple shear fault-bend fold interpretation of the migrated 2-D seismic profile in the deep-water Niger Delta. A shear profile is included that
shows the deformation of a line originally perpendicular to bedding before deformation. This profile shows how the shear decreases upwards. The shear is
concentrated between the bottom of the fault ramp and the yellow horizon. An overall simple shear (e) of 40 is interpreted in the lower 1000 m that terminates in the top of the kink-band (a-b), which agrees with the value predicted via theory from the back-limb dip (b) of 7.5 for kink-band (a-b) and a
fault dip () of 26. A simple shear (e) of 15 is interpreted in the next 500 m that terminates at the fault in kink-band b-c, which agrees well with a
shear predicted via theory from the back-limb dip (b) of 6 for kink-band (b-c) and a fault dip () of 26. Notice that fault slip decreases from a maximum
at the top of the ramp to zero at the base of the ramp. Shallow growth strata over the backlimb suggests limb rotation. The synclinal axial surface in this
case was interpreted at the point of maximum curvature between the synclinal dip domains. It bisects the syncline across the weak decollement layer. A
lower detachment is interpreted at 6500 m depth where the synclinal axial surface intercepts the bottom of the fault ramp. Notice how the length of the
backlimb does not reflect the amount of slip along the fault as predicted by conventional fault-bend fold theory. The forelimb is interpreted using multibend fault-bend folding theory. The growth strata onlap the forelimb according to the theory when the rate of growth sedimentation is lower than the rate
of structural growth. The gentle dips of the growth strata could be the result of differential compaction and drape.
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Figure 7: Pure shear fault-bend fold interpretation of the migrated 2-D seismic profile in the deep-water Niger Delta. A shear profile is included that
shows the deformation of a line originally perpendicular to bedding before deformation. This profile also shows how the shear decreases upwards. The
shear is concentrated between the bottom of the fault ramp and the yellow and green horizons. An overall pure shear (e) of 60 is observed in the lower
700 m that terminates in the top of the kink-band (a-b), which agrees well with the value predicted via theory from the back-limb dip (b) of 7.5 for kinkband (a-b) and a fault dip () of 26. An additional pure shear is observed in the next 500 m that terminates at the fault in kink-band (b-c), which produces
a back-limb dip (b) of 6.0 for kink-band (b-c). Notice that fault slip goes to zero at the base of the ramp. A much higher detachment is interpreted in this
case at 5700 m depth where the synclinal axial surface also intercepts the bottom of the fault ramp. Notice how the length of the backlimb does not reflect
the amount of slip along the fault as predicted by conventional fault-bend fold theory, and requires less slip than the simple shear case. The synclinal axial
surface in this case was interpreted at the location of maximum change in dip domain. It does not bisect the syncline across the weak decollement layer.
The synclinal back angle () is 23.5, which agrees well with the value predicted via theory for the observed back-limb dip and ramp angles, and the calculated shear angle.
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Figure 8: Close-up view of the forelimb. The forelimb is interpreted using multibend fault-bend folding theory. The growth strata onlap the forelimb as predicted by the model when slip rates are greater than growth sedimentation rates. The gentle dips are probably produced by differential
compaction and drape.
Conclusions:
A pure shear fault-bend fold is described in the outer fold
belt of the deep-water Niger Delta where the weak decollement layer corresponds to the deep marine Tertiary Akata
Formation.
The pure shear fault-bend fold described in this section (28) is characterized by a long planar backlimb with increasingly shallower dips to growth strata, a short forelimb compared to the backlimb with onlapping growth strata, and a
synclinal axial surface that does not bisect the syncline due
Figure 9: Close-up view of the syncline showing the interpreted picks of the synclinal axial surface across different stratigaphic levels (green
dots). The synclinal axial surface, in this interpretation, does not bisect the syncline. Thickening along the decollement layer (Akata Formation)
can be observed above the fault ramp, on the left flank of the syncline. These two observations suggest a pure shear fault-bend fold.
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Figure 2: Post-stack, time-migrated 3-D seismic reflection profile across the Basil anticline and the Apenninic foredeep. The presence
of gas is indicated by the pull-down effect in Pliocene sediments.
Figure 3: Interpretation of the seismic profile. Basic sedimentary and tectonic features are highlighted. The lateral transitions among middle Eocene-Miocene sediments are well imaged, as well as the
outstanding Pleistocene unconformity and the overlying progradational sedimentary structures.
The Basil anticline is located at the toe of the Apennines fold and thrust belt, in the northern Adriatic Sea (Figure 1). In the regional seismic line (Figures 2, 3) the pre-, syn-, and postorogenic sedimentary architectures are well imaged, as well as two major thrust-related structures and their overlying growth section. An outstanding feature in the preorogenic succession is the transition from a
middle Eocene-Miocene carbonate platform (easternmost sector) to a basinal sequence, through a slope domain. An upper Messinian unconformity marks the onset of foreland flexure and the sedimentation of Pliocene synorogenic deposits in the sinking foredeep. A Pleistocene unconformity marks the end of the major contractional event, followed by the progressive filling of the depocenter.
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Outward propagation of the sole thrust along the bottom of the synorogenic sediments.
Displacement on the upward migrating frontal ramp is accommodated by the development of the Basil fault-propagation anticline. Folding occurs in a high sedimentation environment and well developed growth wedges form on both limbs.
Flexural sinking of the foreland and deposition of synorogenic clastic sediments in a foredeep environment.
Preorogenic succession
Figure 5: Numerically modeled (HCA; Salvini et al., 2001) cartoon showing the reconstructed evolutionary steps
for this sector of the Apenninic foreland system and the interpretation of the Basil anticline as a growth fault-propagation fold.
Figure 4: Seismic image of the Basil anticline.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Conclusions:
The Basil anticline is a notheast-verging fault propagation
fold developed at the tip of a thrust ramp that soles down
into the upper Messinian unconformity.
Upper Pliocene and, possibly, lower Pleistocene strata are syntectonic units folded during fault motion.
Figure 6: Interpreted seismic image of the Basil anticline showing basic features that have been used for the reconstruction of fold kinematics.
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96
forelimb inactive
axial surface
backlimb active
axial surface
Discussion:
We employ a fault propagation fold model to interpret this structure based on its first-order structural geometry as an asymmetric fold with a steep or faulted forelimb. The well-defined basal
detachment and the lack of structural relief across the structure indicate that the structure soles
to a horizontal detachment.
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a. Predicted forelimb
dip based on bisecting axial surfaces
matches seismic tie,
probably a steep
fold limb.
This balanced section works well for the shallow geometry that we
used to constrain the fault-propagation fold model; however, it does
not agree well with the bed dips in the deeper part of the structure. In
fact, the steeper bed dips at depth suggest that the model fault geometry would actually cut down section with respect to the hanging-wall
rocks. This leads us to explore another interpretation of the structure.
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low-angle breakthrough
a. Defining kink bands from the deep fold geometry yields 7 dip panels. The overall geometry
still fits the FPF model; however, another detail
must be added to explain the extra kink band.
Using f=60 and 2=, constant thickness FPF
theory predicts backlimb dip b=34. This predicted dip matches the dip of the deep reflectivity of the backlimb.
b. Using the
FPF fold
geometry we
can predict
the firstorder fault
geometry.
Conclusions:
After nearly complete deflation and welding, the autochthonous salt level still provides a
sub-horizontal detachment surface for thin-skinned contractional structures
This structure fits the basic geometry and kinematics described by fault-propagation
folding theory.
Two models were tested; of these, a more complex model utilizing deep geometry as the
primary constraints provides a better fit to the data.
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The Sakala structure (Figure 1) is a fault-related inversion structure in the East Java Sea (Figure 2), located in a back arc setting
behind the Java trench. Along this trench, the Australian plate is subducted under the Eurasian plate, along a north-dipping subduction zone (Hamilton, 1979). Inversion structures in this area resulted from north-south extension in the Eocene and Oligocene,
followed by compression in the same general direction, in the early Miocene.
Figure 2: Generalized map of the East Java Sea, showing the location of the Sakala inversion structure, and a seismic reflection profile through the structure.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
between the Ngimbang and Prupuh Formations shows a significant increase in thickness from the footwall to the uplifted hanging wall across the fault. The thickness also increases gradually
away from the fault zone. The structural geometry of the units
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in pre-extensional units, modeled by a clay layer, above a basement fault dipping 45 degrees. Extension initially results in the
formation of a broad fault-propagation fold (Figure 5a). The
deformation occurs by the sequential development of a large
number of small normal faults, which are progressively rotated
to steeper dips with increasing extension. The extension even-
Figure 5 (above): Clay model showing the development of an extensional faultpropagation fold, and the subsequent breakthrough of a major fault. Note the development of a drape dip panel in the hanging wall.
Figure 6 (right): Evolution of the Sakala structure. a. Pre-extensional geometry. b.
Post-extensional geometry. Note the development of a drape dip due to extensional
fault propagation folding in the hanging wall. c. Final structure, resulting from compressive reactivation of the Sakala fault.
Conclusions:
The Sakala structure in the East Java Sea is interpreted to be an inversion structure formed by Miocene compressive reactivation of an Eocene-Oligocene extensional structure.
Extension along the Sakala fault resulted in an extensional fault-propagation (drape) fold with subsequent fault breakthrough, resulting in the preservation of a drape dip in the hanging wall.
Compressive reactivation along the fault occurred by fault-bend folding, accompanied by fault-propagation folding at the leading edge of the structure.
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Figure 2: Migrated 2-D seismic profile through the detachment fold. We observe
two basic structural patterns in the seismic profile (top) that are consistent with
detachment folds (left): 1) symmetric, dipping fold limbs situated over flat reflectors
in the Akata Formation and basement; and 2) syntectonic growth strata with bed
dips that shallow upward toward the seafloor. These observations, and the lack of
an obvious thrust ramp beneath the fold, indicate that the structure is a detachment
fold formed primarily by limb rotation. The structure grew during the Pliocene and
Quaternary.
Figure 1: Bathymetry of the offshore Niger Delta showing the major structural belts and the location of the study area. Modified from Connors et al. (1998).
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Figure 4: Interpreted seismic section and geologic cross-section through the detachment structure.
Conclusions:
Figure 3: Sequential model (0-3) of a detachment fold (left) with fixed limb widths that grows by limb rotation. The
model is compared with a balanced restoration of the structure (right) derived using variable inclined-shear (Novoa et al.,
1999).
This structure is a detachment anticline that grew primarily by limb-rotation since the early Pliocene.
The basal detachment is located in the Akata Formation marine shales, which thickened in the core
of the fold during growth.
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Figure 1: Map of the northern Gulf of Mexico showing the distribution of allochthonous salt (black), basinward- and landward-dipping faults (blue and red), and deepwater folds (green). Modified from Diegel et
al. (1995) and reprinted by permission of the AAPG.
The Mississippi Fan fold belt is one of several deepwater contractional provinces that formed in response
to gravitational failure of the northern Gulf of Mexico passive margin (e.g., Diegel et al., 1995; Peel et al.,
1995; Rowan et al., 2004). It comprises salt-cored detachment folds and associated reverse faults that
developed principally during the late Miocene (e.g., Weimer and Buffler, 1992; Rowan, 1997). Although all
folds were originally thought to be cored by the autochthonous Louann salt, modern data show that the
frontal folds are detached above an Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous allochthonous nappe (Peel, 2001;
Rowan et al., 2001, 2004).
In this section (2-13), we examine the three-dimensional geometry of a composite frontal fold using a
series of 3-D time-migrated seismic profiles and structure maps. The profile geometry varies considerably
along strike from a relatively simple, symmetric, unfaulted detachment fold (Figures 2, 3) to an asymmetric, faulted fold that is vergent either basinward (Figures 4, 6) or landward (Figure 5). Also, an earlier
(Mesozoic) deformation phase complicates the deep geometry. Thus, no simple 2-D or 3-D structural
model adequately explains the relationship between the fold and associated faults, and geometric and/or
quantitative models are of minimal use in aiding seismic interpretation in this case.
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Figure 3: Uninterpreted and interpreted views of Profile B showing a rounded detachment fold with a very slight
asymmetry and a minor, high-angle reverse fault on the forelimb. Again, note the differences in growth strata between
the two limbs. Horizons as in Figure 2; location shown on Figures 7 and 10. 3-D data courtesy of WesternGeco.
Figure 4: Uninterpreted and interpreted views of Profile C showing an asymmetric detachment fold with a long, planar backlimb and a steep forelimb cut by a basinwardvergent, high-angle reverse fault zone. The early deformation stage is clearly shown by the structural thinning and thickening (4) between the top salt (blue) and the top
Oligocene (red). Horizons as in Figure 2 (dashed where approximate, dotted where uncertain); location shown on Figures 7 and 10. 3-D data courtesy of WesternGeco.
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Figure 5: Uninterpreted and interpreted views of Profile D showing a broadly symmetric fold with a larger reverse fault on the basinward limb but a deep-level crest on the landward side. Again, note the differences in growth strata between the two limbs. Horizons as
in Figure 2 (dashed where approximate, dotted where uncertain); location shown on Figures 7 and 10. 3-D data courtesy of
WesternGeco.
Figure 6: Uninterpreted and interpreted views of Profile E showing an asymmetric fold with a long, gentle backlimb and a steeper, faulted forelimb. Again, note the differences in growth strata between the two limbs and the early deformation visible at depth on the backlimb. Horizons as
in Figure 2 (dashed where approximate, dotted where uncertain); location shown on Figures 7 and 10. 3-D data courtesy of WesternGeco. The
well was dry.
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Figure 8: Variation of shortening along the strike of the fold, divided into faulting and folding
components. A through E are the five profiles illustrated in Figures 2 through 6, respectively.
Modified from an earlier interpretation (Rowan, 1997), with shortening values determined from
line-length restoration of fourteen equally spaced profiles. There is no direct correlation between
fault and fold geometries because faults are secondary structures that may or may not develop
and modify preexisting detachment folds.
Figure 7: Time-structure contour map of the studied fold (segments I, II, III, and IV) and more landward structures. Yellows and reds are highs, blues and purples are lows; thin
black lines are reverse faults and black blobs are salt diapirs. The three-dimensional geometry is very complex: individual fold segments may have different orientations, plunge
angles, fold-fault relationships, and diapiric influence. Grey lines show seismic profiles of Figures 2-6.
Figure 9: Modeled fault-bend fold with synkinematic erosion and sedimentation (modified
from Hardy and Poblet, 1995). The red horizon is a time-transgressive growth unconformity
(analogous to the yellow horizon in Figures 2-6), with time-equivalent strata truncated on the
backlimb (1) and onlapping the forelimb (2). The resulting growth geometry is very similar to
that observed in salt-cored detachment folds of the Mississippi Fan fold belt, which do not contain an upper detachment and a connecting ramp (compare this figure with Figure 2b). Thus,
backlimb truncation and forelimb onlap do not uniquely define a fault-bend fold, but simply
show that the two limbs behaved differently.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 11: Schematic evolution based on quantitative restorations and regional considerations (modified from Rowan et al., 2000):
(a) Upper Jurassic salt deposition; (b) gravity gliding caused by Cretaceous thermal subsidence and basinward tilting results in distal
inflation, nappe extrusion, and small-wavelength folds; (c) relative quiescence during the Paleogene as thermal subsidence and tilting
wane; (d) gravity spreading of the Neogene progradational margin, resulting in larger-wavelength folding; and (e) cessation of deformation as the Pleistocene deepwater Mississippi fan is deposited. Sections are not drawn to scale, and the effects of salt withdrawal
and diapirism are not shown.
Conclusions:
Figure 10: Isochron map of an interval immediately above salt showing the geometry of the early (dominantly Cretaceous) deformation. Thins corresponding to paleo-highs are in yellow and red; thicks corresponding to paleo-lows are in blue and purple. The complex pattern influenced the development of the
later (Miocene) structures, shown by the black lines with arrows, resulting in the larger wavelength, variable fold geometries observed today.
Salt-cored detachment folds in the Mississippi Fan fold belt have complex threedimensional geometries with significant variations along strike caused by variable
fold-fault relationships and the effects of an earlier deformation phase.
Patterns of growth strata are ambiguous and cannot always be used to determine the
fold style and nature of underlying faults.
In the case of salt-detached fold belts on passive margins, therefore, applying simple
geometric and quantitative models to shallow horizons in order to constrain the
deeper interpretation is often inappropriate.
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Figure 2a: Uninterpreted seismic (horizontal scale equals vertical scale, topography exaggerated x4).
Figure 2b: Interpreted seismic (horizontal scale equals vertical scale, including topography) showing the 27 horizons used in analysis of Yakeng. Two major detachments bound the thickening yellow and orange interval.
110
Figure 1: Yakeng fold at the front of the southern Tianshan. (Landsat TM)
Figure 5: Low
rounded morphology
of the Yakeng
anticline.
Drainage and sedimentation: The topographic anticline is a barrier to the river networks (Figures 1, 3); only regionally important
rivers can now cross Yakeng. Smaller streams previously crossed
Yakeng anticline as demonstrated by the numerous well preserved wind gaps (Figure 3) and by southward merging channel
networks that are continuous across the wind gaps (Figures 3, 4).
This implied reorganization of drainage networks is an effect of
decreasing stream power caused by decreasing stream gradients
associated with fold growth. As a result, sediment is preferentially trapped north and south of Yakeng (Figures 5, 6), producing a
topographic expression that is narrower than the anticline at
depth, especially on the north flank (Figures 2, 3, and 12).
Figure 3: The active Yakeng anticline forms a 6-km-wide rounded topographic ridge that few rivers can incise, as shown by the many wind gaps
(w). Northward tilting of the north flank of Yakeng and alluvial deposition
both decrease stream gradients, which favors the development of channels on the sides of the alluvial fans and along the northern limb of
Yakeng (1). Others channels have a converging pattern (2) which increases their stream power sufficiently to keep incising Yakeng anticline. The
increase of meander amplitude and wavelength across Yakeng also reflect
these changes in gradient.
Figure 4: Southward-converging drainage networks are interrupted by wind gaps at the crest of
Yakeng anticline. Flow is now to the north on the north flank of Yakeng. These southward converging networks formed before Yakeng anticline developed its present topographic expression. Seismic
line in black.
Figure 6: A facies change on the northern limb of Yakeng anticline is visible in the field (top) and in the seismic reflection profile (bottom). The northern edge of the anticline is mainly formed by thick dark conglomerate
(Xiyu F.) whereas its top is composed mainly of yellow-grey sandstone. Most coarse dark conglomerates began
to be deposited during the glacial period (1.8 Ma to present). They progressively filled the basin between
Quilitak and Yakeng anticlines.
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Figure 8: Classical detachment folds are characterized by a linear upward increase of area of structural relief A = hs within pregrowth strata (Epard and Groshong, 1993). By measuring the area of
structural relief of many horizons the magnitude and the timing of shortening can be determined s = A/h. Shortening can also be determined for each layer from bed-length measurements
s = L = L2 L2, but only if bed length is conserved. Yakeng anticline is significantly more complex
than this model.
Figure 7: Yakeng anticline dies out downward in height and width, indicating a basal detachment (1, horizon 4), which extends to the north under Quilitak anticline.
Yanan anticline is a basement-involved inversion structure that is young, as shown by changes in structural relief on its south flank (2). Yanan interferes with Yakeng anticline (3), making analysis of Yakeng more challenging.
Figure 9: Measurement of area of structural relief (A11) following the model of Figure 8 is ambiguous since the undeformed regional gradient (4) is hard to determine because the basement is folded
and thickness varies regionally. Therefore we move our analysis to the thickness domain (Figures
1014).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 12: Yakeng anticline flattened to horizon 4 (h=v). The analysis given below shows that horizons 514 have undergone 1200 m of shortening and thickening
above an evaporitic detachment. There is and additional 0.8 km 2 of diapirism in the basal layer (4-5). Horizons 1527 show a nearly linear upward dearease in shortening. After horizon 27 time shortening and uplift has accelerated leading to topographic emergence.
Figure 13: Area of thickness relief increases linearly from layer 5 to 15 indicating a nearly constant shortening of 1200 m (compare Figure 8). The nonzero intercept indicates an additional 0.8 km2 of diapiric flow in the basal
evaporitic interval (4-5). The interval of nearly constant relief (1527) can be
modeled as a growth internal (S/H = 0.2, assuming diapirism is after horizon 27.)
Conclusions:
Figure 14: Shortening is calculated from area of relief minus the diapiric area
(see Figures 8 and 13). The nearly linear shortening within the growth interval
(15-27) suggests that diapirism is late, leading to the topographic emergence of
Yakeng. The larger apparent shortening of layers 5-6 may suggest a small additional diapiric component.
Thickness analysis clearly identifies the growth, pregrowth, and diapiric intervals.
Beds in the pregrowth sequence have shortened by 1200 m.
There a significant diapiric component in the basal evaporitic layer (0.8 km2).
The growth of Yakeng between horizons 1527 shows a nearly linear rate of shortening, followed by an
acceleration of growth and topographic emergence.
The topography shows folding of previously through-flowing stream valleys
This study was supported by NSF EAR-0073759, NSFC 49832040, TPEDB-PetroChina, and Princeton 3-D Structure Project.
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Introduction
C.W. Tomlinson (Odd Geologic Structures of Southern
Oklahoma, 1952) observed that late Paleozoic Structures of
types somewhat unusual for the Mid-Continent region occur in the
Ardmore district of Oklahoma. Despite structural peculiarity,
application of fault-related fold theory to a modern 2-D seismic
profile can explain the geometry of Fox-Graham Field (Figure 2),
one of Tomlinsons odd structures. This section (2-15) illustrates 1) application of fault-bend fold theory to produce a model
of fault shape and footwall structure, 2) how concepts of structural wedging and fault propagation folding combine to produce a
model explaining the geometry and kinematics of the rabbit-ear
fold (Figure 2) and, 3) how these models are synthesized to produce a retrodeformable, kinematically-viable, forward model that
evolves to approximate the present geometry of the structure.
approximate 2-D
seismic line location
Figure 2: Uninterpreted, depth-converted 2-D seismic profile across Fox-Graham Field and the Harrisburg Trough. Besides the well-imaged fold that dominates the profile, of particular
importance in constraining a fault-related fold interpretation are the geometry of the pre-Pennsylvanian unconformity (1), recognition of fault plane reflections (2) and, recognition of footwall
structure (3). Tomlinson (1952) described the rabbit-ear fold along trend of the one imaged here. No vertical exaggeration.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 3: Subdivision of the fold into dip domains (regions of equal dip, as in Suppe, 1983) in preparation for fault-bend fold analysis . Dips and the fault-plane
segment are regarded as hard constraints for the purposes of interpretation. Question marks denote uncertainty in the downward continuation of the fault plane
and fold axial surfaces (dashed black lines).
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imbricate
Models of Footwall Deformation: The shape of the unconformity provides critical information about the kinematic evolution of the fold. Using the folded unconformity as a strain
gauge and restoring fault slip, it is demonstrated that the
hanging wall fold cannot be the product of slip on a single
fault (Figure 5) but must result in part from folding in its footwall. Further, the folded unconformity helps constrain models of footwall folding (Figures 6 and 7).
unconformity
KEY
Bend 3
Bend 2
Bend 1
Figure 5a: Kinematic model based on the fault-bed fold solution of Figure 4. Gray panels
represent rock folded through fault bends after the unconformity was formed. Their width is
consistent with fault slip applied at lower left. The red panel cannot be explained by the same
slip.
shoulder
Figure 5b: Model restored by removing fault slip does not restore the unconformity to horizontal above the red panel. A footwall fold of some kind (indicated by the question mark)
must exist below the red panel to account for the discrepancy. The width of kink band A-A
represents the total slip of the hanging wall before the unconformity was formed. B-B, which
locally refolds A-A, represents slip on an unspecified footwall fault after the time the unconformity formed.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Forward Kinematic Model: Figure 10a through 10i shows stages in a balanced, kinematic forward model. Figure 10j shows that
the model result is a good fit with the seismic data giving validity to the solution. It must be noted that the solution is not
unique, especially for the footwall structure, but is kinematically viable and therefore more robust than a balanced cross section. Models like this are useful for considering any time-space dependent features in the petroleum system such as fracture
distribution and intensity, migration pathways and traps, and source-rock/reservoir juxtaposition during generation.
10a
8a
10b
8b
Figure 8 compares a kinematic model of a rabbit-ear fold superimposed on seismic
profile (Figure 8a, enlarged from Figure 2), with the rabbit-ear modified from
Tomlinson (1952) constructed from well control (Figure 8b). Although the interpreted
structures are a few miles apart, they bear some similarity, most notably the folded
pre-Pennsylvanian (1) and pre-Atokan (2) unconformities in the core of the structure.
9a
9b
9c
Figure 9 shows the kinematic development of a fold similar to the rabbit-ear folds
in Figure 8, without the complications of
unconformities and pre-existing structure.
Figure 10a: Initial conditions for kinematic model. (1) is a fold limb
related to deep thrust, perhaps the Arbuckle Thrust, inferred by different
authors to sole between ~ -30,000 (Crawford et al., 1990) and -60,000'
under the Ardmore Basin. (2) is an incipient thrust fault. (3) is a fault bend
that is the locus for development of a fault-propagation fold.
10c
Figure 10b: (1) is a fault-propagation fold, with slight backward shear (2)
applied to achieve balance. (3) is an incipient fault that will decapitate the faultpropagation fold consistent with the observation that the internal angle (4) of the
fault-propagation fold (g* of Suppe and Medwedeff, 1990) is not found on the
present-day hanging wall.
10d
Figure 10c: Slip on fault (1) translates the hanging wall. Pre-Atokan
unconformity (2) (erosion exceeds uplift) is folded forward (3) as it passes
over fault bend (4). Atokan sediments onlap unconformity near (3) and
fault (1) reaches the seafloor at (5) as a contractional growth fault.
Figure 10d: Emplacement of structural wedge (1) produces kink band (2) in the footwall and folds the overlying hanging wall. Subsequently, the pre-Pennsylvanian unconformity (3) truncates the hanging wall, preserving a remnant (4) of the pre-Atokan
unconformity. Deposition of the Pennsylvanian Deese group follows erosion (5).
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Figure 10e: Initial wedge block fails and second wedge block (1) is emplaced
producing kink band (2) and slight bend in fault (3).
10f
10f
Figure 10f: Renewed slip on deep (Arbuckle?) thrust widens initial kink
band (1) by an amount (2) folding the entire section.
Figure 10g: Renewed slip fault (1) produces hanging wall folding at fault bends
(2)(5). Rabbit-ear fold (6) begins to form above fault tip (7).
10j
10h
Figure 10h: Continued slip on fault (1) amplifies growth of rabbit-ear fold.
10i
Figure 10i: Final increment of slip on fault (1) results in present structural geometry.
Figure 10j: Final stage of kinematic forward model from Figure 10i, enlarged and superimposed
on seismic profile. Note in particular the good fit between the model and the unconformity (1),
shoulder (2), rabbit-ear fold (3), and footwall reflections (4).
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Table 1: Timing of structural events interpreted in kinematic model and on 2-D seismic profile. Letters correspond
to labels in Figure 11. Orogenies are adapted from Lang (1957) and Tomlinson and McBee (1959), based mainly on
the presence of conglomerates in the stratigraphic section. Events A-G support punctuated orogenesis, whereas H
demonstrates continuous deformation. The discrepancy in the thickness of Mississippian strata in well 3 vs. well 4
indicates that uplift related to slip on fault D probably began prior to deposition of basal Atoka, as opposed to after
as illustrated in the kinematic model. Observation of growth folding (as in Suppe et al., 1992) constrain displacements in the kinematic model to show that the shoulder and rabbit-ear folds (Figure 11) formed coevally with G.
Both of these folds trap and produce significant quantities of oil, demonstrating that migration occurred after the
Pennsylvanian.
Conclusions:
This case study synthesizes basic observations from seismic and well data
(Figure 2), fault-bend fold analysis (Figures 3 and 4), kinematic constraints
on models of footwall deformation (Figures 57), principles of rabbit-ear
folding (Figures 8 and 9), and a fully-retrodeformable kinematic model
(Figure 10) to reasonably match the shape and explain the origin and timing of structures observed on a seismic profile (Figure 11, Table 1). It is
demonstrated that application of fault-related fold theory can even yield
tractable geometric and kinematic solutions for odd structures, like those
found in southern Oklahoma.
Acknowledgements:
The author thanks Texaco Exploration and Production Inc. (in particular
Frank Gaines) for providing the 2-D seismic line used in this study. Much of
this study was completed as part of the authors Ph.D. thesis research at
Princeton University, special thanks to advisor John Suppe and colleagues
John Shaw, Frank Bilotti, and Chris Connors. This section (2-15) benefitted
from thorough and thoughtful reviews by Stephen Hook and Peter Brennan.
Figure 11: Cross-section interpretation of the seismic profile from Figure 2, incorporating the final stage of the kinematic model from Figure 10i (boundary shown in
gray) plus additional well control (2, 3, and 4). Stratigraphy in the kinematic model is modified to better fit well control. Refer to Table 1 for labels AH.
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The San Carlos fold belt is located at the southern tip of the allocthonous thrust front of the Caribbean Ranges, Venezuela (Figure 1). The
seismic example (Figure 2) shows a buried fold and thrust belt overlying a normal faulted authoctonous platform. The main structures are
three folds (, , ) with typical kink geometries (Suppe, 1983) overlain
by a Quaternary unconformity (U). The anticlines and are linked to
a common decollement folded by the anticline and deep kink panels
probably related to footwall shale flow. The shortening on the main
thrust ramp is transferred to a structural wedge duplex at the front of
the fold belt (d). The anticline is interpreted as a multi-bend-fault-bend
fold (Medwedeff and Suppe, 1997) with two foot-wall (FWR1-2) and
hanging-wall (HWR1-2) ramps. The anticline is a folded single ramp
fault-bend fold. The syncline () is interpreted as an early thrust sheet,
folded by a late thrust sheet ().
Figure 1: Location map a) Geologic map of the Southern Caribbean thrust front, Venezuela. b)
Main structural features at the base of Quaternary unconformity.
Figure 2: Uninterpreted and interpreted seismic section. Numbers 1, 2, and 3 indicate the suggested sequence of deformation of thrust sheets. Horizontal scale equals
vertical scale. Section trace shown in Figure 1. Time migrated seismic section displayed in depth.
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Conclusions:
The seismic example shows typical kink-fold geometry.
Folds are interpreted as single- and multi-bend fault-bend folds.
Based on geometric constraints, the sequence of deformation is interpreted as shallow foreland propagating thrust sheets (, , ) that are refolded by late deeper hinterland anticlines (, ).
Figure 3: Sequential restoration showing the proposed sequence of deformation. Active faults are indicated
by solid red lines. Red dashed lines show fault trajectory prior to displacement.
Acknowledgements:
The authors would like to thank Pecom Energia S.A. for the authorization to publish this section (2-16).
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Figure 1: Location map for the seismic line showing position in inner Foothills
between Moose Mountain culmination and Quirk Creek gas field. Paleozoic outcrop is shaded blue.
Figure 2: Detail view of time-migrated seismic image of hanging-wall ramp (cutoff) showing bedding reflection terminations against fault reflection. Lower
Paleozoic terminations are clear between A-A and A-A; Upper Paleozoic terminations between B-B are off the end of the seismic line, but are visible in
adjacent seismic data. The geometry of fold axes can be inferred in a fault-bend fold sense.
Figure 3: Fault-bend fold structural interpretation of detailed seismic image. Thrust fault trajectory is shown by dashed red line and its dotted projection off
the end of the seismic data. Fold axes are shown by dashed green lines; long dashes relate to changes between hanging-wall flats and ramps, short dashes
relate to secondary bends in the fault trajectory. Blue lines with arrowheads mark bedding orientations with cut-offs against the fault, blue lines with dashed
ends mark bedding roughly parallel to the fault. The isochrons between reflections mark an increase towards the anticlinal crest interpreted to be caused by
subseismic small thrust faults.
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Figure 4: Post-stack time-migrated 2-D seismic reflection profile across the northern Quirk Creek area. Display is scaled to be 1:1 at an average interval velocity of 4000 m/s. Three wells indicate key stratigraphic tops and positions of fault repetitions. Three
stratigraphically calibrated zones of distinctive reflections guide interpretation away from the well control (yellow boxes): 1) a very high-amplitude continuous reflection event (doublet) characterizes the Jurassic-Lowermost Cretaceous Fernie-Kootenay zone immediately overlying the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) Rundle Group, 2) a high-amplitude sporadically continuous reflection commonly occurs just above the top of the Devonian Palliser Formation, and 3) a system of higher amplitude reflections, three to four
cycles long, indicates the Cambrian strata.
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Figure 5: Post-stack time-migrated 2-D seismic reflection profile across the northern Quirk Creek area showing structural interpretation. Blue line marks top of the Rundle Group; dark blue line marks top of the Palliser Formation; pink line marks middle Devonian
marker near the top of the Cambrian. Lines are dashed where seismic reflection imaging becomes uncertain. Thrust fault trajectories are marked by heavy, dark red lines. Bedding and faults allow subdivision of the Paleozoic into three layers: 1) Lower
Carboniferous (shaded blue), 2) Devonian (shaded dark blue, and 3) Cambrian (shaded pink). A semi-continuous set of high-amplitude reflections interpreted to be the base of the Cambrian reflection set below the basal decollement are shaded light orange. The
heavy, dashed orange line is the projected regional position for the base of the Cambrian assuming a flat, gentle (23 degrees) surface. The discrepancy between the two orange lines indicates a velocity anomaly that can be correlated to the number (net thickness)
of repetitions of Paleozoic carbonates. Beneath the exploration well 2-23-21-6W5, the velocity pull-up effect reaches 600 m/s.
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Figure 6: Depth-converted profile of time-migrated seismic image. Time image velocity distortions due to lateral increase in fast Paleozoic rocks relative to slow Mesozoic rocks
are removed. Basal fault trajectory consistently overlies Fernie-Kootenay strata and therefore is a footwall flat; the step in the central part of the fault is a bend caused by footwall
deformation (northern plunge end of Quirk Creek gas trap). A-A and A-A mark position of lower hanging-wall ramp and B-B marks position of upper hanging-wall ramp.
Conclusions:
Fault-bend fold theory makes a good match with the Quirk
Creek anticline observed in seismic data.
Westerly dips arise from thrust sheet strata overlying footwall ramps (cutoffs).
Easterly dips arise from rotation of the leading-edge cutoffs
(hanging-wall ramp) onto an upper detachment.
Footwall duplexing complicates, but does not obscure the
fault-bend fold.
Figure 7: Restoration and geometric modeling of fault-bend fold geometry. Top section (A) is a restoration of the depth profile using a flexural-slip mechanism. Restoration recovers the
primary flat-ramp-flat fault geometry. Lower three sections (B, C, D) show the initial, middle, and final states of a forward geometric model using Suppes (1983) fault-bend fold theory.
The final deformation state nearly matches depth profile in Figure 6. Second order internal shortening of Devonian and Cambrian layers are ignored by the geometric model.
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John H. Shaw, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Location: South Caribbean Basin, offshore northern Colombia
Topics: Conventional and shear imbricate fault-bend folds
The South Caribbean basin represents an accretionary prism that
resulted from the transpressional collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates during the Tertiary. An imbricate thrust system
in the southern portion of the basin is clearly imaged with 2-D seismic
reflection data, with which we interpret fold and fault geometries and
patterns of growth sedimentation. We model this imbricate system
using a combination of conventional and shear imbricate fault-related
folding theories (Suppe, 1983; Corredor et al., 2002; Suppe et al., 2003),
and trishear kinematics (Erslev, 1991; Allmendinger, 1998). The patterns of growth sedimentation that can be observed in this imbricate
system are used to further constrain the models.
Figure 1:
Regional topography, bathymetry,
and tectonic elements of Colombia
and location of the
Seismic line (1)
used for this study.
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Figure 4: 2-D post-stack migrated and depth-converted seismic section through the imbricate system interpreted in this contribution showing some
important characteristics including: (1) Sea floor reflection, (2) Growth sedimentation, and thrust faults defined by fault-plane reflections and cutoff
(red arrows). Notice how the upper thrust fault is folded across the syncline by the lower thrust sheet.
Figure 3: High resolution sea floor bathymetric image of a region north of the Fuerte Imbricate system interpreted in this contribution,
and regional map showing the location of (1) the bathymetric image, and (2) the seismic line across the Fuerte imbricate system. The
ridges on the southern portion of the image (3) represent northeast-trending thrust-related folds that are actively deforming the sea floor
and controlling the course of meandering turbidity channels (4). The low regions between ridges (5) correspond to the piggy-back basins
formed above the backlimbs of individual fault imbricates. On the upper right corner (6), the southern limit of the Magdalena delta system
is burying these active folds and faults. The limit between these two systems corresponds to the Canoas Fault (7).
The stratigraphic sequences imaged in the seismic profile (Figure 4) correspond to Tertiary
marine and deltaic sediments. At the bottom of the section an Oligocene(?) sequence is interpreted (3), and is composed of thick deep marine shale sequences (potential source rocks), and
may contain some interbedded turbidite sands (potential reservoirs in deep water environments). On seismic sections, this sequence is generally devoid of internal reflections. This formation is interpreted to correspond to a weak decollement layer that undergoes an externally
imposed shear deformation in this imbricate system. Seismic reflections beneath this sequence
are generally continuous laterally, suggesting that the decollement for this system is located at
the bottom of the Oligocene(?) shale. The Oligocene(?) sequence is overlaid by Miocene-Pliocene
interbedded shallow marine shales and sandstones (4) that produce seismic reflections with
higher amplitudes and lower frequencies. In the uppermost portion of the seismic profile, a spectacular Pleistocene prograding deltaic sequence can be observed (5). This deltaic sequence is
not folded by the underlying imbricate system constraining the age for the end of deformation in
these particular thrust sheets. Fault plane reflections and cutoffs are clearly observed (red
arrows) that constrain the geometry of both thrust faults. The upper thrust fault is folded by the
lower fault suggesting a break-forward sequence of imbrication. Break-forward imbrication
results from a new thrust being developed in the footwall of what was previously the active
thrust.
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Figure 5. Uninterpreted (A) and interpreted (B) close-up view of the Fuerte Imbricate System, offshore northern Colombia, to
illustrate how folding vectors (see section 1B-5) are used to interpret this break-forward imbricate system.
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This imbricate system can be modelled using combined conventional and shear imbricate fault-bend
folding theories. Using folding vectors we have shown on the previous page (Figure 5) that this system
has a break-forward sequence of imbrication. Additionally, we observe three structural patterns that
suggest shear fault-bend folding (see section 1B-4) is an important mechanism in this imbricate system
(Figure 6). The thrust sheets show gentle back-limbs that dip less than the fault ramps, growth sediments show evidences of limb rotation, and a broad anticline in the shallow thrust sheet overlies a synclinal bend on the thrust fault. In simple shear fault-bend folding, the weak decollement layer
(Oligocene?) at the base of fault ramps undergoes an externally imposed bedding-parallel simple shear.
The total slip produced by the shear is accommodated by increasing slip along the fault ramps, and by
rotation along the back-limbs. Further frontal imbrication and the transfer of shear produce a decrease
in the ramp and bedding angles in younger and shallower thrust faults (Figure 7), occasionally producing folds not directly related to a fault-bend.
Figure 6: 2-D depth-converted seismic section through the imbricate system interpreted in this contribution showing the characteristics that suggest this system
involves shear imbricate fault-bend folding: (1) Backlimbs dip less than fault ramps, (2) Small forelimbs compared to backlimbs, (3) Growth sedimentation show evidences of limb rotation, and (4) Anticline is underlaid by a synclinal bend (5) in the associated thrust fault. Notice also that the upper thrust fault is folded across the
syncline by the lower thrust sheet, as described on the previous page.
Figure 7: Forward model of a break-forward sequence of imbrication by forward distributed transfer of shear showing the
resulting patterns of growth sedimentation. Imbricate fault-bend fold theory describes refolding of shallow thrust sheets by
younger and deeper faults. A) an incipient thrust. B) and C) a simple shear fault-bend fold grows by increasing simple
shear across the weak decollement layer. The growth strata show evidences of limb rotation and kink band migration. D-E)
a frontal thrust sheet is formed by simple shear fault-bend folding. This additional shear produces forward (counterclockwise) rotation of the shallower and younger thrust sheet, effectively decreasing the dip values of the fault ramp and folding
bedding. A portion of the flat crest of the fold rotates forward, forming a forelimb with no associated fault-bend comparable
to that observed in Figure 6. The growth sediments deposited in the earlier stages are also refolded by the younger thrust.
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Figure 8: Interpreted depth converted seismic profile across the Fuerte Imbricate System, combining
the results from the structural analyses presented
on the preceding pages. The stratigraphic correlation is based on regional interpretation of seismic
facies across a large seismic survey. The complex
geometry of the lower thrust ramp is interpreted to
result from an externally imposed simple shear in
its footwall (Shear Profile 2) caused by thrust
sheets that lie to the northwest of this image. The
shallower thrust sheet shows an anticline in the
right portion of the section, which is underlaid by a
synclinal fault bend. This relationship is interpreted
as the result of forward rotation of the bedding and
the thrust fault due to the simple shear fault-bend
folding in the underlying thrust sheet (Shear Profile
1). Shear faultbend folding is consistent with
growth sediments showing evidence of limb rotation, and with back limbs dipping less than the
fault ramps. Shearing in the lower thrust sheet has
also refolded the shallower thrust fault and the beds
in its hanging wall, indicating that this is a breakforward imbricate system.
Conclusions:
The Fuerte structure is a break-forward, shear imbricate fault-bend fold system in the southern Caribbean basin, offshore northern Colombia.
Folding vectors are used to interpret the thrusting sequence.
Several characteristics allow the interpretation of shear imbrication in this system, including: A) beds on the backlimbs dip less than fault ramps, B) growth sediments show evidences of both
limb rotation and kink-band migration, and C) an anticline in the shallower thrust sheet is underlied by a synclinal bend in the associated thrust fault.
The Fuerte structure was active early during the Miocene-Pliocene with thrust faults emerging in the sea floor. Further foreland thrusting has sheared this system and passively transported it forward along an Oligocene(?) basal detachment during the Pliocene to the present time.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
address: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.
water bottom
erosional truncation
Figure 2: (Above) SW-NE cross section through 3-D post-stack seismic volume. The location of the arbitrary line is shown in Figure 5. Shown
are over-thickened anticline core (1), backlimb erosional unconformity, and main growth phase of Nickoli structure (2). No vertical exaggeration.
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Figure 5: Structure contour map on the top Anahuac (Figure 4 labeled surface). The map contour
interval = 500 ft and the grid lines represent OCS blocks. The buttressing effect of the salt diapir to
the west rotated the Nickoli anticlinal axis to an east-west orientation. Salt withdrawl from diapirs
that surround the Nickoli mini-basin overprinted the basin-center structures with normal faults.
Figure 6: Showing about the same area as Figure 5. Seismic time slice near 3,050 m (10,000 ft) showing
structural configuration and position of the youngest thrust fault.
Figure 4: Annotated seismic showing regional detachment surface and detachment anticline formed by thrust faults, (1) overthickend core of regressive Frio sand-prone deposystems
(middle to late Oligocene), and erosional unconformity at the top of the Frio, and (2) onlap of Frio by Anahuac transgressive shale-prone deposystems (latest Oligocene). Early Miocene
deposits drape the fold until completely buried.
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address: BHP Billiton, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; 2Present address: Texaco Minerals Management Service, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A; 3Present address: Consultant, Bellaire, Texas, U.S.A.
Figure 1: (Above) 3-D pre-stack depth-migrated seismic line down the axis of Keathley
Canyon and showing a fold and the leading edge of the Sigsbee salt canopy (light blue).
Figure 2: (Right) Bathymetry of the deepwater Gulf of Mexico showing the location of
Keathley Canyon, the Sigsbee Escarpment and the seismic line. Red color is ~600'
(183 m) and blue color is ~9000' (2744 m) water depth.
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Figure 3: Velocity model along annotated seismic line showing velocity inversion and inferred over-pressured section;
A) Normal model, B) High velocities are clipped to better show a subtle velocity inversion in the Tertiary age section. In
Figure 3A, red color is ~14700 ft/s (4480 m/s) and blue color is ~4980 ft/s (1518 m/s). Datum is near base Paleogene.
Figure 5: Interpreted and annotated seismic line showing a low-relief, detachment anticline in subsalt sediments at the edge of the Sigsbee Escarpment. Also
shown are interpreted faults, and a late Paleogene shale unit that is interpreted as a detachment surface at the base of an inferred over-pressured zone. Velocity
analysis modeling for pre-stack depth migration and pore pressure prediction analysis identified the velocity inversion, which probably continues further northward under the salt than is shown in Figure 3.
Conclusion:
Figure 4: Enlarged inset from Figure 5. Note duplex structure in the sediments below the base of salt (blue). Compression
occurs where the base of salt is stepped, which confirms some degree of coupling with subjacent sedimentary units.
Detachment anticlines with incipient duplex structures can form the cores of low-relief, four-way closures at the
edge of the Sigsbee Escarpment, western Gulf of Mexico. Our model invokes a detachment surface in an overpressured section coupled with south-directed compression due to gravity gliding of the overlying salt+sediment
load. The suprajacent section is arched by the developing duplex structure in the core of the fold (i.e., between
purple and orange lines). There is no evidence for compressional deformation south of this seismic line (left
side) indicating this is analogous to a triangle zone in the foreland of fold and thrust belts.
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Figure 2: Time-migrated seismic reflection profile across the San Mateo Anticline. Note the regional oceanside detachment (1) extending beneath the San Mateo
Anticline (2). This detachment is not folded by the contractional structures; thus we interpret that the San Mateo Anticline is formed by thrusting ramping up from
this detachment surface. A preserved extensional rollover is also visible on the left-hand side of the section (3).
Figure 1: Location of
the San Mateo trend in
the Inner California
Borderlands. The study
area is defined by the
grid of seismic reflection data. Yellow circles are well locations.
L.A. = Los Angeles
Basin.
Figure 3: Time-migrated seismic reflection profile across the San Mateo Anticline. Stratigraphic tops are correlated from the San Clemente CH1 well. Well-illuminated cutoffs and fault plane reflections (1) constrain the location of a reactivated normal fault and overlying thrust ramps that form the San Mateo structure. Note the
Miocene syn-rift section penetrated by the well that expands toward the normal fault in a rollover structure. The rollover structure shows evidences of bivergent tectonic inversion or bipolar extrusion (Copper and Williams, 1989; Hayward and Graham, 1989), with both fore (1) and backthrust (2) anticlines developed by the
inversion. Gently dipping continuous reflections and three-dimensional mapping define the location of the Oceanside Thrust, one of the regional Miocene detachments reactivated in the Pliocene (3). Syn-extensional deposits and unconformities define the presence of other normal faults (4) that are not inverted.
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Figure 4: Balanced structural interpretation of the San Mateo Anticline. The interpretation highlights the relationship of the contractional structure to pre-existing normal faults reactivated during the phase of basin inversion. Kink-band domains in the back-limb of
the anticline, and direct fault plane reflections constrain the geometry of the San Mateo thrust from shallow to deeper levels, where it is linked to an older normal fault. The seismic image also indicates that the San Mateo ramp is refolded by a younger, deeper fault.
We interpret that both thrust faults terminate in structural wedges, as no foreland structures that could account for the transfer of slip exist beyond the San Mateo anticline. Formation tops from the well San Clemente #1. Labeled axial surfaces correspond to those
modeled in Figure 6.
We interpret the San Mateo Anticline as an imbricated fault-bend fold produced by the
upward propagation of contractional slip from an inverted normal fault into multiple
detachment levels (Figures 4, 5, and 6). The backlimb geometry of the anticline exhibiting multiple dip-domains indicates the presence of a deeper structure. This sub-thrust
structure refolds the shallow thrust sheet of the San Mateo Anticline in a way consistent
with a break-forward system (Figure 6). The thrust front terminations of the San Mateo
thrust and the underlying thrust are defined by two structural wedges that propagate
slip back to the hinterland. At this location, the interaction between the synclinal axial
surfaces of the upper detachments produces a complex geometry of the thrust front.
Figure 5: Restoration of the proposed structural interpretation for the San Mateo anticline to the top of the Pliocene
Repetto Formation. The restoration highlights the role of the extensional system controlling the geometry of the
Miocene depocenters, and locating the Pliocene compressional structures. Estimated total shortening is 2.5 km.
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Figure 6: Balanced sequential model of the development of the San Mateo structure.
Bac
k-T
hru
st
Figure 7: (a) Oblique view of a three-dimensional model incorporating a representation of the San Mateo thrust, and the structural wedge defined by the Oceanside
thrust and the back thrust fault. Seismic image corresponds with profile Y-Y shown in Figure 3. The blue surface is the top of the syn-rift sequence (Monterrey
Formation). (b) Seismic dataset used in the definition of the surfaces shown in the 3-D model. Contours represent bathymetry of the seafloor. (c) Same view as in (a)
with the seismic image removed to highlight the lateral continuity of the structural wedge, as well as the contractional folding of the Monterrey Formation.
Oceanside Thrust
Conclusions:
The San Mateo anticline is an imbricated fault-bend fold originated by basin inversion processes. The San Mateo thrust
reactivated a segment of a northeast-dipping Miocene normal
fault.
The phase of basin inversion also reactivated a Miocene lowangle detachment as the oceanside thrust. The oceanside
thrust transferred contractional slip to associated synthetic
and antithetic normal structures, inverting a major grabenboundary fault, and generating a regional structural wedge
defined by the oceanside thrust and a backthrust zone. This
structural wedge controls the location of a prominent monocline with bathymetric expression.
Figure 1: Landsat TM image of the Coalinga anticline showing the locations of the
seismic lines used in this study. Locations of wells 1. Pleasant-Valley #1; 2. LeavittHintze #1; and 3. PVF-11X are shown from Meltzer (1989) and Bartow (1990).
Figure 2: Migrated and depth-converted seismic profile with several wells showing formation tops across the Coalinga anticline. The structural relief between the synclines (1
and 2) bounding the anticline (3) provides evidence that one or more southwest-dipping thrust ramps underlie the structure. The asymmetry of the central anticline (3) demonstrates that an additional northeast-dipping thrust ramp underlies the structural crest. The absence of Tertiary deformation east of the Coalinga anticline (beyond this section)
provides evidence that the southwest-dipping fault ramp or detachment does not extend basinward of the Coalinga anticline. This argues for the presence of a structural wedge,
where slip is sent back to the hinterland on the inferred backthrust beneath the Coalinga structure.
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Figure 4: Migrated seismic line showing the location of the active synclinal axial
surface (A4) in the San Joaquin basin, which is used to constrain the tip of the
structural wedge associated with the San Joaquin thrust ramp (inset).
Figure 3: Balanced structural interpretation of the Coalinga anticline, in which several imbricated faults generate the main fold. Slip on the Coalinga and San Joaquin ramps generates two
anticlinal fault-bend folds, where slip is sent back to the hinterland on folded backthrusts. The width of the forelimb of the Coalinga structural wedge is constrained by a pair of axial surfaces
(B0 and B1), where the wedge tip is pinned by the active synclinal axial surface (B0). Imbrication of two older and shallower thrusts by the Coalinga wedge is demonstrated by the capture of
fold limbs associated with these older faults by the Coalinga structural wedge. The forelimb of one of these older structures is constrained by axial surfaces C0 and C1. Growth strata within this
kink band indicate that slip on its causative fault occurred at some point between the deposition of the Moreno shale (~ 65 Ma), and the deposition of the Kreyenhagen shale (~ 37 Ma), clearly
before the development of the broad limb (B0-B1) that refolds it. A shallow thrust that branches off the main detachment generates the prominent anticlinal fault-bend fold defined by kink
bands A0 and A1. The dip of this thrust ramp was determined based on the forelimb dip using fault-bend folding theory. However, the observation that the backlimb dips less than the fault
ramp suggests that the backlimb is deforming by shear fault-bend folding mechanisms (see section 1B-4). Deformation of a shear band pinned by axial surface A2 (shaded yellow), leads to a
minor rotation of the backlimb. The location of a regional angular unconformity is shown by yellow arrows. The axis of this unconformity (i.e. where rocks change from horizontal to dipping)
is shown by a dashed yellow line. Formation depths are from Bartow (1990).
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Conclusions:
The Coalinga structure is underlain by two independent southwest-dipping thrust ramps that generate two structural wedges that sole
into a common backthrust/roof thrust.
The Coalinga structural wedge refolds at least two older structures, a Tertiary structural wedge with well-defined growth strata and a
younger southwest-vergent anticline that has accumulated slip from the San Joaquin thrust ramp. While this southwest-vergent anticline
is the most prominent surface feature of the Coalinga structure, slip on the two underlying thrust ramps produce the deeper fold architecture.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 2: Post-stack, time-migrated and depth converted seismic reflection profile of the Nias basin that images a contractional fault-related fold. The structure
is composed of a monoclinal fold limb that is underlain by a fault, which appears to offset basement and uplift the southern portion of the fold. Two distinct
stratigraphic sections (1 and 2) thicken to the north across the fold limb, suggesting that they are syntectonic (growth) strata.
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We propose a structural wedge model (Figure 3) to explain the geometry of the structure
and the pattern of growth section 1 (Figure 4).
Based on interpreted fault cut-offs and structural relief, the main thrust ramp beneath the
Nias structure dips to the south (Figure 4A) indicating that the monoclinal fold limb is a
forelimb. The forelimb is bound by a roughly linear synclinal axial surface that extends
upward through growth section 1, and by a curved anticlinal axial surface that has different orientations in growth and pre-growth sections (Figure 4A). Based on this axial surface pattern, we interpret the forelimb as a growth structure developed by kink-band
migration, with an active synclinal axial surface and an inactive anticlinal axial surface
(see section 1A-3). Given the fault dip direction, this growth patterns is inconsisitent with
a simple forelimb fault-bend fold model (Figure 3A), but consistent with a decollement
wedge model (Figure 3B). Thus, we interpret the structure as a decollement wedge
(Figure 4B).
Kinematic models
A: anticlinal fault-bend fold
B: decollement wedge
B: Interpreted section
Figure 3: Balanced kinematic models of an anticlinal fault-bend fold (A) and decollement wedge (B). In model A, the fault-bend fold is
developed above a ramp that flattens to an upper decollement. The anticlinal axial surface is active, and thus linearly extends through pregrowth and growth sections. The synclinal axial surface is inactive, and thus changes orientation at the boundary between growth and pregrowth section (see section 1B-1). In model B, slip on the upper detachment is transferred to a backthrust forming a structural wedge
(Medwedeff, 1989) (see section 1B-6). The synclinal axial surface is active and the anticlinal axial surface is inactive, in contrast to model A.
Thus, simple anticlinal fault-bend folds and structural wedges can be readily distinguished based on patterns of growth strata.
Figure 4: Seismic reflection profile across the Nias basin structure with: A) basic interpretations of the fault
position, axial surface traces, and growth sections; and B) structural interpretation. The geometries of the synclinal and anticlinal axial surface resemble those in Figure 3B, indicating that the structure is a decollement
wedge. In this interpretation, the synclinal axial surface is pinned to the wedge tip, and the backthrust generally
conforms to the bed dips in its hanging wall. This interpretations is consistent with the pattern of growth section
1, but does not yet explain the origins of growth section 2.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Kinematic model
Figure 6: Interpreted seismic profile, showing an inverted half graben in the core of the Nias anticline. Growth section 2 is
interpreted as synrift strata, similar to the model shown in Figure 5.
Conclusions:
Nias anticline formed by inversion of a Miocene normal fault and associated half
graben.
Thrust motion on the inverted normal fault is transferred to a backthrust at the
base of the post-rift sequence, forming a structural wedge.
Patterns of folded syntectonic growth strata were used to decipher the inversion history, and to support our kinematic interpretation of this structural
wedge.
Figure 5: Sequential kinematic model (stages 0 through 5) of the development of the Nias anticline. Model 0 shows an incipient normal
fault and active axial surface. Slip on the normal fault (models 12) generates a roll-over panel and half graben, which is filled with synrift
strata equivalent to growth section 2. In model 3, strata are deposited above the half graben after rifting has ceased. In models 4 and 5, the
lower segment of the normal fault is reactivated as a thrust, which propagates up dip and shallows to a detachment at the base of the postrift sequence. Slip is transferred to a backthrust that is parallel to the overlying strata, forming a structural wedge.
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Figure 1: Perdido fold belt and area of interest for kink-band interference structure, western Gulf of Mexico.
Uninterpreted profile plane vertical seismic section A-A stretched to depth, located in Figure 2. 3-D post-stack
time migrated seismic courtesy of WesternGeco.
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Figure 7: Line A-A interpreted. Dashed blue lines are axial surfaces (kink planes). Kink band annotation follows the naming convention of Medwedeff and Suppe (1997). The two tan colored horizons were added to show details of the kink bands intersection. An additional kink band (labeled 33X11T), and requisite branch points P5 and P6, are deviations from the model
geometry. No vertical exaggeration.
Conclusions:
Figure 6: Color-filled contours of amount of shortening across kink bands, in ft. Total
displacement across both kink bands is shown in red text. Blue arrows indicate the location of measurement locations in addition to those of the cross sections.
146
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Gravitational fold and thrust belts (GFTBs) associated to linked extensional-compressional systems occur in the deep waters offshore
Brazil, and show two end members regarding structural and syndepositional styles. One end member, related to longer-lived linked
extensional-compressional systems, is dominated by low rates of sedimentation. Thus, deformation rates are also low, giving rise to fold
belts with growth folds topped by a series of younging- and steppingupward time-transgressive unconformities separating strongly
deformed (below) and non-deformed (above) strata of the same age
(growth strata). This fold belt type is well illustrated by a seismic section from the Par-Maranho Basin, as well as by another seismic line
from the Barreirinhas Basin (Figure 1). The other end member, relat-
ed to short-lived, linked extensional-compressional systems, is dominated by high rates of sedimentation. Thus, deformation
rates are also higher, giving rise to very thick, harmonically folded and thrusted sedimentary strata, displaying simpler syngrowth relationships. In this case, thick syn-tectonic packages are deposited in the synclines and thinner (or absent) correlative packages on the anticlines. Time-transgressive unconformities are markedly absent. This type is illustrated by seismic
sections from two major Miocene-Recent progradational sedimentary cones: the Amazon Mouth and the Rio Grande (Figure
1). The four cases presented in this section (2-25) are shale-detached/shale-cored fold belts.
Figure 2: Depth-migrated seismic section from the Par-Maranho Basin illustrating a complete linked extensional-compressional system. See interpreted section in Figure 3.
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The translational domain is a predominantly non-deformed region that passively traveled over the detachment zone. Weak
arching may affect the rocks present in this area. Usually, increasing amounts of detachment folding occur oceanwards/basinwards, marking the passage of the translational domain into the compressional realm.
The compressional domain may present spectacular deformation, with all kinds of reverse and thrust faults and fault-related folding (detachment, fault-propagation, and fault-bend folding). When detached on shales, the structural styles, the structural relief, and the overall dimensions may resemble those found in truly orogenic belts (Zaln, 1998). When salt is the lubricant, or is otherwise involved, deformation is more complex and salt tongues and canopies (Rowan et al., 2001) or nappes
(Hudec et al., 2001) develop. The specific name gravitational fold and thrust belts (GFTBs) has been applied to such entities. Zaln (1999) studied some Brazilian GFTBs in detail and devised a tripartite structural model that predicts an orderly
succession, from the internides to the foreland, of detachment folding, followed by closely spaced high-angle reverse faults
and associated tight fault-propagation folds (also referred to as toe thrusts), ending in more widely spaced, low-angle rampflat thrusts with associated more open fault-bend folding. Important oil discoveries have been achieved in these compressional provinces in deep waters off GOM, Nigeria, Angola, and Brazil.
The dimensions of these three domains may vary greatly. Usually the extensional and compressional domains are the widest
but it is very difficult to exactly balance the amount of extension updip with the amount of contraction downdip, because of
the details of the severe deformation that is usually non-resolvable by seismic data. Since they cover huge areas, on the order
of several thousand square kilometers, it is difficult to have them all covered by 3-D seismic, and it is not unusual that extension and compression are divided into two or three belts of deformation.
Figure 3: Depth-migrated seismic section from the Par-Maranho GFTB. The major components of a linked extensional-compressional system are clearly visible: The extensional, translational, and compressional (GFTB) domains and the linking detachment zone.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
Figure 5: Geological
interpretation of section
displayed in Figure 4.
Detachment zone and
reverse/thrust faults are
shown. Two reflectors (aorange and b-light green)
were tracked within the
interpreted pre-tectonic
section, and three reflectors
(c-blue, d-purple, and edark green) were tracked
within the interpreted
growth section, which is
also highlighted by a gray
transparent mask.
Stepping- and youngingupward unconformities (U)
are displayed in yellow.
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In a less spectacular manner, the Barreirinhas GFTB display faultbend folds covered by a major unconformity (there is also a minor
associated stepping-upward unconformity), upon which sub-horizontal beds onlap and thin upwards (Figures 6 and 7). The geometry suggests that the same growth fault-bend folding mechanism
described in the Par-Maranho GFTB may work here.
The same pattern of a series of younging- and stepping-upward timetransgressive unconformities separating non-deformed onlapping
strata above from thrusted and folded strata below can be seen in
several other GFTBs in Brazil (e.g. Touros, in the Potiguar Basin;
Zaln, 2001) and elsewhere in the world (for instance, in the
Krishna-Godavari Basin, in India, Stuart and Hickman, 2001). We suggest that these patterns are diagnostic of gravity sliding/contraction
accompanied by growth folding in areas dominated by low rates of
deformation and sedimentation.
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Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
The pattern of harmonically folded and thrusted sediments, with thick syn-tectonic packages in the synclines (Figures 10 and 13) and thinner correlative
packages on the anticlines, and more importantly, the absence of time-transgressive unconformities, are here interpreted as being diagnostic of gravity
sliding/contraction in areas dominated by high rates of deformation and sedimentation.
Figure 8: Time-migrated seismic section from the Amazon Mouth GFTB. Extensional domain is only partly shown.
Translational and compressional domains are fully displayed.
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Figure 11: Time-migrated seismic section from the Rio Grande Cone. Extensional domain is only partly shown.
Translational domain is practically non-existent. Compressional domain is fully illustrated.
152
Shaw, Connors, and Suppe
(cont.)
GFTBs developed in areas dominated by high rates of sedimentation/deformation, usually associated to major
deltas (as is the case in the examples shown in the
Amazon Mouth and Rio Grande Cone), display intense
folding, dominated by detachment and fault-propagation
folding. These structures typically have very high structural relief, and seafloor expression. The intense, rapid,
and continuous process of sedimentary loading/sliding/
contraction does not allow the development of unconformities chiseling the higher parts of the foldbelt. Consequently, there are practically no sub-horizontal strata covering the deformed rocks. Syntectonic sediments are concentrated in the synclines, situated between the intervening trains of anticlines.
The major implications for such differences in the depositional/structural styles of the growth strata are in the location of the turbidite beds and the related hydrocarbon
traps. In the first case, syntectonic turbidites should be present as onlapping strata (stratigraphic traps) above unconformities in the frontal parts of the GFTB and in the folds
(structural traps) in the internal parts of the GFTB, below
unconformities. In the second case, all syntectonic turbidite
deposits will tend to be channelized bodies that are thicker
in the synclines and on the flanks of the anticlines (mixed
stratigraphic/structural traps), and thinner or absent up on
the crests. Eventually, inverted depocenters due to shifting
of deformation locus, from the outer to the inner parts, may
uplift such turbidite channels into the core of younger anticlines. Pretectonic turbidites may be present in the core of
folds anywhere in the GFTB.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Petrobras for the permission to publish this work and my colleagues Haroldo M. Ramos, Sergio
Rogerio P. da Silva, Alvaro Henrique A. de Castro, Desiderio
P. Silveira, Sergio de O. Guimares, and Marcia de B.
Pimentel for their help in the processing, interpretation, and
drawing of the seismic sections.
153
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