Mississippi Flood Defence Scheme Case Study

An example of an exam question, and how to structure your answer because there
is a lot of information. This is very full on and very long, in an exam, you may want
to cut short your answer. But this has everything, is very detailed, so that you have
an example of a complete answer. Make it your own words and make it more
concise. That's your job now!

For a named flood defence scheme, describe and explain how it helps to reduce the
flood risk. (9m)
Name of flood defence scheme: Mississippi River Flood Defence Scheme, USA

The Missouri River is a main tributary to the Mississippi River, 6 huge dams have
been built on it, creating a 1600km chain of 105 reservoirs, controlling the amount
of water added to the Mississippi River. Thus reducing the risk of flooding. The
Tennessee is another major tributary, 9 dams have been built on its river such as
Kentucky and Nick-a-Jack, and 10 have been built on its tributaries. The Tennessee
Valley authorities (TVA) have also been responsbile for planting many trees.
Afforestation has occurred in the upper Mississippi drainage basin system, delaying
surface run-off by interception by vegetation. Trees also absorb water, their roots
delay throughflow and run-off too. All this reduces the amount of water reaching the
river and delays it as well. This gives the Mississippi more time to transport flood
water away. The Bonnet Carr floodway has been constructed to divert excess water
from the Mississippi. It begins 50km North of New Orleans and diverts excess water
along a 9km spillway through 350 small bays to Lake Pontchartrain, and eventually
into the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi River has been straightened and shortened.
From 1934-1945, a 530km stretch of river has been shortened by almost 300km. It
cuts through the meanders making it straighter and shorter. this increases the
gradient and therefore the speed, so flood water can be transported away faster.
Leves have been strengthened and heightened. Instead of soil covered by bundles
of willow, which is very vulnerable to erosion, it is now reinforced concrete. A special
barge backs away from the shore leaving 25m x 8m concrete mattresses. This is
repeated until the deepest part of the bank is covered to above flood level. For
example in St. Louis where the confluence of the Missouri and the Mississippi is, it
has a leve made of reinforced concrete. It is 15.8m high. The flood level of 1993
was 15.05m. This leve protects St. Louis from the Mississippi flooding.

An update:
To help you formulate your own answer, I thought this might help:

River management/Flood Defence scheme: Mississippi, USA (reduced flood risk)

1. Dams and reservoirs

The Missouri River (tributary):
6 huge dams built on it,
creating 1600km chain of
105 reservoirs that prevent flooding, provide water supply, and HEP.

-these dams reduce water reaching/added to the Mississippi, without them, 1993
flood would be even worse.

1b. Dams and reservoirs 2

The Tennessee River (tributary):
Tennessee Valley Authorities (TVA) set up in 1930s have many functions, one of
which is to control flooding of this river.
9 reservoirs on the main river (e.g. Kentucky, Nick-a-Jack, Wilson, Wheeler..)
10 reservoirs on its tributariers
Dams hold back water in times of flood, and release it when river levels are lower.
Success-1957, instead of river reaching dangerous peak of 16.5m, dams and
reservoirs limited the level to harmless 9.8m.

Note: The TVA is a multipurpose scheme which:

controls flooding
provides a water supply
produces hydro-electricity
improves navigation

increases afforestation
reduces soil erosion
encourages industry
encourages tourism

2. Afforestation
TVA also responsible for planting many trees. Trees delay run-off and reduce amount
of water reaching the river, as its roots absorb some.

3. Diversionary Spillways
These are overflow channels-they take surplus water during times of flood.
The Bonnet Carr Floodway begins 50km north of New Orleans.
In times of flood, it diverts excess water away from the Mississippi through a 9km
long spillway, through 350 small bays/reservoirs into Lake Pontchartrain, where the
water eventually ends up in the Gulf of Mexico.
This has greatly reduced flood risk in New Orleans and Baton Rouge.

4. Straightening and shortening course

By cutting through narrow necks of several large meanders.
Between 1934 and 1945, a 530km stretch of river was shortened by almost 300km.
By decreasing the distance, the gradient increases, hence the speed increases--so
flood water is transported away quicker.

5. Strengthening the leves

Leves used to be made of soil covered by bundles of willow-but this was prone to
erosion.
Now, specially designed barges back away from shore laying concrete mattresses
measuring 25m x 8m. The process is repeated until the bank is covered from the
deepest point of the river to above the flood level.

St. Louis leve is made of reinforced concrete (steel bars inside) 15.8m high (and
18km long) and protects St. Louis, because that is where the confluence of the
Missouri and the Mississippi is. (1993 flood peak was 15.05m, but the leve
withstood the water's weight.)

Shanty Town Model Answer

For a named city in an LIC, explain the management strategies being used to
minimise the problems of its shanty towns (squatter communities)
(9m)

This answer should get 8-9 marks, and is based on my own research and what I
wrote in a unit test. Please refer to a previous post 'Shanty Towns' and 'Shanty Town
Case Study: Sao Paulo's Favelas' for more information to help you develop your own
answer. :)

Name of city: Sao Paulo, Brazil

Sao Paulo has around 2500 favelas including Jaguare, Heliopolis and Paraisopolis.
Many improvements have been made to these shanty towns. There are site-andservice schemes where government or non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
provide building materials for the locals to build a better home on their land. Once
built, city authorities would help install basic amenities like electricity, running
water and sanitation. This reduces the number of people illegally hooking up to
overhead electricity lines and improves health as people have access to clean water
for cooking and washing. With sewage systems the chances of diseases spread is
also minimised. There are microlending schemes where locals can apply for small
loans to finance their businesses or to start a business. In Heliopolis a microcredit
scheme was developed by a non-profit US organisation and the Brazilian
government where locals with small businesses can apply for loans between $100$1500. Tenure is used where help has been given to locals so they have legal rights
over their homes and land, so they are more secure. In Jaguare for example, there is
a strong neighbourhood association where people in the favela have worked
together to persuade the government to reduce crime and offer people, especially
children, a wide range of sport or other activities. They also helped provide better
infrastrcuture with better roads, more recreational facilities, especially for children.
There are charity projects so other wealthier people volunteer to teach the shanty
locals basic hygiene. Through medical associations healthcare has also been made
more accessible so there is more of a chance of diseases cured and longer life
expectancy.Sao Paulo also has edge cities developing like Jardines which may

encourage rural-urban migrants to live away from the main city, so there is less
pressure in the shanty towns.

Keywords
These are taken from the Edexcel IGCSE Geography textbook, and also some of my
own to complete it.
River Environments
Abstraction: the taking of water from rivers, lakes and from below the watertable
(aquifers)
Attrition: A process of erosion. The material is moved along the bed of a river,
collides with other material, and breaks up into smaller pieces.
Aquifers: permeable rock that can transfer or store water below ground (ground
water)
Base flow: the usual level of a river, the part of a river's discharge fed by
groundwater
Catchment area=Drainage basin
Channel network: the pattern of linked streams and rivers within a drainage basin
Clean water: water that is fit for human consumption and is therefore relatively
free from pollutants
Condensation: when water vapour is cooled and changes state to form water
droplets
Confluence: where two rivers/streams meet
Corrasion: a process of erosion, sometimes known as abrasion. This is when fine
material rubs against the river bank. The bank is worn away, by a sand-papering
action called abrasion, and collapses.

Corrosion: a process of erosion. Some rocks forming the banks and bed of a river
are dissolved by acids in the water
Cumecs: cubic meters per second, the unit for river discharge
Dam: a large structure, usually of concrete, sometimes earth, built across a river to
hold back a large body of water (reservoir) taken for human use
Deposition: the dropping of material that was being carried by a moving force,
such as running water
Discharge: the quantity of water flowing in a river channel at a particular location
and time
Drainage basin: It is a water system involving external inputs and outputs, where
the amount of water in the system varies over time. It is the area where water from
precipitation (rain/snow..) drains downhill into a common body of water such as a
river or lake. [The area drained by a river and its tributaries.]
Erosion: the wearing away and removal of material by a moving force, such as
running water
Flood plain: the flat land lying either side of a river which periodically floods
Hydraulic action: a process of erosion. The sheer force of water hitting the banks
of a river
Hydrograph: a graph showing the discharge of a river over a given period of time
Hydrological cycle: the global movement of water between the air, land and sea
Impermeable: if a material is impermeable, it does not allow water to pass through
it
Interlocking spur: a series of ridges projecting out on alternate sides of a valley
and around which a river winds
Levee: a raised bank of material deposited by a river during periods of flooding
Mass movement: the movement of weathered material down a slope due the
force of gravity
Meander: a winding curve in a river's course
Oxbow: a horseshoe-shaped lake once part of a meandering river, but now cut off
from it

Pollution: the presence of chemicals, dirt or other substances which have harmful
or poisonous effects on aspects of the environment such as rivers and the air
Reservoir: an area where water is collected and stored for human use
River regime: the seasonal variations in the discharge of a river
Saltation: a process of transportation. Smaller stones are bounced along the bed
of a river in a leap-frogging motion
Solution: a process of transportation. Dissolved material is transported by the
river.
Suspension: a process of transportation. Fine material, light enough in weight to
be carried by the river. It is this material that discolors the water.
Stores: features, such as lakes, rivers and aquifers, that receive, hold and release
water
Stormflow: the increase in stream velocity caused by a period of intense rainfall
Stream velocity: the speed at which water is flowing in a river at a given location
and time
Traction: a process of transportation. Large rocks and boulders are rolled along the
bed of the river
Transfers: the movement of water between stores in the hydrological cycle
Transport: the movement of a rivers load
Waterfall: where a rivers water falls vertically, as where a band of hard rock runs
across the river channel
Watershed: the boundary between neighboring drainage basins
Weathering: the breakdown and decay of rock by natural processes, without the
involvement of any moving force

Hazardous Environments
Adjustment: changes designed to react to and cope with a situation, such as the
threat posed by a hazard

Earthquake: a violent shaking of the Earths crust

Emergency aid: help in the form of food, medical care and temporary housing
provided
Immediately after a natural disaster

Epicenter: the point on the Earths surface that is directly above the focus of an
earthquake

Hazard: an event which threatens the wellbeing of people and their property

Infrastructure: the transport networks and the water, sewage and communication
systems that are vital to people and their settlements and businesses

Lahar: a flow of wet material down the side of a volcanos ash cone which can
become a serious hazard

Natural disaster: a natural event or hazard causing damage and destruction to

property, as well as personal injuries and death

Natural event: something happening in the physical environment, such as a

storm, volcanic eruption or earthquake

Plate movement: mainly the coming together and the moving apart of tectonic
plates

Prediction: forecasting future events or changes

Pyroclastic flow: a devastating eruption of extremely hot gas, ash and rocks
during a period of explosive volcanic activity; the downslope flow to this mixture is
capable of reaching speeds up to 200kph.

Risk assessment: judging the degree of damage and destruction that an area
might experience as a result of a natural event

Storm surge: a rapid rise in sea level in which water is piled up against the
coastline to a level far exceeding the normal. It tend to happen when there is very
low atmospheric pressure and where seawater is pushed into a narrow channel

Subduction: the pushing down of one tectonic plate under another at a collision
plate margin. Pressure and heat convert the plate into magma

Tropical revolving storm: a weather system of very low-pressure formed over

tropical seas and involving strong winds and heavy rainfall (also known as cyclone,
hurricane or typhoon)

Tsunami: a tidal wave caused by the shock waves originating from a submarine
earthquake or volcanic eruptioVolcanic activity: the eruption of molten rock, ash
or gases from a volcano

Economic activity and energy

Economic sector: a major division of the economy based on the type of economic
activity. The economies of all countries are made up of three sectors; most HICs
have a fourth sector.

Energy: heat and motive power. The former provided by the sun and by burning
coal, oil and timber, the latter provided by electricity, gas, steam and nuclear power

Energy consumption: the amount of energy used by individuals, groups of

countries

Energy efficiency: making the most of energy sources in order to cut down on
waste and reduce consumption

Energy gap: a gap created because the loss of energy caused by phasing out the
use of fossil fuels is greater than the amount of energy that is being developed from
new, low-carbon sources

Fossil fuel: carbon fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas that cannot be
remade/renewed, because it will take tens of millions of years for them to form
again

Global shift: the movement of manufacturing from HICs to cheaper production

locations in LICs

High-tech industry: economic activities that rely on advanced scientific research

and produce new, innovative and technologically advanced products, such as
microchips, new medical drugs and new materials

Informal employment: types of work that are not officially recognized and are
taken up by people working for themselves on the streets of LIC cities. e.g. shoe
shining, selling stuff on the street

Non-renewable energy: energy produced from resources that cannot be replaced

once they are used. Examples include the fossil fuels of coal, oil and natural gas

Primary sector: economic activities concerned with the working of natural

resources-agriculture, fishing, mining and quarrying

Quaternary sector: economic activities that provide highly skilled services such as
collecting and processing information, research and development

Secondary sector: economic activities concerned with making things, such as

cars, buildings and electricity

Renewable energy: sources of energy which cannot be exhausted, such as the

sun, wind and running water

Tertiary sector: activities that provide a wide range of services and enable goods
to be traded

Transnational company (TNC): a large company operating in a number of

countries and often involved in a variety of economic activities

Urban environments

Accessibility: the ease with which one location can be reached from another; the
degree to which people are able to obtain goods and services, such as housing and
healthcare

Brownfield site: land that has been previously used, abandoned and now awaits a
new use

Congestion: acute overcrowding caused by high densities of traffic, business and

people

Counterurbanisation: the movement of people and employment from major cities

to smaller cities and towns as well as to rural areas

Environmental quality: the degree to which an area is free from air, water, noise
and visual pollution

Ethnic group: a group of people united by a common characteristic such as race,

language or religion

Greenfield site: land that has not been used for urban development

Land value: the market price of a piece of land; what people or businesses are
prepared to pay for owning and occupying it

Megacity: a city or urban area with a population larger than 10 million

Poverty: where people are seriously lacking in terms of income, food, housing,
basic services (clean water and sewage disposal) and access to education and
healthcare. See also Social Deprivation.

Shanty town: an area of slum housing built of salvaged materials and located
either on the city edge or within the city on hazardous ground previously avoided by
urban development; I like to think of it as: a slum settlement (sometimes illegal or
unauthorized) of impoverished people who live in improvised dwellings made from
scrap materials: packing boxes, corrugated iron and plastic sheeting, often on
undesirable locations such as steep slopes or on the city edge.

Social deprivation: when the well-being and quality of life of people falls below a
minimum level

Social segregation: the clustering together of people with similar characteristics

(class, ethnicity, wealth) into separate residential areas

Socio-economic group: a group of people sharing the same characteristics such

as income level, type of employment and class

Squatter community: see Shanty town

Suburbanisation: the outward spread of the urban area, often at lower densities
compared with the older parts of the city or town

Urban regeneration: the investment of capital in the reviving of old, urban areas
by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding

Urban re-imaging: changing the image of an urban area and the way people view
it

Urban managers: people who make important decisions affecting urban areas,
such as planners, politicians and developers

Urbanisation: growth in the percentage of people living and working in urban

areas

Fragile environments

Agro-forestry: the growing of trees for the benefit of agriculture: as wind breaks or
as protection against soil erosion

Alternative energy: renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind power,
that offer an alternative to the use of fossil fuels

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): chemicals once used in foams, refrigerators,

aerosols and air-conditioning units. Their use is now banned because they were
thought to be responsible for the destruction of the worlds ozone layer and for part
of the greenhouse effect

Climate change: long-term changes in the global atmospheric conditions

Deforestation: the deliberate clearing of forested land, often causing serious

environmental problems such as soil erosion

Desertification: the spread of desert conditions into what where semi-arid areas

Famine: a chronic shortage of food resulting in many people dying from starvation

Fossil fuel: carbon fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas that cannot be remade
because it will take tens of millions of years for them to form again (i.e they
are finite)

Fragile: a term used to describe those natural environments that are sensitive to,
and easily abused by human activities

Global warming: a process whereby global temperatures rise over time

Malnutrition: a condition resulting when a person is unable to eat what is needed

to maintain good health

Overgrazing: when pasture or grazing is unable to support the number of animals

relying on it for food. The result is the vegetation cover declines and soil erosion
sets in.

Population pressure: when the number of people in an area begins to approach

carrying capacity and places a strain on available resources

Refugee: a person whose reasons for migrating are due to fear of persecution or
death

Soil erosion: the washing or blowing away of topsoil so that the fertility of the
remaining soil is greatly reduced

Sustainable: a term used to describe actions that minimize negative impacts on

the environment and promote human well-being

Well-being: a condition experienced by people and greatly influenced by the

standard of living and quality of lif

The Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River, China

In the IGCSE Geography Specification, you're meant to know a case study for a dam
or reservoir project, and I learnt this, so...:

Case Study of a Dam or Reservoir Project: The Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze
River, China (multi-purpose scheme)
Yangtze River: Intro Facts

Source=Himalayas, flows into the East China Sea at Shanghai

3rd longest river in the world

Floods regularly, unpredictable, prone to severe flooding (every 10 years on

average)

Last great flood-1998, an area the size of New Zealand was flooded

US$30 billion worth of damage

In the 20th century, over 300,000 people have been killed by the Yangtze
floods

The Three Gorges Dam: A multi-purpose scheme

Main purpose: to prevent flooding downstream
Other uses:

Generates HEP (hydro-electric power)

Provides water to urban areas and to agriculture (irrigation)

Will improve river transport upstream

Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Three Gorges Dam

Benefits/Advantages/Positive Effects (in order of importance according to

me)
1.

Control flooding downstream of the dam.

2.
Provides water to urban areas and for agriculture-irrigation. (The reservoir can
store up to 5 trillion gallons of water.

3.

The HEP generated will provide 15% of Chinas electricity demand.

a.
This will decrease Chinas dependency on coal and therefore reduce
greenhouse gas emission.
4.

Thousands of construction jobs were created during the building of the dam.

5.
China will be able to bring 10,000 ton ocean going vessels all the way inland,
2000km up to the city of Chongqing.
6.
The dam will become a tourist attraction and will attract a lot of people to the
area. Many tertiary sector/service jobs will be created.
7.
The electricity generated will help the economic development of cities such
as Chongqing, population=3 million.

Costs/Disadvantages/Negative Effects (in order of importance according to

me)
1.
Several large towns upstream, such as Fuling (population=80,000) and
Wanxian (population=140,000) will be flooded.
a.
Ancient temples, burial grounds and other historic sites will be lost beneath
the reservoir too.
2.

Over 1.3 million people will have to be relocated.

3.
Much of the land used for resettlement is over 800m above sea level, where
the climate is colder and the soil can barely support farming.
4.
The pressure created by the huge weight of the water in the reservoir behind
the dam could trigger earthquakes. (But it is engineered to withstand an earthquake
of 7.0 on the Richter scale.)
5.
The untreated human and industrial waste will not be washed away
downstream, but will stay and pollute the river instead.
6.

Areas downstream will be deprived of fertile sediment.

7.
It will divert money from other developments. It is currently one of the most
expensive projects in the world, costing more than $26 billion, over their budget.

Tropical Storms--Measuring and recording weather conditions

Tropical storms are a moving hazard, so they must be tracked and forecasts made of
their future progress. That is what meteorologists do.

If they can measure how they are developing, they they can warn people in the
predicted path of the storm. This should give people time to prepare such as moving
to higher ground (avoid storm surge) or to an emergency shelter. Homes can be
made ready by boarding up windows and moving furniture upstairs.

The media which includes TV, radio and the Internet play an important role in
keeping the general public updated about the storm and where it is expected to go.

How do meteorologists track and predict the movement of tropical storms? The data
they work on comes from a number of different sources.

Weather Stations
There is a global network of weather stations that track the movement of tropical
storms. Some are manned, some are automatic, some monitor the weather all the
time and others just at set hours during the day and night.

Once all this information about pressure, temperature, humidity, winds and so on is
collected and put together, it can be used to predict what will happen to the storm.
Will it deepen, with an increase in rainfall and wind speeds or will the storm begin to
weaken and fizzle out?

Weather Satellites
These are important for viewing large weather systems on a worldwide scale. They
show cloud formation, large weather events such as hurricanes, and other global
weather systems. With satellites, forecasters can see weather systems such as
tropical storms.

On each satellite, there are 2 types of sensor. One is a visible light sensor called
the imager. It works like a camera in space and helps gather information on cloud
movements and patterns. This sensory can only be used during daylight hours,
since it works by capturing reflected light to create images.

The second sensory is the sounder. It is an infrared sensor that reads

temperatures. The higher the temperature of the object, the more energy it emits.
This sensory allows satellites to measure the amount of energy radiated by the
Earth's surface, clouds, oceans, air etc. Infrared sensors can be used at night which
is helpful for forecasters, considering that the imagers can only pick up data during
daylight hours.

Radar
Doppler radar is another important meteorological tool. Radar works a little
differently from satellite sensors. Instead of reading reflected light or energy, radar
measures reflected sound waves. When sound waves are broadcast from a radar
mast and come into contact with a moving object, such as a rain cloud, radar will
give information about the direction and speed of the object's movement. By using
radar and getting a 'picture' of precipitation (e.g water falling to the ground) on the
radar screen, meteorologists are able to track a storm's progress over time.

Fieldwork Opportunities: Hazardous

Environments
Fieldwork Opportunities: Hazardous Environments

Measuring, collecting and recording weather data:

During the passage of a tropical storm, local weather stations will record an
enormous increase in wind speed and rainfall.

Instrument area is used to measure local weather conditions in calmer, drier

conditions-providing primary data.

Care and accuracy important when measuring weather-instrument itself has

to be suitable as well as its use accurate.

Should have an easy to complete record sheet showing date, time and
columns for each element of the weather you have instruments for. Eg
maximum/minimum temperature and rainfall.

Records should be kept daily and for at least a week. Readings should be
taken preferably at same time each day.

Rain Gauge:
It should be placed in open space so it can collect rain water straight from the
sky.

Rain is collected in a measuring flask and the measurement can be read

easily.

Once reading is noted, the water has to be tipped away daily.

Stevenson Screen:
Instruments used to measure temperature and humidity should be kept
inside a Stevenson Screen.

Its a wooden box used to shade from direct sunlight and radiation so that the
instruments inside can measure air temperature.

Its painted white to reflect sunlight and has vents to allow free flow of air.
This makes the readings fair.

Maximum-minimum thermometer housed inside measures the highest and

lowest temperature, often within a 24-hour period. weather data should be
standardised.

Readings have to be taken so that they can be compared with those taken at
other places and at other times.

After noting temperature readings, the thermometer has to be reset by

sliding the magnetic base over the mercury columns.

Cup Anemometer and wind valve:

Wind valve measures wind direction.

Cup anemometer
speed/strength.

There are 3 to 4 cups mounted on a vertical pole. The cups catch the blowing
wind and turn the pole.

Each time the anemometer makes a full rotation, the wind speed is measured
by the number of revolutions per minute (RPM).

The number of revolutions is recorded over time and an average is

determined.

is

weather

instrument

that

Fieldwork Opportunities: Hazardous Environments

measures

wind

Earthquake Preparation
Preparing evacuation
plans

Earthquake practice
days

Organising emergency
supplies

Training emergency
services
Earthquake warning
system

Building regulations

Each workplace, restaurant, bar and school must have an earthquake

evacuation procedure. This must be tested periodically. The
procedure would ensure each person knew how to evacuate the
building they were in and where to register after the earthquake was
over.
Once a year, all companies and school must practise their earthquake
evacuation procedure. This takes a whole day for the people to
practise the drill, sit through a debrief and alter the plan as necessary.
If each person practises the evacuation procedure, the death toll is
likely to be lower.
Stockpiles of canned food, water, medical supplies and fuel must be
organised and stored. A handful of people will be trained to
distribute these emergency supplies. It is likely that most shops will
be closed for a period of time after the earthquake, so this may be
the only source of food and water available.
The police, fire service and ambulance crews spend one day a month
receiving training about how to react in the aftermath of an
earthquake. Regular training is the only way to ensure a swift and
successful rescue takes place.
A network of warning messages and information broadcasts would
be set up. These will be broadcast on television and radio. Messages
will also be sent via text message and e-mail. Television and radio
signals may not be available if the earthquake causes masts to
collapse.
New buildings must adhere to the regulations and all other buildings
need to be made earthquake-resistant within ten years. Those
buildings without such alterations are likely increase the death toll.

Example of changes to buildings etc.:

Computer-controlled weights on roof to reduce movement.
Steel frames which can sway during earth movements.

Automatic window shutters to prevent falling glass.

Open areas where people can assemble if evacuated.

Foundations sunk into bedrock avoiding clay.

Birdcage interlocking steel frame.

Outer panels flexibly attached to steel structure.

Fire-resistant building materials.

Roads to provide quick access for emergency services.

Rubber shock-absorbers in foundation pillars to absorb earth tremors.

Shanty Towns
Shanty town (aka. squatter settlement) is a slum settlement (sometimes illegal
or unauthorized) of impoverished people who live in improvised dwellings made of
scrap materials such as packing boxes, wooden planks, corrugated iron and plastic
sheeting.
Why are they formed? Where are they found?
When people from poor rural areas migrate to LIC cities they find that there are no
houses for them, so they have to build homes on land available to them. The land is
usually in areas of no economic value, on the edge of town, along main roads or on
steep slopes. They often build on land they do not own, or on land that they do not
have permission to build on.
Many areas on which shanty towns are built are unsafe:

prone to flooding
prone to landslides (steep slopes--this is why it is unoccupied, people cannot
build tall buildings on steep slopes..)
heavily polluted location
Often, they lack basic services such as electricity, water and sewerage.
(Sewerage: the provision of drainage by sewers)Sometimes raw sewage runs across
the streets and contaminates the area, leading to a wide variety of diseases. It is an
unhealthy place to live in. However, for many people living in a shanty town is better
than the life they had in rural areas. They prefer to live there and work in the informal
economy, as it offers greater opportunities.

UK Water Demand & Supply Case Study

Meeting the rising demand for water in England and Wales
Daily water consumption in England and Wales is about 120 liters per person per day. This is
not a particularly high figure compared to 309 liters for France and 185 liters for Germany.
Water consumption in Britain has been rising along with the growth of population. However,
over the last 200 years, it has been given a number of pushes.
1. The growth in manufacturing in the early 19th century. With deindustrialization in the
second half of the 20th century, manufacturing uses less water (now 14%). Other
consumers now account for more water use. Most notable is the use of water in the
generation of electricity. More water is being used today to irrigate crops (14%) to
feed a growing population and British citizens are using more water in their homes
(20%). More homes today have washing machines, dishwashers and swimming pools.
Water is important in making electricity in two ways:
It is used to turn the turbines that generate the electricity, as in HEP (hydroelectric
power).
It is converted into steam by the burning of fossil fuels and the steam turns the turbines.
The problem that faces England and Wales is that the distribution pattern of water demand
is different from that of water supply. The highest water demand is in SE England which

happens to be the driest part of the country. Water is most readily available (the rainfall is
highest) in upland areas that are mainly located in Wales and the north of England. The
mismatch between demand and supply creates different levels of water stress (Figure
1.28). Clearly the greatest water stress lies in the south-east of England. It is being tackled
as follows:

Extracting as much water as possible from the aquifers of SE England

Constructing reservoirs in the north and west of the country to collect as much rainfall

as possible. Famous reservoir schemes include Lake Vyrnwy in Wales and Ki elder in NE
England

Transferring this collected water by pipeline to the main areas of water deficit, i.e. the

major cities of the Midlands and South. There is no doubt that meeting the rising demand for
water is a challenge for the UK. Attempts are being made to reduce water consumption by
encouraging a much more efficient use of the available water and to eliminate water
wastage.

Why are the effects of natural hazards

generally less harmful in HICs than in
LICs?
Why are the effects of natural hazards generally less harmful in HICs than in LICs?

Preparation and prediction in HICs are usually better than in LICs thus the effects are
less harmful. HICs are generally wealthier thus they can afford better prediction
technology. For example, USA has top-notch satellite technology that feeds back to the
National Hurricane Centre in Miami. This allows them to check the weather and satellite
images to see if there is a hurricane forming; or to see if there is a possibility of a
hurricane forming (for example if the ocean is at 27C). If one is forming, they can send
out a warning to people at least 24-hours in advance. In LICs such as Bangladesh, they
cant afford such technology thus their citizens dont have much time to prepare to

evacuate-leading to more injuries and deaths. Japan is another example of a wealthy

country that has good prediction equipment albeit for earthquakes.

Preparation in HICs is much better in several ways. Firstly, the warning systems are
much better. For example in Florida, there are sirens, messages sent to mobile phones
as well as news broadcasted via the radio, internet and television. This is much more
effective than in LICs such as in Bangladesh where megaphones are used. A person
cycles through the farms and city yelling out warnings through a megaphone. This is
ineffective as there is a chance that many people wont hear them. Also, many people in
Bangladesh had no idea how bad the cyclone was going to be, and they did not know
how to prepare. (Some did not believe the warnings.)
Moreover, their housing was of poor quality, so they did not need to strengthen it
whereas in Florida people boarded up their windows. Furthermore, they had nowhere
else to go for lack of hurricane shelters, and there was no transportation they could
take. Thus they stayed at home. This resulted in more deaths as their houses may
collapse on them, or they would be swept by the storm surge as they remained in low
lying areas. (Due to lack of education in LICs, many people did not know the after
effects of some natural disasters. For example, in Bangladesh, many people did not
know about the storm surge that could flood areas and drown people. They also did not
know about the eye of the storm, where it is calm. So they go outside to survey the
damage only to be swept up by the hurricane when the eye passes. In other LICs prone
to earthquakes, some people may not know about the aftershocks that could be quite
high on the Richter scale too.)

Another reason why effects are less severe in HICs is they have stockpiles of food and
water. These are kept in the shelters built in case of emergencies. (For example, in
Florida, there are elevated shelters built along the coastline for people living near the
coast to protect them from the storm surge.) In LICs, there isnt as much food surplus so
people cant store cans of food; nor do they have the money to do so anyway. One
effect of natural disasters in LICs is starvation and disease spreading. The water sources
like reservoirs are contaminated, often with cholera, and people drinking it get sick and
spread the disease. Agriculture is important in LICs, and with the crops destroyed by the
disaster the people have no food to eat. Many people die of starvation. On the contrary,

in HICs, people can still survive with stockpiles of canned food and water prepared
beforehand.

There are less deaths in HICs because the people are well prepared. They have constant
drills and practices so that they know what to do when an emergency occurs. For
example in Japan, all the schools have frequent earthquake drills where people practice
evacuating or hiding beside tables. In Florida, there are even evacuation routes and
road signs directing people to safe areas. In LICs, the transportation system is less
organised and there arent any safe places for people to evacuate to. Also, the
infrastructure is weak leading to bridges and highways collapsing. This could injure a lot
of people. Traffic lights also cease to function, hence leading to traffic jams-so even if
people want to evacuate, they would be stuck. In HICs, there are buildings designed to
be resistant against natural disasters. For example, the Taipei 101 in Taiwan is designed
to be earthquake-resistant. It has a tuned mass damper that swings in the opposite
direction the building does in an earthquake to prevent it from collapsing. In Japan,
buildings have to comply with regulations to make it earthquake resistant so that less
people are harmed by falling debris from collapsing buildings.

The responses in HICs really help reduce the effect of natural hazards. Short-term
responses such as rescue teams (fire-fighters, search and rescue teams, ambulances
etc.) have had regular training thus they know what to do. They wont panic, they have
the transport to get to places in need of help, and they also have sufficient equipment.
This is good because they can save a lot more people if they are well prepared. In LICs,
training, transport and equipment need a lot of money and so they cannot afford it. The
response is sluggish and poor as people are momentarily dazed and do not know what
to do. For example, in Bangladesh, the rescue teams did not have enough medical
equipment and they did not have enough simple things like plasters. They did not have
torches or blankets to provide people with comfort and many people died without
sufficient aid and medical treatment. In HICs, there were backup electricity and water
sources so people were able to live quite comfortably. They also set about to repair any
damaged telephone lines so that people could contact family. This reduced any trauma
people suffered as they felt more secure and they knew their family was informed.

The long term responses in HICs such as rebuilding any collapsed infrastructure and
housing was much better as they could afford to do so. HICs such as Japan and Florida
managed to rebuild most of the buildings, transport infrastructure and housing units
within a decade of the disaster. They also improved building designs to make it more
resistant. In LICs such as Philippines, there are still people displaced from the Mount
Pinatubo eruption as the country does not have the money to rebuild all the houses.
They also dont have money to build it well. Many people still have to live in temporary
housing with poor facilities. The resettling of people in LICs is not effective and it is often
very slow. LICs such as Bangladesh and Philippines are interdependent, they have to
rely on other countries to give them financial aid and more.

Managing natural hazards

'Managing' natural hazards is really about learning to live with them and knowing what's
best to do in times when the hazard is actively taking place. There are at least 6 major
steps here:

1.

Risk assessment: determining the probability of a particular hazard happening

and the scale of its possible damage

2.

Prediction: putting in place monitoring systems that might give warning about

an imminent (forthcoming) hazard

3.

Preparation (adjustment): finding ways of reducing the possible death toll and

the scale of damage of property. Educating people about the hazards of the areas in
which they live and what to do in case of an emergency is important here
4.

Hazard event: the natural hazard that has been anticipated and planned for

happens
5.

Recovery: first emergency aid then repairing the damage.

6.

Appraisal: an examination of what happened after the event with many

questions to be asked and answered. Were there emergency plans ready to put into
action? How effective were the preparations that had been made before the event?
What should be done to make them better in the future?

Kobe Earthquake, 1995

Based on my own research, some data could be different to what you find..

Case Study of the Management of a Tectonic Event in an HIC: Kobe Earthquake, 1995

Intro facts: Cause of the earthquake:

The earthquake was caused by the Philippines Plate being subducted
under the Eurasian Plate.
The focus was very shallow; it was only about 15km.
The epicentre was very close to Kobe, around 20km away.

Intro facts: Short term impacts of the earthquake

Nearly 200,000 buildings were destroyed.
A 1km stretch of the elevated Hanshin Expressway collapsed.
120 of the 150 quays in the port of Kobe were destroyed.
Electricity, gas and water supplies were disrupted.
Fires caused by broken pipes and ruptured electricity lines, swept the city.
An estimated 230,000 people were made homeless.
The number of deaths was put officially at 5500.
At least 40,000 people suffered serious injury.

How Was The Earthquake Disaster Managed?

Before the earthquake: Prediction

The Japanese government established the Imperial Earthquake Investigation
Committee in 1892 in response to the Nobi earthquake (1891) which caused significant
damage in Japan. However, they failed to predict the Great Hanshin Earthquake.

Even though Japan has one of the most advance Earthquake prediction systems,
they failed to predict it. Kobe had not had a major earthquake for more than 400 years
so there was less prediction equipment there than in other areas of Japan.

Although people on duty could see that there were many tremors (prior to the
earthquake), they did not raise the alarm. It could be that they were getting complacent
because they had not received a huge earthquake for a long time.

Before the earthquake: Preparation

Illusion of preparedness made people complacent-caught unaware.

There were still many old, traditional houses in Kobe. They had heavy tiles on the roofs
to withstand typhoons; but they injured many people when the wood supporting the
roof collapsed.

Most new buildings built had been designed to be earthquake proof; but because of
liquefaction, they still toppled over. The houses were not retrofitted, resulting in many
elderly people injured. Transport infrastructure not retrofitted either.

They didnt have sufficient emergency supplies. Especially water-couldnt fight fire
efficiently.

Schools and factories had regular earthquake drills.

After the earthquake: Response In The Short Term

They had to get clean, fresh water from other parts of the country.

The Japanese government evacuated people into temporary shelters because they still
faced the dangers of fires and unstable buildings. The government was criticized for
being so slow in mobilizing the army-sluggish response.

Bulldozers were brought in to clear fallen buildings.

The local fire department put out the fires.

Civilians helped to rescue others who were trapped.

Medical aid centres were set up.

After the earthquake: Response In The Medium & Long Term

By January 1999, 134,000 housing units had been constructed. All homes and
buildings had to be built to strict regulations and they were made more earthquake
resistant. (Flexible frames, steel support.)
Water, electricity, gas and telephone services were fully working by July 1995.
Within a year, 80% of the port was working but the Hanshin Expressway was still
closed.

The railways were back in service by August 1995.

More instruments were installed in the area to monitor seismic activity.

Major transport routes were reinforced so they do not get destroyed or damaged
in the event of another major earthquake.
Earthquake resistant shelters were constructed in local parks.

The city plan was more spaced out, buildings were further apart so that if one
collapsed, it would not create a domino effect. Buildings were not allowed to be built on
unstable land.

Developed more open space in the city so that people had a large area to
evacuate to.

Japan refused international aid for a while then finally let them in.

What is the difference between throughflow and groundwater flow? (2m)

Ans: Throughflow is water flowing through the soil whilst groundwater flow is water flowing
through permeable rocks and reaching the river. Groundwater flow is slower.

Describe the transfer of water through a drainage basin. Start with the input of water as
precipitation. (3m)
Ans: Precipitation occurs in the form of rain, snow, sleet or hail. If it is rain, some is
intercepted by vegetation. It will fall slowly to the ground as dripflow. Some is surface
storage, some reaches the river by surface run-off. Some infiltrates and is held as soil
moisture. It may go as throughflow or percolate to the groundwater storage and reach the
river as groundwater flow.

Explain the main physical causes of river flooding. (2m)

Ans: The type and amount of precipitation in a drainage basin system is one factor. If it rains
heavily for a long period of time, the soil and rock will be saturated-provided it is permeable.
Thus surface run-off will increase, increasing flood risk as well. Severe thunderstorms cause
rapid surface run-off and flash floods. If the underlying soil and rock is impermeable,
infiltration can't occur. Thus increasing flood risk as surface run-off is fast.

Suggest how human activities in a drainage basin can help to cause flooding. (3m)
Ans: If it is an urban area, there will be impermeable surfaces such as tarmac and concrete.
This prevents infiltration and increases surface run-off. Storm drains transport water to the
river faster than surface run-off, increasing the river's level and flood risk. The land use of
the drainage basin system is important. If it is deforested, there will be more surface run-off,
and there will be no interception by vegetation. Thus water will reach the river quicker,

increasing risk of flooding.

For a named dam or reservoir project, describe how it is a multi-purpose scheme.

Name of dam or reservoir project: Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River, China.
Ans: The Three Gorges Dam is a multi-purpose scheme because it has many uses. It firstly
prevents flooding downstream, it also generates HEP-Hydro electrical power, about 8% of
China's energy. It creates jobs and improves river transport upstream. China can then
transport 10,000 ton vessels 2,000km inland to Chongqing. It also provides water supply for
surrounding areas. The dam may be a tourist attraction, tourism brings in money and
creates jobs.

Describe how you would measure the velocity of the river flow? (4m)

Equipment needed:

clipboard with paper and pen, and drawn table to record results

2 ranging poles

a measuring tape

a flowmetre with a datalogger

By using a measuring tape between 2 ranging poles on either side of the riverbank to
get the width, and dividing the width into 6, you can measure the velocity at 5 equal
spaces in the river. A person can stand with a flowmetre in the river, with the
flowmetre's impellor facing the water flow so that their body does not block the river
flow and disrupt results. The impellor is turned by the water and data is recorded on the
datalogger. By taking the average of the 5 readings, accuracy is achieved and you can
get the velocity of the river flow.

Describe the fieldwork techniques you would use to collect data about a river's
discharge. (6m)

River's discharge= cross sectional area x velocity of the river (cumecs-cubic metres per
second)

Cross sectional area can be calculated by multiplying the average depth of the river by
its width. To get the width, 2 people hold a ranging pole each on each end of the river
bank-on the edge. Connect a measuring tape across it and record the width, easier if
the '0' mark is on one end of the bank. Calculate depth by dividing the width by 11, and
measuring depth at each regular interval of the width. Should have 10 sites to collect
data from. At each of the 10 sites, a person stands in the river channel with a metre
ruler resting gently on the river bed with the '0' mark on the river bed. It's better if the
ruler is sideways on the river flow so water flows around it-making the measurement
more accurate. Calculate the average of the 10 measurements, multiplying this average
depth by the width to get cross sectional area. To get velocity, divide width by 6. Collect
data from 5 sites in the river channel in regular intervals of the width. A person should
hold a flowmetre with an impellor and a datalogger attached to it. The person should
stand behind flowmetre with impellor facing the river current. Record velocity reading
from datalogger. Calculate the mean of the readings from all 5 sites and multiply this by
cross sectional area to get river discharge.

Urbanisation Processes
I will discuss this according to the Urban Process Timeline, so that it is orderly. The
timeline is as follows:
1. Agglomeration
2. Suburbanisation
3. Commuting
4. Urban regeneration
5. Counter-urbanisation
6. Urban re-imaging
7. Urbanisation of suburbs
Urbanisation: Process of change that converts rural areas, regions and countries into
urban ones. It is also the growth of towns and cities which leads to an increasing
percentage of a country's population living in urban settlements.

1. Agglomeration: This is how urban settlements first appear. It is the concentration of

people and economic activities at favourable locations. E.g. at river crossing points so
there is a supply of water, near a mineral resource such as coal, iron or oil. Long ago,
defense was important so people were able to protect themselves. E.g. hilltops made
good defensive sites, there were good views but it was hard to reach, and would not be
sheltered from strong winds.

2. Suburbanization: Definition: The outward spread of the urban area, often at

lower densities compared with the older parts of a town or city.

As towns grow, they expand outwards through suburbanization.

Adds to built-up area, but building densities lower than in older parts of town.

3. Commuting: People start to move out of the town/city to live in smaller more rural
areas. These are often called dormitory settlements because many new residents
only sleep there. They commute to work and still make use of urban service like shops
and hospitals. Commuting definition: Travel some distance between one's home and
place of work on a regular basis.

4. Urban regeneration: involves re-using areas in old parts of the city where
businesses and people have moved out into the suburbs or beyond. (Expanded upon in
another post 'Urban regeneration and re-imaging)

5. Counter-urbanization: the movement of people and businesses (employment) from

major cities to smaller towns/cities and rural areas.

6. Urban

re-imaging: changing

the

image

and

look

of

an

area

to

attract

people. (Expanded upon in another post 'Urban regeneration and re-imaging)

7. Urbanization of suburbs: suburbs are generally areas of low-density development,

so instead of using rural areas governments want to use suburban areas--suburban
areas become more dense, raised to an urban level--. Empty spaces are being
developed and large detached houses are replaced by flats. The suburbs are no longer
just residential areas anymore, shops and other services start to locate there too.

Reducing Impacts of Earthquakes

Prediction
Currently impossible to predict when an earthquake will happen. But if you can, it
would give people time to evacuate which would reduce the number of injuries and
deaths.

There can be clues that an earthquake is about to happen, such as lots of small
tremors, cracks appearing in rocks and strange animal behaviour (e.g. rats abandoning
nests).

It's possible to predict where future earthquakes may happen using data from
past earthquakes e.g. mapping where earthquakes have happened shows which places
are likely to be affected again, or where there is a gap where there haven't been major
EQs along a fault line there is a probability of an earthquake occurring there-these
places can prepare themselves for the impacts of an earthquake.

Building techniques
Buildings can be designed to withstand earthquakes. e.g. by using materials like
reinforced concrete or building special foundations that absorb an earthquake's energy.
Constructing earthquake-resistant buildings reduces the number of buildings
destroyed by an earthquake, so fewer people will be killed, injured, made homeless and
made unemployed. See post on 'Earthquake-resistance Building Design'.
Planning
Future developments, e.g. new shopping malls, can be planned to avoid the
areas most at risk from earthquakes. This reduces the number of buildings destroyed by
an earthquake.

Firebreaks can be made to reduce the spread of fires.

Emergency services can train and prepare for disasters, e.g. by practising
rescuing people from collapsed buildings and by stockpiling medicine and other
equipment. This reduces the number of people killed.

Governments can plan evacuation routes to get people out of dangerous areas
quickly and safely after an earthquake. This reduces the number of people killed/injured
by things like fires.

Education
Governments and other organisations can educate people on what to do in the
case of an earthquake. (E.g. stand in a doorway) and how to evacuate. This reduces
deaths. --Schools and companies should practise earthquake drills regularly.
People can be told how to make a survival kit containing things like food, water, a
torch, a radio and batteries. The kits reduce the chance of people dying if they're stuck
in the area.
Aid

Poorer countries that have been affected by earthquakes can receive aid from
governments or organisations-it can be things like food, water, money or service people
(e.g. doctors/rescuers)

Aid helps to reduce the impacts, e.g. money-aid is used to rebuild homes,
reducing homelessness.

Urban regeneration and Urban re-imaging are different.

Definitions:
Urban regeneration: the investment of capital in the revival of old, urban
areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding.

Urban re-imaging: changing the image of an urban area and the way people
view it.

Urban regeneration: Over time, old parts of town would suffer decline. The factories
would move elsewhere, resulting in jobs lost. Quality of life and housing is poor, so the
place needs to be regenerated, as in 'brought back to life'. Regeneration includes:

transforming the economy of the area by encouraging new businesses to replace

those that have closed/moved elsewhere. Employers--people who might provide
employment in the area by using/buying shops or offices need to be brought in to
the scheme as they can provide new work which hopefully improves the
economy.

upgrade the quality of the built environment by a) finding new uses for old and
often empty buildings, b) clearing them away to make way for new ones. (The
London Docklands is a good case study which I have talked about in another
post. The old warehouses in the run-down dockland area were converted into
luxury apartments and flats which also transformed its image.)

Urban re-imaging: To change the reputation of a city or an area by:

focusing on a new identity/function--Docklands had more services such as pubs

and cinemas so it became the new 'cool' place to be.

changing the quality and appearance of the built-up area--Docklands was

completely redeveloped and regenerated, new industries would locate there so
there were more jobs and it was a good brownfield site development, re-using
space and saving land in the process (reclaiming land and putting it to another
use)

What is Urbanisation?
Urbanisation is happening fastest in poorer countries
Urbanisation is the growth in the percentage of a country's population living in urban
areas. It's happening in countries all over the world-more than 50% of the world's
population currently live in urban areas (3.4 billion ppl) and this is increasing everyday.
But urbanisation differs between richer and poorer countries.
1. most of the population in richer countries already live in urban areas. e.g. more
than 80% of the UK's population live in urban areas
2. not many of the population in poorer countries currently live in urban areas e.g.
around 25% of the population of Bangladesh live in urban areas.
3. most urbanisation that's happening in the world today is going on in poorer
countries and it's happening at a fast rate
Urbanization is caused by rural-urban migration
Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside to the cities.
This causes urbanization in richer and poorer countries.
The reasons why people move are different in poorer and richer countries though.

Reasons why people in poorer countries move from rural areas to cities:
1. Theres often a shortage of services (e.g. education, access to water and
electricity) in rural areas. Also ppl from rural areas sometimes believe that
the standard of living is better in cities. (even though this often turns out not to
be the case)

2. There are more jobs in urban areas. Industry is attracted to cities because there's
a larger workforce and better infrastructure than in rural areas.
3. In rural areas some people are subsistence farmers. This means they grow food
to feed their own family and sell any extra to make a small income. Poor harvests
and crop failures can mean they make no income and even risk starvation.
Reasons why people in richer countries move from rural areas to cities:
1. Most urbanization in rich countries occurred during the Industrial and the
Agricultural Revolutions (18th and 19th centuries)-machinery began to replace
farm labor in rural areas, and jobs were created in new factories in urban areas.
People moved from farms to towns for work.
2. in the late 20th century, people left run-down inner city areas and moved to the
country. But people are now being encouraged back by the redevelopment of
these areas.
Good healthcare and high birth rate in cities
It's normally young people that move to cities to find work. These people have children
in the cities, which is what is meant by 'natural increase in population'.. fancy terms. So
this increases the proportion of the population living in urban areas. Also, better
healthcare in urban areas means people live longer, again increasing the proportion of
people in urban areas.

Greenfield vs Brownfield
Some people aren't happy that the countryside around towns and cities of HICs is being
developed and lost.
Environmentalists believe that new developments should be done on brownfield
sites opposed to Greenfield sites.
Brownfield site: land that has been previously used, abandoned, and now awaits a
new use
Greenfield site: land that has not been used for urban development
Brownfield site
Advantages:

reduces loss of countryside and land that could have agricultural/recreational use

revives old and disused urban areas

services already installed e.g. water, electricity, gas and sewerage

nearer to main areas of employment=reduces commuting

Disadvantages:

more expensive as old buildings must be cleared and land decontaminated (clear
pollution)

often surrounded by rundown areas so is not appealing as residential location,

especially to wealthy people

higher levels of pollution=less healthy

may not have good access to modern roads

Greenfield site
Advantages:

cheaper and rates of house building faster (no need to clear old
buildings/pollution)

layout not hampered by previous development, can be made efficient + pleasant

easily

healthier environment

Disadvantages:

valuable farm/recreational space lost

attractive scenery lost

loss of wildlife and their habitats

noise + light pollution due to development

encourages suburban sprawl

No clear winner between the two. All depends on:

What land use? Housing-quite flexible in terms of where it can be built, but
shops/offices/industries need specific locations (e.g. close to main road so
workers can access office easily)

Circumstances of particular town/city. Green space-valuable? Reusing brown

space-serious problems? High costs?

Your own set of values. Should countryside be protected? Should it be released

for urban growth?

Urbanisation Processes
I will discuss this according to the Urban Process Timeline, so that it is orderly. The
timeline is as follows:
1.

Agglomeration

2.

Suburbanisation

3.

Commuting

4.

Urban regeneration

5.

Counter-urbanisation

6.

Urban re-imaging

7.

Urbanisation of suburbs

Urbanisation: Process of change that converts rural areas, regions and countries into
urban ones. It is also the growth of towns and cities which leads to an increasing
percentage of a country's population living in urban settlements.
1. Agglomeration: This is how urban settlements first appear. It is the concentration of
people and economic activities at favourable locations. E.g. at river crossing points so
there is a supply of water, near a mineral resource such as coal, iron or oil. Long ago,
defence was important so people were able to protect themselves. E.g. hilltops made

good defensive sites, there were good views but it was hard to reach, and would not be
sheltered from strong winds.

2. Suburbanisation: Definition: The outward spread of the urban area, often at

lower densities compared with the older parts of a town or city.

As towns grow, they expand outwards through suburbanisation.

Adds to built-up area, but building densities lower than in older parts of town.

3. Commuting: People start to move out of the town/city to live in smaller more rural
areas. These are often called dormitory settlements because many new residents
only sleep there. They commute to work and still make use of urban service like shops
and hospitals. Commuting definition: Travel some distance between one's home and
place of work on a regular basis.

4. Urban regeneration: involves re-using areas in old parts of the city where
businesses and people have moved out into the suburbs or beyond. (Expanded upon in
another post 'Urban regeneration and re-imaging)

5. Counter-urbanisation: the movement of people and businesses (employment) from

major cities to smaller towns/cities and rural areas.

6. Urban re-imaging: changing the image and look of an area to attract

people. (Expanded upon in another post 'Urban regeneration and re-imaging)

7. Urbanisation of suburbs: suburbs are generally areas of low-density development,

so instead of using rural areas governments want to use suburban areas--suburban
areas become more dense, raised to an urban level--. Empty spaces are being
developed and large detached houses are replaced by flats. The suburbs are no longer
just residential areas anymore, shops and other services start to locate there too.