CNC-RP: A Rapid Prototyping Method Using Computer

Numerical Controlled Machining

Matthew C. Frank
Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
Iowa State University
Richard A. Wysk
Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University
1

Agenda

What is RP?
Limitations of RP
Economics of RP
New directions in RP
Observations and conclusions

Introduction

Prototyping is critically important during product/process design

Reduce time to market
Early detection of errors
Assist concurrent manufacturing engineering

Prototypes are used to convey a products:

Form
Fit
Need for model
Function
accuracy increases

Prototype building can be a time-consuming process requiring a highly skilled

craftsperson
Time spent testing prototypes is valuable
Time spent constructing them is not

Rapid Prototyping (RP) methods have emerged

(Solid Freeform Fabrication, Additive Manufacturing, Layered Manufacturing)
3

Stereolithography (SLA)
Stereolithography is a common rapid
manufacturing and rapid prototyping
technology for producing parts with high
accuracy and good surface finish. A device
that performs stereolithography is called an
SLA or Stereolithography Apparatus.
Stereolithography is an additive fabrication
process utilizing a vat of liquid UV-curable
photopolymer "resin" and a UV laser to build
parts a layer at a time. On each layer, the laser
beam traces a part cross-section pattern on the
surface of the liquid resin.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

SLS can produce parts from a relatively wide range
of commercially available powder materials,
including polymers (nylon, also glass-filled or
with other fillers, and polystyrene), metals (steel,
titanium, alloy mixtures, and composites) and
green sand. The physical process can be full
melting, partial melting, or liquid-phase sintering.
And, depending on the material, up to 100%
density can be achieved with material properties
comparable to those from conventional
manufacturing methods. In many cases large
numbers of parts can be packed within the
powder bed, allowing very high productivity.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused deposition modeling, which is often referred to by its initials FDM,

is a type of rapid prototyping or rapid manufacturing (RP) technology
commonly used within engineering design. The technology was developed
by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990. The
FDM technology is marketed commercially by Stratasys Inc.
Like most other RP processes (such as 3D Printing and stereolithography)
FDM works on an "additive" principle by laying down material in layers. A
plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material
to an extrusion nozzle which can turn on and off the flow. The nozzle is
heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical
directions by a numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a
Computer Aided Design software package. In a similar manner to
stereolithography, the model is built up from layers as the material hardens
immediately after extrusion from the nozzle.
Several materials are available with different trade-offs between strength
and temperature. As well as Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
polymer, the FDM technology can also be used with polycarbonates,
polycaprolactone, and waxes. A "water-soluble" material can be used for
making temporary supports while manufacturing is in progress. Marketed
under the name WaterWorks by Stratasys this soluble support material is
actually dissolved in a heated sodium hydroxide solution with the
assistance of ultrasonic agitation.

Laminated Object Manufacturing

(LOM)
Laminated Object
Manufacturing (LOM) is a
rapid prototyping system
developed by Helisys Inc. (Cubic
Technologies is now the
successor organization of
Helisys) In it, layers of adhesivecoated paper, plastic, or metal
laminates are successively glued
together and cut to shape with a
knife or laser cutter.
7

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is a type of rapid

prototyping for metal parts. It is often classified as a
rapid manufacturing method. The technology
manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer
per layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum.
Unlike some metal sintering techniques, the parts
are fully solid, void-free, and extremely strong.
Electron Beam Melting is also referred to as
Electron Beam Machining.
High speed electrons .5-.8 times the speed of light
are bombarded on the surface of the work material
generating enough heat to melt the surface of the
part and cause the material to locally vaporize.
EBM does require a vacuum, meaning that the
workpiece is limited in size to the vacuum used.
The surface finish on the part is much better than
that of other manufacturing processes. EBM can be
used on metals, non-metals, ceramics, and
composites.
8

Types of RP Systems
Prototyping Technologies

Base Materials

Selective laser sintering (SLS)

Thermoplastics, metals powders

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Thermoplastics, Eutectic metals.

Stereolithography (SLA)

photopolymer

Laminated Object Manufacturing

(LOM)

Paper

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Titanium alloys

3D Printing (3DP)

Various materials

Time and Cost to machine

10

Material cost
In most cases this is independent of the
number of parts

11

Production time per piece

tP =
t

j
setup

j
/n
setupbt

(t + tL/UL + t m + t i + tc )

the time required for setup for an operation (load

fixture, retrieve tooling , etc.)

t L/UL

the time required to load and unload a product

for feature operation j (chuck, fixture, etc..)

tm

the machining/processing time for feature j

tc

tool change time/part

ti

idle time due to scheduling control

nbt

number of parts per batch

12

 The product cost can be expressed

as:
C p = t p Cmo + C t / n p/t + C setup / n p/t

Production cost per piece, Cp

13

where

Cmo

is the cost of machine and operator/hour

Ct

is the perishable tooling cost

np/t

is the number of pieces that can be produced per tool

Csetup

is the setup resource cost for the part

(fixture, jig, steady-rest, etc)

14

Problem Introduction
Rapid Prototyping?

physical models

Technology for producing accurate parts directly from CAD

models in a few hours with little need for human intervention.
Pham, et al, 1997

Prototype?
A first full-scale and usually functional form of a new type or
design of a construction (as an airplane)
Websters, 1998

Model?
A representation in relief or 3 dimensions in plaster, papier-mache,
wood, plastic, or other material of a surface or solid
Websters, 1986

How can we automatically create toolpath and fixture plans

for CNC?
15

Engineering cost
CE = Ced / nt + Cpc / nt + Cpd / nb
total parts

total parts

parts in a batch

16

Manufacturing cost
One time costs
Process planning and design
Fixture engineering and fabrication

Set up cost (Cset)

Cost to set up a process

Processing cost (Cpsc)

Cost of processing a part

Production cost (Cpdc)

Cost of tooling and perishables
17

Manufacturing cost
CM = Cone / nt + Cset / nb + Cpsc +
Total parts

parts in a batch

each part

Cpdc // ntool
tool cost by parts/tool

18

So how can engineering costs be

reduced for CNC machining?

Machine cost

Fixture cost

Process planning cost

19

 CNC-RP Method: A part is machined on a 3-Axis mill with a

rotary indexer and tailstock using layer-based toolpaths from
numerous orientations about an axis of rotation.
End mill
Round stock
Axis of rotation

Table

Rotary indexer

Opposing
3-jaw chucks

20

STEPS TO CREATE A PART

( MT. Bike Suspension Component)
2. Second orientation is machined
(Side View)

1. First orientation of part section is machined 3. Third orientation is machined

Rotate Stock

2. Second orientation is machined

4. Fourth orientation is machined

21

STEPS TO CREATE A PART

( MT. Bike Suspension Component)

5. Left support section is machined

7. Temporary supports are removed

6. Right support section is machined

8. Part is severed from stock at supports

22

Process/fixture planning time: Minutes

Processing time ~20 hours

Part fixtured with final 2 sacrificial supports

Part fixtured with final 2 sacrificial supports
4

Material: Steel

Layer depth: 0.001 (0.025mm)

Finished Steel Part

Finished Steel Part
23

PROCESSING STEPS

(Side View) Machine the visible surfaces

from each of a set of orientations using
layer-based toolpaths
ROTATE to next orientation

MACHINE

ROTATE

MACHINE

The number of rotations

required to machine a
model is dependent on its
geometric complexity

ROTATE

MACHINE

REMOVE model at sacrificial supports

24

Methodology

Creation of complex parts using a series of thin layers (slices) of 3-axis

toolpaths generated at numerous orientations rotated about an axis of the part

Toolpath planning based on layering methods used by other RP systems

Slice represents visible cross-sectional area to be machined about

(subtractive) rather than actual cross section to be deposited (additive)

Slice thickness is the depth of cut for the 2-D toolpaths

Tool used is a flat end mill cutter with equal flute and shank diameter (or
shank diameter < flute diameter)

Stock material will be cylindrical, therefore toolpath z-zero location will be

same for all orientations
25

Methodology (cont.)
Flat end mill cutter
Staircase effect

Region not visible from

current orientation
Set of visible slices from
current orientation

Toolpath planning using this approach is done with ease in current CAM
software (MasterCAM rough surface pocketing)
26

Methodology (cont.)

Fixturing accomplished through temporary feature(s) (cylinders)

appended to the solid model prior to toolpath planning

Cylinders attached to solid model along the axis of rotation

Incrementally created during machining operation as the model is

rotated

Model remains secured to stock material then removed (similar to

support structures in current RP methods)

27

Rapid Prototyping

Basics:

Solid model (CAD) is converted to STL format

Facetted representation where surface is approximated by triangles

Intersect the STL model with parallel planes to create cross sections
Create each cross section, adding on top of preceding one
z
y
x

CAD (ProE)

STL

slicing
operation

2-D cross
section

28

Rapid Prototyping

Fixtures are created in-process (Sacrificial Supports)

Secure model to the build platform
Support overhanging features
Remove fixture materials in post-process step
Model material

Support material

Build Platform
FDM Model with/without supports

29

RP versus CNC Machining

RP processes are very flexible and very capable

However:
RP processes rely on specialized materials
Limited accuracy in some cases

Functional prototypes?

CNC Machining is:

Subtractive process
Accurate
Capable of using many common manufacturing materials

CNC Machining is NOT:

Automated
Easily usable except by highly skilled technicians

CNC machining cannot create all parts

No hollow parts
No severely undercut features
The time consuming tasks of process and fixture planning are major factors which
prohibit CNC machining from being used as a Rapid Prototyping Process
Wang et al, 1999

30

Previous Work

Chen and Song, 1991

Layer based machining for prototyping
Machined layers using robotic arm/machine tool
Layers laminated in a stack

Merz, et al, 1994

Shape Deposition Manufacturing
Additive/Subtractive Process

Walczyk and Hardt, 1998; Vouezelaud et al, 1992

Rapid tooling
Laminated machining for dies

Lennings, 2000
Deskproto software
CNC machining planner
Processes similar to a mill/turn operation

31

Motivation

RP processes are almost completely automated turnkey operations

User does not have to be skilled technician
Process planning is simplified by layer-based approach
Fixtures are created in process

The approach to CNC-RP will have to relax many of the traditional constraints
Efficient machining is not a major driver (Traditional feeds/speeds not used)
Not feature-based (Not necessary to machine entire feature in one setup orientation)
Surface finish not as critical (Allow staircase effect)

Goal of this research is to develop a method for CNC rapid prototyping such that:
Toolpath planning, sequencing, tool sizing is automated
Fixture design is created in-process, flexible, and allows access to almost all
surfaces
Setups/orientation automatically calculated, executed
No collision problems

32

Methodology
Overview:
Visible surfaces of the part are machined from each orientation about an axis of
rotation
Long, small diameter flat end tool with equal flute and shank diameter used.
Sacrificial supports (temporary features) added to the solid model and created inprocess
Begin with round stock material, clamped between two opposing chucks
Example:
z

z
y
x

Toolpath layers at 0 orientation

z

Toolpath layers at 180 orientation

z
y
x

33

Research Problems

Setup/Orientation
How many rotations (setup orientations) about the axis of rotation are required?
Where are they?

Toolpath planning
For each orientation, how can we automatically generate toolpaths?
What diameter and length tools should be used?
In what order should the toolpaths be executed?

Fixture planning
How can we automatically generate sacrificial supports?
What diameter and length should they be?

34

Determining the number of rotations

A problem of tool accessibility

Approximated as a problem of visibility (line of sight)

A Visibility map is generated via a layer-based approach

Tool access is restricted to directions in the slice plane (2D problem)

Goal is to generate the data necessary to determine a minimum set of rotations required to
machine the entire surface

Set of segments on a slice visible

from one tool access direction
35

Approaches to 2D visibility mapping

Shortest Euclidean paths - Lee and Preparata, 1984
Convex ropes - Peshkin and Sanderson, 1986

2D visibility cones - Stewart, 1999

Issues:
Computing S.E.P.s/VCs for
polygons with holes
Granularity of STL files, may
need to add collinear points to
polygon segments
Would need to retriangulate

36

Solution approach
Visibility for each polygonal chain is determined by calculating
the polar angle range that each segment of the chain can be seen.
Since there can be multiple chains on each slice, we must consider
the visibility blocked by all other chains.
b
c

(a) Visibility for the segment=

[a,b,]

(b) Visibility for the segment=

[a,b,], [c,d,]

37

Step one: Visibility with respect to own chain

We have a polygon P and its convex hull S

For any point Pi not on S, the visible range can be found by investigating points from the
adjacent CCW convex hull point to the adjacent CW convex hull point

These points will be denoted the left and right convex hull points of Pi, LCHP(Pi) and
RCHP(Pi), respectively.

It is only necessary to calculate the polar angles from Pi to the points in the set [LCHP,
RCHP], excluding Pi.
S1 : [ LCHP, Pi 1 ]
The set is divided into, S1 and S2 where:
S 2 : [ Pi 1 , RCHP]

LCHP

RCHP

Pi+1

Pi

P:
S:

not
visible

RCHP

LCHP

Pi-1

Pi+1
Pi

38

The visible range for a point is bounded by the minimum polar angle from Pi
to points in S1 and the maximum polar angle from Pi to points in S2.

This is the visible range for the point Pi with respect to the boundary of its
own chain, and is denoted V(Pi).
Where:

V ( Pi ) [ Max( Pi X ), Min( Pi Y ]
X S2

Y S1

V(Pi): [43.82 ,121.31]

V(Pi)

S1

Pi
S2

39

 Consider the segment defined by points in P, u and v, where:

u: Pi and v: Pi+1
The intersection of visibility ranges for the points u and v and the 180 range
above the segment define a feasible range of polar angles in which the segment
could be reached.
(Vu

Vv )

[ RV u , LV u ]

[ RV v , LV u ]

RVv

LVv LVu

RVu

u-1
vu

[ RV v , LV v ]

v+1
u

uv

The sets S1 and S2 are redefined:

S1 : [ LCHP (u ), (u 1)]
S 2 : [( v 1), RCHP (v)]

The ends of the visibility range are: RV (uv)

[ Max ( vx )]
x S2

LV (uv)

[ Min( uy)]
y S1

40

Problem Surfaces
LV
I1

u v I2

u v I2
RV

(a)
RV

I1

LV

(b)
RV

LV
RV
LV

I2
I1

u
(c)

I2

I1

(d)

(a) RV is outside of the 180 range, (b) Both RV and LV are out of the 180 range, (c)
No visibility due to overlapping, (d) Visibility to the entire segment is not possible
since RV > LV.
41

Step two: Visibility blocked by all other chains on the slice

V( uv)j* is the visibility with respect to the chain j on which

denoted j*.

For all obstacle chains

denoted VB( uv )j.

The set of visible ranges for the segment is defined:

J \ j*

uv

resides,

, the polar range blocked by the chain is

VIS(uv) V (uv) j*

VB(uv) j

Visibility blocked to the segment uv is the union of the visibility blocked by

chain j to point u and the visibility blocked by chain j to point v, intersected
with the 180 range above segment uv

The set of angles blocked to the segment where:

VB(uv) j

{[[VB(u) j ] [VB(v) j ]] [ uv, vu]}

The set of angles blocked to points u and v where:

VB (u ) j

[ RBu , LB u ]

VB (v) j

[ RBv , LB v ]
42

 Considering the condition that

blocked visibility is only for blockage
in the 180 range above the segment,
it can easily be seen that the set:

(VB u

VB v )

[ RB u , LB u ]

[ RB v , LB v ]

[ RB u , LB v ]

LBu

RBv

LBv

RBu

RBu is simply the minimum polar

angle from u to all points on the
blocker chain
LBv is the maximum polar angle from
v to all points on Pj, where Pj is the
set of points for the blocker chain.

RBu

[Min( ux)] LBv

x P
j

uv

[Max( vy)]
y Pj

43

Recall: VIS(uv)

V (uv) j*

VB(uv) j

For each segment the collection of visible ranges given in polar angle about the
axis of rotation:
VIS tjk : [ a , b , ]1 , [ a , b , ] 2 ,...[ a , b , ] r
where: rMAX = n
From the data in [VIS] we can formulate a set corresponding to the segments visible
from a given angle.
s

{(SEGtjk ) (

) for some range,[

b r

VIStjk }

VIS1,1,1 (a,b)1, (a,b)2, (a,b)n

VIS2,1,1 (a,b)1, (a,b)2, (a,b)n

1
2

SEG1,1,1, SEG2,1,1, SEG1,5,3

(a,b)1, (a,b)2, (a,b)n

SEG
tjk. . . .
.

.
.
.

VIStjk
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

VISqnp (a,b)1, (a,b)2, (a,b)n

.
.
.

.
.
.

359

SEG13,1,2, SEG14,1,2,
.
.
.

.
.

SEGtjk. . . .

The Minimum Set Cover problem:

Given: A collection of subsets s of a finite set SEG (the set of all segments)
Solution: A set cover for SEG, i.e., a subset S S such that every element in SEG belongs to at
least one member of s for s S '.
44

Implementation/Results

Algorithm implemented in C
Computation times on a 2.0GHz Pentium 4

C.H.
A.C.
Facets
Slice ( in )
0.0025
0.0050
0.0100
0.0200
0.0400

STL Resolution
xcoarse
coarse
medium
fine
xfine
0.0075"
0.005"
0.0025"
0.00125"
0.000625"
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
865
1286
1990
3686
6578
#sgmts time( s ) #sgmts time( s ) #sgmts time( s ) #sgmts time( s ) #sgmts time( s )
19,566
22.750 27,285
25.812 36,199
29.390 49,975
36.623 69,212
47.122
9,772
11.230 13,553
12.875 18,178
14.671 25,044
18.640 34,458
23.389
4,850
5.687 6,781
6.515 9,054
7.405 12,476
9.297 17,306
11.843
2,375
2.875 3,409
3.312 4,597
3.907 6,269
4.859 8,683
6.281
1,182
1.453 1,655
1.718 2,159
2.032 2,974
2.453 4,123
3.141

Set cover problem solved as integer linear program using LINDO:

140

49

228

320

The Jack

45

Results (cont)

Cell phone face plate

y

x
z
z

Turbine

y
x

46

Toolpath Planning

Layer based toolpaths

Machine visible surfaces from approach direction
2-D pocketing, easily generated using current CAM software (MasterCAM,
rough surface pocketing)
A gouge-free approach, given flute and shank diameter are same (or shank < flute)
Investigated as a rough machining approach - Balasubramanium, 1999
Can approach finish machining using very small depths of cut

We assume that tool length, not diameter will be active constraint

To avoid collision, tool length > maximum swept diameter of part (Same as stock
diameter)
Tool diameter chosen as smallest available for required length (not conventional
tools)
47

Toolpath Planning

Stock diameter/Tool length can be found from slice data used in VISI algorithm
For each slice, find diameter of the set of points
Set stock diameter to MAX
Ds = MAXDIAM(CHP(slice points)) for all slices k
Set tool length to diameter of the stock Lt = Ds

Toolpath sequencing is a significant problem

Need to avoid thin web conditions
Can occur during one toolpath or from successive toolpaths

(1)

Lt = Ds + d

(2)

Depth of cut(max) = -Ds

n
n 1

Ds = Ds + 2d

180

Where Ds= Stock Diameter

48

Toolpath Planning
Thin material conditions resulting from thru-pocket part geometry:

(90o

(180o

n 1

where:

)
d)

(3)

10o

n
n 1

n 1

90

90
n

For each successive toolpath

planned in sequence, undesirable
orientations to be avoided:

49

Toolpath Planning
Preparatory toolpath sequence to avoid thin material conditions
Removes bulk of stock material prior to processing remainder of toolpaths

Choose from orientations in the solution set, or add new

Model

Remaining stock
material

*Preparatory passes adhere to condition: (3)

50

Fixture Planning

Approach uses sacrificial supports to retain the prototype within the stock material
Round stock clamped between opposing chucks
As prototype is rotated b/w toolpaths sacrificial supports are incrementally created
Supports cut away to remove finished part
Current approach assumes model surfaces exist along axis of rotation
Only one fixture support cylinder used on each end
No change to visibility calculations

Problems:
Where do cylinders begin/end?
What diameter?

51

Fixture Planning

Start/end of cylinder
Need to have room for tool diameter to pass b/w end of part and stock
Cylinder end protruding into the part must be fully embedded
Use slice geometry to calculate depth of penetration where cylinder is fully attached

Part length
Lf

Lf

Pd ?

Free fixture length: Lf > Dt

Where Dt = diameter of tool

52

Fixture Planning

Determine first slice where fixture cylinder diameter is contained within the boundary
chain of the part ( Circle with center at axis of rotation )

*
Slice k=1 (0.005)

Slice k=1 (0.010)

Slice k=1 (0.015)

Part slice boundary

Fixture cylinder diameter

Pd = 0.015
53

Fixture Planning

What is the diameter of the fixture cylinder?

Cylinders must limit deflection (torsion) caused by machining forces

Approach
Assume part is significantly stiff
Negligible bending
L1
Active constraint will be deflection caused by twisting
Model as a statically indeterminate torsional shaft

L2

L = L1 = L2 = 2*Dt+

T = Ft(r)

Deflection =

r = part radius

d
r sin

r sin

16LT
d 4G

Ft

Thrust force
54

Fixture Planning

Fixture setup:
Straightforward to determine work offset location, length of stock
Ensures collision avoidance
D
h

b a
c

a = clamping depth
b = .5Dh - .5(Dt)

work offset from jaw face

c = Lp + 2a + 2b + 2Lf
Where: Dh = tool holder diameter, Dt = tool diameter, Lf = free fixture length, Lp = Part length
55

Example- The Jack

Material: 6061 Aluminum
Tool: 1/8 Flat end mill
Machine: Haas VF-O, 3-Axis mill
Layer thickness: 0.005
Speed: 7500rpm, Feed: 350 ipm
Machining time: 3 hours

Prototype after
2 of 4 rotations

Toolpath and Fixture planning time: < 15 minutes!

56

57

58

59

60

61

Wire EDM Rapid Prototyping

Medical RP, one of the major territories for RP application
Manufacturing of dimensionally accurate physical models of
the human anatomy derived from medical image data using a
variety of rapid prototyping (RP) technologies
CNC-RP?
Typical bio/medical Material
Titanium
Stainless steel
Cobalt alloy
Advantage of Wire Electric
Discharge Machining(WEDM)
Cut any electrical conductive material regardless hardness
Ignorable cutting force
Capable to produce complex part

Satisfy material requirement

62

 WEDM is different from traditional

machining process
Point contact

Linear
Surface

Wire EDM
Laser
Waterjet

63

 Visibility problems are different

Can we see it?

Can we access it?

Can we see it vs. Can we access it using a

straight line

Tool orientation

wire orientation

64

Wire EDM RP
Can we make it?
How to make it?
(setup)
How to make it?
(Toolpath, NC code)
65

Wire EDM RP
Investigate the manufacturability
Part Geometry
6-axis Wire EDM
Rigid machining part
No internal through features

Can we make
it?

How to make it?

(setup)

Find the B-axis orientation

Try to minimize number of B-axis orientation

66

Wire EDM RP
Toolpath generation
How to make it?

Discrete Toolpath for B-axis and other

5-axis
(Toolpath,
NC code)
STEP-NC

Fixture Design
Ignorable cutting force : Clamp part

67

Sample Prototype

Prototype: The Jack

6061 Aluminum
1/8 Flat end mill
3-Axis HAAS mill
Speed 7500 rpm, Feed 350 ipm
Layer thickness 0.005
Process time ~3hours
Process Planning time ~15 minutes

140

49

228

320

after 2 rotations
Finished prototype
68

Conclusions
For prototyping, the process is dominated by engineering
cost
Product engineering, Process engineering, production engineering

RP has come a long way

Usable products
Process and production engineering coasts are minimal

Conventional methods are on their way back

CNC RP
Wire EDM RP

69

Conclusions -- continued

The methods developed (CNC-RP and Wire EDM RP) represent a deliberate
approach at making CNC machining usable by engineers and designers, not
just machinists

Capable of producing fully functional prototypes in the appropriate material

Wide spread availability of CNC machines provides fast, low-cost integration

to current product design processes

Quick changeover from RP to Production setup will enable higher utilization

of machines

The concept of sacrificial supports for CNC machining represents a significant

area of basic research that may yield even greater contributions outside of RP

70

References:

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