Abstract:

This research will discuss some major points that can

affect the performance among police officers and make
them more efficient in doing their job. We proceed
through the following points.
Main points:
1- How to evaluate performance and the benefits of this
evaluation?
2- The need for more surveys.
3- Managing fatigue among police officers and how this
will affect their performance.
4- Usage of modern techniques (crime mapping
technologies)
Introduction:
Individual performance evaluation is generally not well developed
in police departments. The most common practice consists of an
annual or semiannual subjective rating form filled out by police
supervisors, where persons are rated with respect to global
categories such as initiative and appearance. Many departments
make no effort to assess performance at all. The selfprotectiveness of the police subculture and the fact that little
concrete depends on the evaluations mean that many
departments have abandoned them, or they have become empty
rituals, where almost everyone's performance is rated as
satisfactory.
"Characteristics of measure" is the one that is most common
discussions. For example, the measures now used by police tend
to be internally rather than externally generated. They are done

by supervisors rather than peers, self, or clients. They often

involve conformity to bureaucratic standards that are only
indirectly related to the actual means and ends of police work.
They are based much more on subjective assessments, than on
objective or quantifiable indicators, and when they are objective,
they ask how much, rather than how well. Current evaluation
instruments refer to general qualities, rather than to behaviorspecific field-based situations and if they do involve the latter, they
refer to law enforcement, rather than community service or
conflict related activities. Performance evaluation is used more to
punish failure, than to reward success and to make interindividual, rather than inter-unit comparisons.
Shrock and Geis (1999) insist that the purpose of an
individual performance
evaluation is to act as part of a continuing system for
monitoring, which guides and
corrects the quality control system of the organization.
Other acceptable uses for
individual performance evaluations include sorting,
grading, and rewarding as an aid in
determining an employees merit bonus. Companies also
rely on the results of the
employee performance evaluation to serve as additional
input for decision-making
purposes in determining what type of marketing,
advertising and training projects to
undertake.

Using the performance review as an intervention to

improve performance is
appropriate under the following circumstances:
1. Employee needs feedback on their performance.

2. Employees dont know whether they are doing well.

3. Employee performance is falling short of expectations
4. Major changes in expectations are occurring, caused by
changes in
business, the environment, and so forth (Langdon, 1999,
290).
The focus of the performance review should ideally be on
the employees behavior
not his or her attitude. Flynn (2001) recommends that
managers discontinue the practice
of evaluating employees on an attitude like
enthusiasm, and instead indicate the
behavior demonstrated by that employee. An employee
who is considered enthusiastic
might be described as one who takes on extra tasks.
By translating what the attitude
actually means in terms of behavior, managers are forced
to evaluate on specific and
concrete things not just their impressions. Flynn (2001)
reports that it is important not to

ignore an employees weaker traits during the appraisal

because the employee may also
ignore the problem.
The concept of performance management is not new; its
been used in the business community for nearly 30 years.
Performance management is a systematic, data-oriented
process of managing people to achieve a high and steady
rate of performance (Langdon,1999, 293).
Some methods of measuring performance:
1-The graphic rating scales are one of the oldest and
most popular evaluation
techniques. In a typical graphic scale, a set of
dimensions related to the successful job
performance are listed and scored using a numeric
scoring system (Ivancevich &
Matteson, 1996). Dimensions relating to the job might
include; attendance, knowledge of

the job, or willingness to accept responsibility. When

applying this technique the
evaluator is to use a numerical point scale to score the
employees performance in each

area. Typically a 5-point scale is used, but companies

may change the system and use
any numerical scheme. Total scores may also be
compiled by adding up the individual
scores from each category. The Southfield Police
Department has adopted a form of the
graphic rating scale to evaluate its employees. See
Appendix C for an example of the
evaluation.
2-The checklist technique is widely used because of its
simplicity. It requires that a list
of job-related behaviors be compiled then compared to
the activities of the employee.
Some behaviors may be weighted differently than others,
some higher or lower
depending on the circumstances. This type of evaluation
form is widely used by
organizations that have a large number of employees to
evaluate
3- The critical incident technique focuses the evaluators
attention on particularly
significant behavior (Ivancevich & Matteson). The most
important aspect of this

technique is that it identifies specific behavioral events

the can affect an employees
ability to perform. These behavioral events can be
positive or negative and require an
ongoing supervisory observation. Otherwise important
data might be overlooked.

4- The last technique review was the Behaviorally

Anchored Rating Scales or BARS, as
it is also known. The BARS approach combines elements
of the two previously
discussed techniques: graphic rating scale and critical
incidents (Ivancevich & Matteson).
BARS also require a numerical rating of individual
dimensions similar to the graphic
rating scale technique. The two techniques differ
because the BARS require a more
detailed examination of the results obtain. Each
dimension is then anchored with a series
of equally specific behaviors representing a range of
excellent to unacceptable levels of
performance (Ivancevich & Matteson).

And here are some recommendation about how to evaluate the

performance in the most efficient way taken from the south field
police department.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are recommendations for improving the police
performance evaluation
process for the Southfield Police Department.
Recommendation 1: Conduct an additional employee and
management survey to
determine how others feel about the possibility of changing the
evaluation process.
Recommendation 2: Meet with management and employee
teams to discuss the
results of the survey and how both groups might influence the
potential change in
practice by offering their suggestions on different strategies.
Recommendation 3: Consider a simplified scoring method for the
semi-annual
evaluations possibly using a five-point numeric evaluation scale.
In addition to the
numeric evaluation, require documentation of critical incidents or
significant activities
that may positively or negatively affect the overall rating.

Appendix D has a simple version of a form that may be used to

document either type of
incident.
Recommendation 4: Develop and implement a performance
improvement plan
designed to provide feedback to individual officers. This
performance improvement plan
should be useful in assisting with the development of individual
training programs.
Recommendation 5: Introduce divisional evaluation appraisals
that most accurately
reflect the major activities performed by officers working within
that division.

2-THE NEED FOR MORE SURVEYS

Surveying and understanding the publics opinion of
police
performance is important for several reasons:
Public acceptance of police authority is essential to
maintain public order.
Public confidence in police can lead to cooperation

that is needed for effective policing.

Public support is crucial to maintaining and expanding
police funding.
Sensitive measurement of public opinion is an
important
way to monitor local police activities.
Exchange of information fosters police-community
partnerships that can be tailored to specific community
concerns.
Perceptions of police activities, crime, and fear and the
identification of neighborhood problems and strengths
represent important aspects of the community context
of policing.
Regular surveys are essential for understanding these
issues further. Such surveys should be conducted by
independent
organizations to avoid biased responses. Conducting
the surveys over a number of years would allow
for greater comprehension of the publics opinion. An
annual survey with standard samples and procedures
crafted to examine trends would be most meaningful.
Then, police officials and community representatives
would notice anomalies in the pattern of opinion as
influenced
by respondents experiences and the neighborhood
sense of community. Community stakeholders could track
indicators of issues that can be targets of intervention,
such as neighborhood conditions or peoples lack of
informal
contact with officers.
Surveying community residents can provide valuable
information about the publics assessment of police
activities.
As this study demonstrates, such a survey can provide

surprisingly rich information about the relationship

between communities and the police. This information
can
direct police and community change and help monitor the
effectiveness of interventions. between local officers
and residents.
The findings confirm and expand on earlier studies that
suggested informal contact raises public opinion of the
police. In this survey, speaking to officers on patrol or at
community events was associated with a positive opinion
of police performance, whether or not the resident lived
in a disorderly neighborhood. It could be that those
predisposed to be more favorable are likelier to initiate
informal contact with officers. In any event, it seem likely
that promoting informal social contact may favorably
influence public opinion . Police departments may want to
evaluate the ways
that they encourage or discourage informal contact
with residents. Police community partnerships are
more effective when they incorporate greater informal
contact with residents. Although past literature relies
heavily on demographic characteristics to explain public
opinion, this study found that
the most important factors influencing favorable opinion
of the police were greater informal contact with police,
less victimization, less fear of crime, lower perceived
level of violent crime.
Role of the media
Police are particularly concerned about the medias
influence on attitudes toward them. Several Los Angeles
police supervisors who were interviewed before the
survey
was conducted stated that they believed that a few
highly publicized incidents might have a widespread

negative influence on residents view of the police.

In this survey, 65 percent of be the respondents indicated
that personal experience(including respondents
experience
with other police agencies and their secondhand
knowledge of the experience of others) most shaped
their opinions of the egyptian police officers. Thirty-five
percent were most influenced by mass media (including
newspapers, radio ,and television). The study found that
residents who rely
most on the media did not report less favorable opinions
regarding the overall job performance and demeanorof
the police than those most influenced by personal
experience.
Implications for police practice
According to this study, disorderly neighborhoods and
neighborhoods with poor social cohesion and control
present a challenge for officer community relations. Local
community surveys can help police to identify and
address
residents situations and concerns(see The Need for
More Surveys). Communities also may benefit from
community policing strategies that increase informal
perceived disorder in ones neighborhood, and higher
neighborhood cohesion and control. Race and ethnicity
were not shown to significantly determine public opinion
of police performance once other factors (such as
perceived
neighborhood disorder) were considered. Residents
trust in the police, however, was influenced by race and
ethnicity. Police and others often perceive
the media as having a significant effect on the
publics opinion of police performance. According to
this studys findings, the media did not appear to be a

source of negative opinion of the . Instead of relying

on the media for their opinions, respondents appeared to
react primarily to their own experiences and expectations
in forming opinions of their local police.

3- Managing fatigue among police officers and how

this will affect their performance.
Introduction:
Fatigue among police patrol officers arising from departmental policies
and practices may degrade individuals abilities and hence the
performance of organizations. Few U.S. police departments have
established comprehensive shift, work-hour, and fatigue management
policies despite the well understood, long-standing, and profound
influences that round-the-clock schedules have on worker health, safety,
performance, job satisfaction, and family life. After reviewing the
sources, costs, and impacts of fatigue as well as recent research into the
prevalence of fatigue among police, the authors discuss policies and
practices that police executives, managers, and supervisors can employ
to minimize officer fatigue.
Fatigueisamentaland/orphysicalstateresultingfrominsufficientgoodqualit
ysleeporfromprolongedorintensephysical,emotional,ormental effort that
tends to decrease alertness, impair performance potential, worsen mood,
and interfere with decision making. Thus, we can expect excess fatigue
to adversely affect police officers performance, health, and safety; their
relations with the public; and the quality of their discretionary decisions.

Fatigue among police long has been a problem. Furthermore, as

distinguished sleep researcher William C. Dement noted recently,
policing is the one profession in which we would want all practitioners
to have adequate and
healthfulsleeptoperformtheirdutiesatpeakalertnesslevels.Notonlyisfatigue
associatedwithindividualmisery,but it can also lead to counter productive
behavior.It is well known that impulsiveness, aggression, irritability and
angry outbursts are associated with sleep deprivation. (quoted in Vila,
2000, p. xiv)
The major administratively controllable culprits responsible for police
fatigue are biologically insensitive shift rotation schemes, excessive
mandatory or elective overtime assignments, frequent off-duty court
appearances, and the use of extra and double shifts to cope with
personnel shortages. Of course, officerspersonal choices, obligations,
and activities also can cause fatigue,but even these can be influenced by
proper training about the importance of managing fatigue and
alertness.Overtime, the effects of one or more of these work-based or
personal fatigue factors can be come especially problematic because
chronic exposure tends to magnify fatigues effects. Chronically fatigued
people tend to develop maladaptations1 that spill over into leisure time
and in turn make recuperation even more difficult (Moore-Ede, 1993).
Fatigue relentlessly exacts its human, community, and economic tolls.
Ironically for the police, two recent research studies revealed that just 17
to 19hoursofsustainedwakefulness
thekindofsleeplossroutinelyexperienced by officers in many departments
impaired participants performance as much as having a 0.05% blood
alcohol content(BAC).Extending wakefulness to 24 hours produced
impairment equivalent to a 0.10%BAC.

Both of the studies tested hand-eye coordination, and the more recent
study also tested cognitive performance, motor speed, task accuracy, and
alertness(Dawson&Reid,1997;Williamson&Feyer,2000).Reaction time
on some of the tests in the more extensive study was 50% worse in the
sleep deprived condition than in the alcohol condition (Williamson &
Feyer, 2000). As a matter of public safety, it seems appropriate to ask
whether fatigue-impaired officers should tackle the tough job of
policing, particularly because they may at times be as impaired as the
drunken drivers they arrest. Fortunately, police executives and managers
can minimize officer fatigue by developing appropriate shift scheduling
and work-hour policies and by educating officers about sound sleep
habits and the importance of coming to work alert and well rested.This
article discusses how appropriate shift scheduling and work-hour
policies can be used in conjunction with fatigue and alertness
management programs to minimize officer fatigue.
First,however,wewillbrieflyreviewthesources,costs,andconsequences of
fatigue for police, as well as indications of its prevalence.
SOURCES, COSTS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF FATIGUE
Police officers long have had to deal with fatigue arising not merely
from shift work but also from lengthy and sometimes erratic work hours
and other aspects of working conditions.2 From its inception, modern
policing wasa24-hourserviceprovidedsevendaysaweek.Asaresult,19thcentury police in the large cities often bunked at their precinct stations to
provide a reserve force for emergencies or to fill staffing shortages. Like
most workers of that era, it was not uncommon for officers to work 12
hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week. Shiftwork is an important source of
fatigue for police an do their workers because their natural circadian3
rhythms enhance alertness during daylight hours and encourage sleep at
night. Highest alertness for most people occurs during the morning and
in the late afternoon/early evening hours when energy levels are
elevated, eyes focus more easily, and physical abilities and coordination

peak. When circadian rhythms dip as evening wears

on,wavesofsleepinesswashoverus;appetitesdiminish,recollectiondulls,
reaction times slow, and we fall asleep (see Dement & Vaughn, 1999;
Monk&Folkard,1992).As a consequence, officers on night shifts
struggle to stay awake when their bodies want to sleep and then later try
to fall asleep at home when they naturally are primed to be most alert.
So, this affect greatly their performance in the morning.

It seems obvious that police managers should develop policies and

programs that help improve officer health, safety, performance, and
interactions with their communities.
PREVALENCE OF FATIGUE IN POLICE AGENCIES
Scientific evidence presented elsewhere in detail (Vila, Kenney,
Morrison, and Reuland,1999)is further summarized below, but first let
us emphasize that almost all of the hundreds of officers, supervisors, and
managers that the authors have conversed with during the past 9 years
report personal experiences with fatigue and exhaustion. Our personal
experiences as police officers reveal similar circumstances.

suggestthatnonsupervisorypatrolofficersinlargeurbandepartmentstend to
average between 15 and 40 hours of overtime work per month (Vila,
2000;Vila&Kenney,inpress;Vila&Taiji,1999),some officers average 80
or more hours of overtime per month and,or more hours per year.This is
an enormous amount given that the typical 40-hour, 50-week schedule
results in2,000 hours per year.
the researchers examined reports of accidents, injuries, misconduct, and
citizen complaints. To obtain an objective measure of fatigue at the start

of each work day, the FIT Workplace Safety Screener

(www.pmifit.com), a computerized tabletop device that looks somewhat
like a division of motor vehicles vision tester, was used. The FIT
measures a persons fatigue-related impairment by comparing four eyeperformance measures with their usual performance. The measures are
pupil diameter, amplitude of pupil constriction and delay in pupil
response to a flash of light, and the velocity with which the eye tracks a
moving light.In total,Vilaetal.(1999)collected and analyzed data from
379 officers and evaluated nearly 60,000 workdays. Subjective
information about the impact of fatigue on officers and the causes of
officer fatigue was obtained from interviews and focus groups involving
officers and their spouses as well as surveys. The surveys (see Vila,
2000, Appendix B) asked officers about their sleep quality, their attitudes
about their own fatigue levels and those of their peers, how much of the
fatigue they experienced could be attributed to various occupational
sources,and how fatigue affected their health, safety, job performance,
and family life. Taken together, data from these sources provided some
of the first solid information about the effects of fatigue on patrol
officerswork performance, physical and emotional well-being, and
personal lives.
MANAGING FATIGUE
Police executives and the jurisdictions for which they work have a clear
and compelling interest in ensuring that officers are not overly fatigued
on the job and that they are sufficiently alert to perform their duties
properly. Regardlessofwhetherofficerfatiguestemsfromjobrelatedfactorsorfrom outsidethejob
forexample,fromfamilyandsocialactivities,moonlighting,personalhabits,o
rphysicalfitnessmanagementshoulddoallitcanto
ensurethatofficersarefitfordutywhentheyreporttoworkandthroughout their
work shifts because overly fatigued officers are more likely to put
themselves,theirfellowofficers,andtheircommunitiesatrisk(seeVila&

Kenney,inpress;Vila,Kenney,&Morrison,2001).Anagencythatfailsto
takereasonableprecautionstomanagetherisksassociatedwithfatiguemay
thereforeincursubstantialcivilliabilityforavoidableaccidents,injuries,or
misconduct. It also may face more staffing shortageswhich can, in
turn, require more overtimebecause officers who are chronically
fatigued are morevulnerabletoahostofphysicalailmentsandstressrelateddisorders. There is a great deal that police executives, managers,
and supervisors candotominimizejobrelatedfatigue.Inparticular,sourcesoffatiguecan be effectively addressed
by managers who

developandimplementsoundpoliciesaboutexcessworkhours,shiftscheduli
ng,and shift length;
12 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002)
educate subordinates about fatigue and involve them in alertness
assurance programs;6 and encourage officers to report for work well
rested and alert.
We discuss several potential lines of action for managers to pursue.
WORK HOURS
Managing work hours is critical for fatigue control because the number
of hours an officer works in a day, week, month, or year can contribute a
greatdealtohowfatiguedoralertheorsheis.Twoofthestudiescitedpreviously
suggest that as little as 17 to 19 hours of sustained wakefulness can
impairperformanceasmuchashavinga0.05%BACandthatbeingawake for
24 consecutive hours may produce impairment equivalent to a 0.10%
BAC (Dawson & Reid, 1997; Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Repeatedly
workingexcessiveamountsoftimeislikelytoleadtochronicfatigueandits
attendant problems. Thus, one of the key issues that departments need to

address is how much work officers are allowed to do in a given period of

time.And,tobemeaningful,work-hourpoliciesmustincluderegularshift
length,overtime,andmoonlighting.Itdoesnogoodtocapovertimeat,for
example, 15 hours per week, then allow officers to work an additional 25
hoursperweekatasecondjobwhilealsoattendingschool3nightsaweek.
Ofcourse,workhourpoliciesneedtoincludeprovisionsforemergencysituations in which
longer work hours are unavoidable to protect the public
safety.Evenduringprotractedemergencies,however,officerperformance,
health,andsafetycouldbeimprovedbycallingpeopleinforanapwhencircums
tances permit.
Butcappingworkhourscanmakeitdifficulttomeetadepartmentsobligations.
Asidefromtakingtheobviousstepofworkingtoensurethatstaffing levels
match demand for services, many departments could substantially
reduce overtime by minimizing off-duty court appearances. The
courtshistorical monopoly of the docket, prosecution and defense
delays, and case rescheduling ignore the impact that these more typically
8-to-5 members of the justice system have on police working a 24/7
schedule. In
manyjurisdictions,officersspendhourswaitingaroundcourttobecalledto
testify,althoughtheyrarelyarecalledtothestandacommonestimateby
officersisthattheytestifyfewerthan5outofevery100daysthattheyspend
sittingaroundthecourthouse.Somedepartmentsdealwiththisproblemby
givingofficerselectronicpagerssotheycanbenotifiedwhentheytrulyare
needed to testify. Other common arrangements include maximizing on
Vila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 13
duty court time, situating court-based coordinators at precinct stations,
increasingaccesstonotificationprogramsviaremotecomputerterminal,or
even providing sleeping quarters for off-duty officers who are waiting to
testify (Vila, 1996; see also Boorstein, 1986; Duggan, 1993; Harriston,
1993).

SHIFT LENGTH
Shift lengths fall into two basic groups: 8-hour shifts worked 5 days a
weekandcompressedshiftsinwhichapproximately40hoursareworkedin
fewer than 5 days (e.g., four 10-hour or three 12-hour shifts). Although
there is no clear consensus among sleep and fatigue researchers about
which type of shift is preferable, most administrators seem to prefer
either 8-or12-hourshiftsbecausetheydivideevenlyintoa24hourday.Mostof the officers we have discussed shift issues with around
the country during the past 6 years appear to favor compressed shifts,
primarily because they
canreducetotalweeklycommutingandprovidemoreconsecutivedaysoff for
recreation and family activities as well as for recuperation. Fewer,
longershiftsreducethenumberofcommutingdaysandenableofficerstolive
farther from the large urban centers in which many of them work. This
added distance can help them avoid perceived work-related threats to
their families and afford better housing. Compressed shifts also have
been used to attract qualified recruitsand to lure experienced officers
from departments with less desirable shift arrangements.7 Some police
executives doubt that the real and perceived advantages
associatedwithcompressedshiftsoutweightheirdrawbacks:Foronething,
on the face of it, the 12-hour workday seems more likely to leave
officers
morefatiguedbyshiftsend,especiallyduringthethirdorfourthconsecutive12
-hourshift.Longershiftsalsotendtomagnifytheimpactofanyovertime. For
officers who have only 12 hours to eat, sleep, see their families, and
commute, even an extra hour or 2 spent on arrest reports or waiting to
testify in court can make it impossible to get enough sleep.
SHIFT ROTATION, DIRECTION, AND PATTERN
There are three general shift rotation options: nonrotating, forward
(with the clock), and backward (against the clock). Not rotating

remains the best scheme, because almost any change in our daily sleep
routines tends to increase fatigue over the short run by running afoul of
circadian
14 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002)
rhythms. For a variety of reasons, however, many managers find it
necessary to change shift assignments periodically. Among the shift
change or rotation options, backward shift rotation is the hardest to adapt
to
biologicallybecausethebodyscircadianrhythmintervalisslightlypredispos
edto rotating forward, that is, from day to evening shifts (Dement &
Vaughn,
1999).Itthereforetakesabout8daystoadjusttoachangefromanevening
toamidnightshiftbutabout12daystoadjusttoachangefromdaystomidnights
(Monk & Folkard, 1992). Forward rotation schemes can be slower (i.e.,
monthly, quarterly, annually) or fasterwhere employees spend 1 or 2
days on each consecutive
shiftbetweentheirdaysoff.Therationalebehindfastrotationistosharethe
misery of shift work while preventing officersbodies from attempting to
adapt to nondaytime shift work. One advantage of fast rotation is that
employees can socialize normally on their days off and thereby avoid the
commonproblemofnight-shiftworkerswhogetlittlerecuperationondays
offbecausetheyreturntodaytimeschedules.Themaindisadvantageisthat
employees often are very tired while working night shifts unless they
conscientiouslyworkatpayingbackthesleepdebttheyaccrueondayswhen
theydonotgetsufficientgood-qualitysleepwhenevertheyhavethechance.
Otherwise, these shift workers are more vulnerable to problems such as
shift maladaptation syndrome.
Ingeneral,longershiftrotationintervalstendtohavefewernegativebiological
effectsatleastforofficerswhoarereasonablywell-suitedtotheir current
shift and who practice good sleep hygiene. However, staying on a shift
longer obviously is not better for those who are ill-suited for it, who

never allow themselves to adapt properly, or who make little effort to get
sufficient recuperative sleep. Researchers disagree about the ideal
rotational scheme, but one thing seems certain: It is almost impossible
for the body to manage weekly shift rotation because it takes about that
long to adapt to an 8-hour schedule change (Monk & Folkard, 1992;
ONeill & Cushing, 1991).
PERSONNEL ASSIGNMENT
Another important shift-work issue has to do with how people are
assignedtovariousshifts.Fromafatigue-reductionstandpoint,itwouldbe
idealtoletemployeesworktheshifttheychoosesimplybecausesomepeople
are biologically more well-suited than others to working nights; night
owls can tolerate evening and midnight shifts better than those who
Vila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 15
naturallyriseearlyeachday(so-calledmorninglarks).Andthismeansthat
nightowlsarelesssusceptiblebutnotinvulnerabletofatigue-inducing
factorsassociatedwithnightshifts.Inaddition,howwellanofficercantolerates
leepdisruptionandrecoverfromsleepdebtisafunctionofage,physical and
emotional health and fitness, diet, and innate ability to adapt to
changesinsleepandwakecycles.Butbiologyisnottheonlyoreventhe
primaryreason for giving employees a say about which shift they are
assigned.
Employeeinvolvementinschedulingandshiftassignmentdecisionsalso is
critical because an officers attitude and overall level of emotional stress
affect his or her ability to deal with fatigue. The number of hours
officers work and the time of day they are assigned to work affect almost
every
aspectoftheirpersonal,social,family,andprofessionallives.Officerswho
areexcludedfromdecisionsaboutshiftworkandschedulingbecomepowerles
s in some of the most important dimensions of their lives.

Powerlessnesscorrodestheirselfimageandincreasesstress.Stressreducestheirability to deal with fatigue,

which in turn tends to diminish their job performance and ability to deal
with stress. Thus, excluding officers from scheduling and shift
assignment decisions can trigger a vicious cycle that causes more fatigue
and job stress. Although organizational imperatives require managers to
distribute human experience, talent, and problems across the day, it still
makes good sense to accommodate individual preferences to the extent
possible. Department policies that take individual differences and
preferences into
accountwhenschedulingworkwillhelpreducefatigueanditsnegativeside
effects.
OFFICER EDUCATION
Shift-workandfatigueeducationenablesmanagerstoaddresssourcesof
fatiguethatariseoutsidethejobaswellasthosearisingfromthejobitself.
Officersshouldbeeducatedaboutthehazardsoffailingtocopewithfatigue
and encouraged to think about alertness as an important aspect of being
fit for duty. Officers need to be taught how to minimize fatigues impact
on their professional performance and personal lives, just as they are
taught firearms safety, arrest techniques, and field tactics. At a
minimum, they
needtolearntothinkoffatigueasacriticalsafetyissue.AsFigure1shows, on
average, as many officers are killed each year by accidents as by
gunfights, family disturbances, arrest situations, ambushes, and traffic
stops.

DEVELOPING FATIGUE OR ALERTNESS MANAGEMENT PLANS

WHAT MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS CAN DO
Encourage employees to treat sleep like a safety and performance issue
it is! Involve employees in scheduling and work-hour decisions
whenever possible. Schedule appropriately to meet organizational
obligations while minimizing shiftwork disruption. Minimize shift
changes and maximize work-hour regularity. Never use weekly shift
rotation, and always rotate shifts forward. Ensure adequate staffing.
Developanovertimepolicythatminimizesmandatoryovertimeanddiscourag

esexcessive work hours. Develop policies that promote a physically

and emotionally healthy lifestyle among employees. Provide clinical
support for shift workers suffering from sleep disorders. Provide a
bright, stimulating night-work environment wherever possible. Provide
shift workers with opportunities to eat healthful food.
Educateemployeesabouttheimportanceofthefatigueandalertnessissuesand
practices listed below.
WHAT EMPLOYEES CAN DO
Practice good sleep habits and make getting enough quality sleep a
high priority for yourself and your family/household. Use naps as a
stopgap measure to help catch up when you have not gotten enough
sleep.
Doyourbesttoadapttoashiftandstayadapted;donotkeepdifferenthoursonda
ys off. Try to pick a shift that matches your biology. Be aware of the
hazards of fatigue impairment on and off the job. Watch your diet by
avoiding junk foods and fatty foods, favoring complex carbohydrates,
lean meats, low-fat dairy products, and fruits and vegetables. Drink lots
of water and limit caffeine and alcohol consumption.
THE MANAGEMENT PLAN
Achieving these objectives requires careful planning. As with any other
planning activity, sound fatigue and alertness management plans are
more likely to be developed if managers take the following steps in
sequence:

Assembleaplanningteamthatincludeskeystakeholderssuchasmanagers,sup
ervisors, and perhaps even collective bargaining representatives and
clerical personnel.
Vila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 19

 Conductaneedsassessmentthatreviewsshiftwork,scheduling,andworkhourpolicies and practices as well as fatigue training and education. The

assessment also should identify the extent of fatigue-related problems
and their likely causes by reviewing records, administering surveys,
taking objective measurements using devices such as the FIT
Workplace Safety Screener, and/or hiring a team of specialists to
evaluate fatigue-related problems and offer recommendations.
Brainstormalternativecoursesofactionthatmightbetakentomanagefatigue
without taking cost into consideration. Analyze probable costs and
benefits associated with various alternatives and decide
whicharelikelytoworkbestoverthelongrungivenrealisticestimatesoffiscala
nd human resources.
Draftfatigue/alertnessmanagementplansandcirculatethemwidelyforcomm
entand review. Revise and repeat the review process until a workable
plan is developed. Implement the plan, being sure to set clear goals and
objectives and remembering to keep it flexible enough to handle
unanticipated problems.
Monitorandrevisetheplanasneededusingtheplanningteamorasimilargroup
asa
permanentemployee/managertaskforcethatwillberesponsibleformonitorin
gprogress toward goals and identifying problems and opportunities.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Police fatigue is a widespread problem that can seriously degrade
officers performance, health, and safety. Evidence from many different
sources points to high levels of fatigue among patrol officers in the
United Statesand there is no contrary evidence. No harm is likely to
come from
anyofthesuggestionsmadeinthisarticleand,basedonwhatweknowwith
good confidence about the effects of sleep loss and disruption on people,
muchgoodcanbedone.Policeprofessionalsandresearchersneedtowork
togethertominimizethethreatthatfatigueposestoourcommunitiesandto

ourofficersjustaswehavedevelopedstandardsandproceduresforother
complexproblemslikevehiclepursuits,theuseofdeadlyforce,anddomestic
violence.
Manyofthechangesrequiredtomanagepolicefatiguewillbedifficult.
Forexample,wewillhavetoacknowledgethat,contrarytothemachoculture
that pervades policing, officers cannot overcome the effects of fatigue
andsleepdeprivationthroughmotivation,discipline,orforceofwill.Managin
gfatigueandalertnessalsowillmeanmakinghardchoicesaboutstaffingpolice
agencies.Atthesametime,whendepartmentsacrosstheUnited States are
expanding their role in the community and struggling to counter terrorist
threats, economic pressures and demographics are making it increasingly
difficult to recruit qualified officers. Agencies that attempt to constrain
overtime in the face of expanding demands for service and a
20 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002)
contracting labor force will have to use their officers more efficiently
and makethejobmoreattractive.Butthepayoffformanagingthesechallenges successfully will be safer, healthier, and
more competent officers and, as a consequence, safer and healthier
communities.

4- Usage of modern techniques (crime mapping

technologies)

CRIME MAPPING:
-What is crime mapping?
Most crimes and incidents have an inherently
geographical
quality. Understanding why a crime or an incident

happens where it does can offer vital intelligence that

contributes to improving responses to crime/incident
problems. This geographical quality of crime/incidents
also extends to,
Identifying where offenders and victims live
Analysing how offenders have travelled to the
crime/incident location
Identifying emerging neighbourhood issues
Profiling the characteristics of areas and how
these contribute to the causes of crime/incidents
Identifying why crime/incidents may have occurred
in one location and not another
Crime mapping can support a number of policing
functions. These include,
Responding to calls for service
Collecting data at crime locations
Targeting responses and deploying patrols
Analysis and the generation of intelligence
products
Information sharing with partnerships
Reassuring the public.
The use of crime mapping is also supporting new
policing functions such as neighbourhood policing and
performance review.
-Putting it on the map?
When a crime/incident is reported, the address or
location details of the crime/incident are recorded.
This may sound like a simple process but if the address
or location details are not recorded in a standard way
it can create many future problems that affect how crime
mapping can be used.
For a crime/incident to appear on a computer map it
requires the crime/incident record to be assigned

geographical grid coordinates a process known as

geocoding. These coordinates are based on the address
or location of the crime/incident.
Levels of geocoding vary by police force, from 25% to
100%. That is, some forces can only view 25% of their
crime data on a map. Very few police forces currently
achieve high geocoding levels. This means that many
police forces often present an incomplete picture of crime
in their computer mapping systems, restricting how
crime mapping can be used across the police service.
Regardless of the size of the police force, ensuring that
address and location data for crime records are of good
quality relies on the same basic principles.
When Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary began
mapping
crime data they realised that a large number of their
crime records were being geocoded into the Irish Sea!
In a drive to improve the efficiency and accuracy of
capturing information, Dumfries and Galloway integrated
GIS and a comprehensive gazetteer of property and
nonaddressable
locations (e.g. car parks and other areas
of open space) into their recording system. This has
meant that the capture of address and location data of
where crimes happen has significantly improved;
The quality of recording the address/location details
of crimes is now extremely precise and accurate
geocoding hit rates have reached 100%
The process for capturing address/location details
of crimes is quicker
The cost of ensuring data is of adequate quality and
making amendments is much now reduced (Data
Cleaning)
Using this approach, Dumfries and Galloway estimate

cost savings of over 70% in comparison to their old

approach of address data capture.
Several other police forces such as Hertfordshire have
made a similar investment in the gazetteer that is used
in all their information systems. Hertfordshire employ a
dedicated team of three staff to maintain the gazetteer,
populating it with new records when they are required,
including sourcing from their local authorities the
addresses of new building developments. This means
that nearly 100% of their crime records possess a
geographic grid coordinate.

-How can I use crime mapping?

1. Using crime mapping for
responding to incidents
Pin pointing the location of an incident and ensuring that
it is identified with minimal ambiguity is vital for a quick
and direct response. Many police forces use gazetteers
that are integrated into their mapping systems to search
for and view the location of an incident when a call comes
in to their command and control centre. Several police
forces utilise Global Positioning Systems(GPS) to provide
a real-time link to the command centre
to show the location and details of response teams that
are on patrol.
The use of mobile computing technology also helps police
forces and their partners organise responses to incidents.
In North London an alliance between the Metropolitan
Police and its CDRP partners in Enfield, Haringey, Barnet

and Waltham Forest uses mobile GIS technology for the

accurate and timely capture of environmental crime data
(e.g. fly tipping, abandoned vehicles, graffiti). Not only
does the use of the technology help to improve the
quality of data that is captured, but the data are collected
more quickly enabling response times to be much more
rapid. In the case of abandoned vehicles the response
time to remove these vehicles has improved from four
days to a matter of hours. This enables community safety
partner response teams to recover these vehicles before
they may become burnt out, reducing the recovery cost
from 5000 to just 30.
2. Using crime mapping to generate
intelligence products
Crime mapping forms an integral subset of analysis.
Crime mapping plays a useful role in not only helping
to visualise the geographic patterns of crime through
the use of hotspot maps, but in being used as a more
integral tool in analysis by helping to understand why
crime happens. It can play a role in a broad range of
intelligence functions from the more immediate by
supporting operational requirements to the strategic
level, by identifying areas that need a more considered
response.
A. Integrating intelligence
Lancashire Constabulary is finding that crime mapping
is useful for helping to link their disparate datasets
together (such as crimes, incidents, stop and search, and
youth referral data) by using the common geographic
theme that is held in data records on their information
systems (i.e. all records are referenced to a place).
As a result, Lancashire is not simply using crime mapping
as a final step to produce a map for a report, but is
using crime mapping as an integral tool for visualising,

interacting, exploring and understanding crime.

Lancashire is finding crime mapping techniques to be
useful tools to drill down into areas to identify problems
that are not constrained by artificial geographic
administrative
boundaries around which resources would typically
be allocated. Their use of crime mapping allows them to
explore crime at a level that helps get into the specifics
of crime problems and breakdown the mechanisms that
initially created the problem.
Making crime mapping more integral to analysis has
made our intelligence products more innovative
Senior Analyst Mark Dallison, Lancashire Constabulary.
B. Tactical analysis
An example of one particular tool that supports tactical
and investigative analysis is the West Midlands Polices
Force Linked Intelligence System (FLINTS). FLINTS is a
dynamic crime fighting tool that incorporates GIS
technology
to help combine and present data about people
and places. The data held on FLINTS is up-to-date and
presented in a user friendly environment to allow quick
retrieval. For example, data from a range of information
systems can be easily searched by names, addresses,
vehicles and telephone numbers, and combined in
seconds to produce immediate analyses of crime trends
and links between people. All of these data can be
visualised on crime maps.
FLINTS gives officers the ability to build a graphic
pattern of links between crimes and criminals which
were previously thought to have no connection. It can
search the whole of the West Midlands square metre
by square metre to identify crime hotspots and can

even tell officers who is likely to have been committing

certain crimes. Discovering these links has resulted in
thousands of hours saved, and hundreds of crimes
solved and criminals convicted.
ACC Nick Tofiluk, West Midlands Police.
Information sharing and
partnership working
Police forces and their local CDRP partners are making
use of GIS-based information sharing systems to support
their core business service roles. Partnership systems
such as Amethyst (Devon and Cornwall), CADDIE
(Sussex), COSMOS (Birmingham), GMAC (Greater
Manchester), JUPITER (East Midlands GO region) and
NERISS (North East GO region) use crime mapping as
a fundamental tool to support the following business
functions,
Delivering timely management performance
reporting information
Operating a scanning facility to identify community
safety problems. This scanning role also includes
identifying and allowing easy access to data that is
fit for purpose to begin a detailed problem analysis
Analysis of crime and community safety problems
in a multi-agency environment
Providing the public with facts and reassurance
about community safety.
6. New developments in
crime mapping
Crime mapping is a continually evolving field. These
examples describe new and developing uses of crime
mapping;
Catching serial offenders: a technique known as
geographic profiling has been used by the Serious

Crime and Analysis Section at NCOF for a number

of years to support investigations on serious serial
crimes. Geographic profiling is an investigative
methodology that uses the locations of a connected
series of crimes to determine the most probable area
where an offender lives. Its application is also being
explored for other serial crimes such as distraction
burglary and robbery.
Prospective crime mapping: Existing methods of
predicting and mapping the future locations of crime
are intrinsically retrospective. Recent research
demonstrates
that the risk of burglary is communicable.
By using this understanding of burglary, new mapping
techniques have been developed and pilot tested
to reveal that a prospective mapping approach is
more accurate in predicting future burglary hotspots
than existing hotspot mapping techniques.
Mapping street crime risk: A study in Westminster
explored patterns in the risk of robbery and theft
snatch by using new techniques that model
pedestrian traffic to generate accurate counts of
pedestrians at the street level. Combining pedestrian
counts with street crime data identifies areas
where the likely risk of being a victim of robbery or
theft snatch is high. The analysis has helped to
understand that the street crime responses to an
area of high crime volume and high risk require
different attention and design to those responses
required in areas of high crime volume and low
risk, and low crime volume but high risk.

How do I make full use of

crime mapping?
The guide has described how crime mapping can support
policing, intelligence development and performance
improvement. To take advantage of the benefits offered
from crime mapping requires certain principles to be
in place.
Most police forces and constabularies already possess
the core infrastructure for crime mapping. It involves
four elements; hardware; software; data; and properly
trained people;
GIS software can already be found in all police
forces in England and Wales and most police IT
systems are adequate to run desktop GIS software.
Depending on the existing infrastructure, some
investment in technology and software is usually
required to take advantage of web-based and
mobile GIS
Police records need to contain good quality
geographic grid coordinates
All police forces have a licence to use Ordnance
Survey mapping and address data, and Census data
and Neighbourhood Statistics are free to download
from the internet. Many other forms of data can be
sourced through local partnerships
Analysts and other key staff need to have the skills
to maximise its use.
The guide describes a number of actions at the end of
each section that can be used as tips to help develop
crime mapping. At present there is no single national
facility or single contact whose role is to directly support
and provide advice on how to develop crime mapping.
This requirement is currently under review. A number of
contacts are provided at the back of this guide and who
are available to provide advice. We encourage you to

use these contacts. The following recommendations do

however identify how forces and constabularies can begin
to improve their use and develop crime mapping;
Recommendation 1: Champion crime mapping at the
senior level: Each force/constabulary should
identify a senior officer to actively champion and
lead on the development of crime mapping
Recommendation 2: Create a geographic data
management and support team: Create a central
team responsible for gazetteer maintenance,
geographical
data management (including the management
of data sourced from CDRP partners), analysis
support and servicing specific mapping requests.
Organisations such as the Jill Dando Institute of
Crime Science at University College London can
provide advice on how to create this team
Recommendation 3: Maintain high levels of
geographic data quality: Implement systems and
processes that ensure that data held on police
information systems is geocoded to levels that are
fit for purpose for geographical analysis. This not only
includes crime records, but also data on incidents,
offenders, victims, and stop and search. PITO,
Ordnance Survey and organisations such as the Jill
Dando Institute of Crime Science can provide
advice on how to achieve and maintain high levels
of geographical data quality
Recommendation 4: Develop skills in crime
mapping: Invest in a training programme that will
develop analysts skills specifically in geographical
crime analysis. Training should also be available to
all decision-makers to raise their awareness of crime
mappings potential. This training and awareness

raising should be directed to ensure,

The better integration of crime mapping into the
generation of intelligence products, making
geographical crime analysis a core theme in
analytical techniques
That GIS technology is taken advantage of to
support policing services, such as supporting
responses to incidents, problem-analysis,
performance review, reassurance, neighbourhood
policing and partnership working.
NCPE can provide some advice on the content
requirements
of these training courses. Organisations such as
the Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science and GIS software
providers can provide dedicated crime mapping training
and consultancy support.
Some screen shots from crime mapping guide( Crown
copyright 2005. Published by Home Office,
Communications Directorate, April 2005. 100018368)

References:
1- EASTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF POLICE
STAFF AND COMMAND
Sgt. Tina L. Alexander Southfield Police Department
Southfield, MI
2- IMPROVING SHIFT SCHEDULE AND WORK-HOUR
POLICIES AND PRACTICES TO INCREASE POLICE OFFICER
PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY
BRYAN VILA University of Wyoming GREGORY B.
MORRISON Ball State University DENNIS J. KENNEY John
Jay College of Criminal Justice
3-Police operations chapter 4
4-Crime Mapping: Improving Performance A good practice
guide for front line officers
5- Management of Stress and Coping Behaviour of
Police Personnel through Indian Psychological
Techniques Randhir Singh Ranta Himachal Pradesh
University, Shimla
6-www.Academia.edu