Its Time to Play,

Name That
Green Sand Casting Defect!
Foundrymen often are stumped by the origin of casting
defects. To aid in the analysis, this article explores common
green sand defects, their causes and possible remedies.
Ian Kay and Mark Nagel, Cast Metals Institute (CMI), Des Plaines, Illinois
Alfred T. Spada, Executive Editor

temperature is less than 212F

asting defect recogni(100C), it re-condenses, creating
tion is one of the most
a wet layer. This wet layer is
difficult tasks facing a
weaker than the normal green
metalcaster. With the multitude
sand or the hot, dry sand layer
of processes (coremaking, molddirectly beneath the metal. As
ing, melting, etc.) used to manuthe hot sand expands, the wet
facture a casting, determining
layer shears to allow the expanwhich is responsible for a defect
sion. The small ridge of sand that
requires analysis, testing and, most
extends into the mold cavity as a
importantly, experience.
result of the expansion can creOf all the departments within a
ate a line on the surface of the
foundry, more defects can be atcasting called a rattail (Fig. 1).
tributed to molding and the sand
This defect usually is formed on
system than any other. This is due
in part to the high number of com- Fig. 1. RATTAILCaused by expansion, it is a small ridge the drag portion of the casting.
In further filling of the mold
ponents that make up a green of sand that extends into the mold cavity and makes an
impression on the casting surface.
cavity, the molten metal radiates
sand mold. From the sand, clay
heat toward the cope casting surface. The moisture on this
and water to the carbon, cereal and other additives, each
surface vaporizes and permeates into the sand where it
component has properties that serve to reduce or control
condenses to form the wet layer. In the same manner as in the
specific defects in castings. However, when the amount of
drag portion of the mold, as the molten metal nears the cope
any one component is out of balance with regard to the
surface of the mold, the intensity of the radiant heat increases
casting being poured, the potential for defects arises.
and the sand in the dry sand layer expands. The wet layer
This article will examine the causes of common green sand
splits or shears to accommodate this expansion.
casting defects related to expansion, metal penetration, gas
As the metal completes the filling of the mold cavity, the
and weak sand while offering possible remedies. Although
sand buckles, creating a deep groove on the casting surface
every casting operation is different, common themes tie
called a buckle (Fig. 2). Sometimes the buckle will open up,
many of these defects together, allowing a foundry to follow
allowing the metal to run through the crack in the sand and
a simple step-by-step remedy progression to determine which
fill the void behind the buckle to create a scab (Fig. 3).
area(s) of mold development is responsible for the defect.
Although the rattail is synonymous with the drag and the
Expansion Defects
buckle and scab with the cope, the three expansion defects
may be found on either casting surface. When foundries are
Expansion defects are a family of defects that include
faced with these defects, the folrattails, buckles and scabs. These
lowing remedy progression should
defects originate, in part, from the
be applied to the sand system:
expansion of the sand gains when
make an addition of cellulose or
heated by the metal entering the
cereal to the sand to provide a place
mold. Silica sand expands the greatfor expansion to occur;
est amount when in contact with
lower the moisture content of the
the molten metal, as compared to
molding sand, which increases
olivine, chromite and zircon sands,
the overall mold strength;
which expand less.
lower the pouring temperature of
Beyond sand expansion, these
the metal (eliminate excess superdefects also are moisture related.
heat), which reduces the amount
As molten metal runs over the surof sand expansion;
face of a green sand mold, moisture
lower the temperature of the moldin the sand is converted to steam
ing sand from the return sand systhat permeates between the sand Fig. 2. BUCKLESDue to a weak wet layer in the mold,
tem to increase the strength propgrains. When the steam reaches a the sand can buckle and form a deep groove on the
erties of the sand;
point in the mold where the sand casting surface.
modern casting / September 2001

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 increase the clay content of

contacts the mold surface, it
the sand, especially sodium
quickly loses heat and a thin,
(western) bentonite, for better
solid skin forms against the
hot strength properties;
mold. This skin prevents mol improve the sand distribution
ten metal from penetrating into
to at least three screens to stagthe voids between the sand
ger the expansion and create
grains. When metal is poured at
a linear expansion curve;
higher temperatures, the extra
decrease the amount of fines
heat in the metal diffuses into
in the sand. Fines tend to soak
the sand, delaying the skin forup water, increasing overall
mation. Without the rapid formold moisture without increasmation of the skin, molten metal
ing mold strength;
has more time to penetrate into
avoid over-ramming or overthe sand, creating the defect.
squeezing the mold. This
Chemical ReactionIn this
pushes the moisture closer to
mechanism, a reaction occurs
Fig. 3. SCABSometimes the buckle in the sand will
the mold surface, increasing
between the liquid metal and
open up, allowing the metal to run through the crack in
the sand and fill the void behind the buckle to create a
the probability for defects;
the molding material. These rescab defect.
improve the sand mulling pracactions may produce products
tice to create a more homogthat act as glue, adhering the
enous sand mixture with better demolding sand to the casting.
veloped bond;
This reaction usually is limited to
fill the mold faster by increasing
ferrous alloys (especially steel).
the flow rate of the gating system
When these alloys are exposed to a
to leave less time for the heat to
source of oxygen (O) such as air or
act on the sand without pressure
water, the O may react with the iron
from the metal.
(Fe) in the ferrous alloy to form iron
oxide (FeO), also called wustite.
Adhering Sand Defects
Once formed, FeO can react with
Adhering sand defects are comsilica to form iron silicate or fayalite.
mon to all alloys poured in green
This is a liquid at metal pouring temFig. 4. BURN-ONThis defect usually can be
sand and are characterized by a
perature that easily wets the surface
removed during shotblasting.
rough casting surface or by sand stickof the silica and runs between the
ing to the casting surface. These desand grain. Fayalite then solidifies
fects may be found at a specific spot
around the grains, gluing the sand
on the casting such as a hot spot or
onto the surface of the casting.
over the entire casting surface. Two
The defect has two different
of the most common ways these deformsburn-on and burn-in. The
fects are produced are mechanical
difference is how tight the sand is
penetration and chemical reaction.
adhering to the casting surface,
Mechanical PenetrationThis is
which is a result of how fast the silithe penetration of metal into the mold
cate cools as it is being formed. Burnmaterial due to the metallostatic preson (Fig. 4) sand isnt held as tight
sure of the molten metal. It usually is
and usually can be removed during
seen when the sprue height is too
shotblasting. Burn-in usually requires
large. The greater the height of the
a grinding operation to remove it, if
metal in the mold from the top of the
it can be removed at all.
pouring cup to the bottom of the castRemedies for sand-adhering deing, the greater the pressure exerted
fects include:
on the liquid. High metal pressures
reduce the moisture content of
force molten metal between the sand
the sand because the moisture fills
grains where the metal solidifies, holdthe space between the sand grains.
Fig. 5. BLOWSA gas defect, it is denoted by
ing sand on the casting surface.
When the moisture evaporates aflarge voids in the casting due to entrapped,
Mechanical penetration also can
ter being hit by molten metal, it
soluble or reactive gas.
occur where the metal impinges on
then leaves open space for the
the mold wall. This dynamic presmetal to penetrate;
sure of the metal can force it into the sand grain openings.
improve mold compaction to increase density and leave less
This often occurs near the gate entrances to the casting. High
room for the metal to penetrate;
metal velocities found at the gates can produce the pressure
reduce metal velocity because higher velocities create more
necessary to create penetration defects.
pressure, allowing the metal to penetrate more easily;
Two factors that affect mechanical penetration are the sands
improve casting design and avoid metal re-entrant angles.
fineness and the metal pouring temperature. In general, the
Sharp internal corners create hot spots, which are areas
coarser the sand, the larger the voids between the sand grains.
where penetration is more likely occur;
It takes less pressure to force metal into larger voids.
reduce the metallostatic head pressure because the higher
In regard to pouring temperature, when the molten metal
the pressure, the easier metal can penetrate the mold wall;
modern casting / September 2001

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Copyright 2002 American Foundry Society.

 use a mold coating as a prethe gases released from the deventative barrier against the
composing mold and core mametal at the mold interface;
terials to follow, rather than
add a finer sand to the mix if
through the metal. Venting also
the GFN is too coarse for bethelps in situations where low
ter mold compaction;
permeability is a problem.
check metal chemistry and
Another factor related to venttemperature (especially in
ing is core print size. Smaller
iron) to ensure proper fluidity;
prints make the flow of gas
improve the mold filling with
through the prints difficult. Ofbetter gating to reduce velociten, venting of the cores through
Fig. 6. PINHOLESA gas defect, it is denoted by numerous
ties and avoid hot spots;
the print area can reduce or
small holes in the casting due to entrapped, soluble or
increase carbon additives
eliminate gas defects in castings.
reactive gas.
(seacoal) in the mold to creAnother aid can be core washes
ate the reducing atmosphere in
or coatings, which will help reduce
the mold that produces better surentrapped gas defects by sealing
face finish.
the surface of the core, forcing the
gas out through the core prints.
Gas Defects
Although venting molds and cores
Gas Defects are divided into two
can help reduce gas defects, a vent
major categoriesblows (Fig. 5),
only is effective while it is open. Vents
which are large voids in the casting,
on top of the casting cavity will allow
and pinholes (Fig. 6), which are
gases to escape prior to the complete
numerous small holes. For the most
filling of the cavity or possibly while
part, these gases can occur in castthe metal is in the molten state. Once
ings due to two mechanismsenthe vent fills with metal, it quickly
trapped gas and soluble gas.
freezes off. At that point, no further
Entrapped GasEntrapped gas is Fig. 7. STICKERSThis defect results from the mold- removal of gas from the mold cavity
ing sand sticking to the pattern as it is drawn from
derived from the thermal decompo- the mold.
can occur. This idea also applies to
sition of mold and core materials or
core print vents if the metal leaks
air and mold gas washed into the
into the print area. Sloppy fitting cores
casting from the gating system. Entrapped gases are free gases
often show gas related defects.
Soluble GasThis refers to gases that dissolve in molten
that float to the top of the molten metal as the casting solidifies.
metal. Aluminum alloys will dissolve hydrogen. Iron alloys will
Entrapped gas from core or mold binders occurs when
dissolve hydrogen and nitrogen. Copper base alloys will disthese organic materials degrade as they are exposed to the
solve hydrogen and oxygen. Steel alloys will dissolve hydrogen,
heat of the molten metal. The greater the amount of resin
nitrogen and oxygen. The problem is that molten metal can
used to manufacture the cores and molds, the greater the
hold a greater amount of gas in solution than solid metal can.
amount of gas to be generated. Entrapped gas from the gas
This means that large amounts of gas that may dissolve in
design occurs at the sprue or as metal flows through the
the liquid metal during melting, pouring and mold filling will
downsprue, runners and ingates. During pouring, care must
be expelled from the metal as it solidifies. During solidificabe taken to ensure that the sprue remains full and gas isnt
tion, the dissolved gases will precipitate into tiny bubbles of
pulled down with the metal. Also, if the poured metal undergas, forming pinholes in the casting.
goes excessive turbulence while flowing through the gating
Pinholes also may result from soluble gases near the
system, air and gas can become entrained and flushed into
casting surface. High sand moisture and combustible levels
the casting cavity.
in the mold may lead to the formation of these defects. As
If an entrapped gas bubble floats to the top of the mold
with entrapped gas, increasing sand permeability and mold
cavity, the gas should permeate into the molding sand before
and core venting can reduce these problems.
the metal can solidify around it. If the permeability is not
Remedies for gas related defects include:
sufficient, the gas may not have enough time to leave the
reduce the combustible level of the sand because commetal before solidification takes place.
bustibles create gas during pouring;
The force that pushes gas into the sand is the metal head
reduce the moisture content of the sand because moisture
pressure. If enough head pressure is not above the top of the
means more steam (gas);
casting, then the gas may not be expelled quick enough.
increase the sand permeability to allow the gases to esThe pouring temperature also is critical in ensuring trapped
cape through the mold;
gases are out of the casting. If a mold is poured too cold, the
with entrapped gases, increase the metal pouring temperametal quickly forms a solid skin. If the gas reaches the top of the
ture to increase metal fluid life, which provides entrapped
casting cavity after a skin has formed, the gas cannot permeate
gases more time to escape the mold and/or metal;
the solid metal skin and enter the sand.
with soluble gases, reduce the pouring temperature to
Another consideration with entrapped gas is mold/core
reduce the chance for gases to be dissolved in the metal;
venting. Gas is lazy. It simply follows the easiest route away
vent molds and cores to provide the gases a highway to
from where it is formed (path of least resistance). If gas is
escape through;
formed in the molding sand and the easiest way out is through
fill the mold quickly but quietly to avoid turbulence and
the metal, than that is where it will go. If gas can go through the
entrained oxides. Also, the quicker a mold fills, the less time
metal easier than through a core, then it will follow that route.
allowed for gases to form;
The venting of molds and cores provides an open path for
modern casting / September 2001

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Copyright 2002 American Foundry Society.

 reduce the binder level of

cores to reduce the gas-producing materials in the mold;
use a mold or core coating to
prevent gases from escaping
into the molten metal.

by sand with a low hot compressive strength. Erosion (Fig.

8) is excess metal on the casting surface at places where high
metal velocity exists, such as at
the front of a gate. Without sufficient hot strength, high metal
Weak Sand Defects
velocity washes the mold maTwo sand properties relate to
terial away, leaving an erosion
weak sand defectslow green
scab. The loosened sand may
strength and low hot strength.
be found as inclusions in other
Low Green Compressive
parts of the casting. Besides inStrengthTear-ups, stickers,
creasing the hot strength, redrops and crush are defects reducing ingate metal velocities
Fig. 8. EROSIONThis defect is excess metal on the casting
sulting from low green sand
also solves this problem.
surface at places where high metal velocity exists, such as
strength. This strength is affected
Run out (Fig. 9) describes the
in front of a gate.
primarily by the type of clay used,
defect where metal leaks out of
the amount of clay used and the
the mold at the parting line.
moisture content of the sand.
While a majority of run outs occur
If sand does not have sufficient
due to a lack of mold weight being
green strength, the mold may tear
placed in the mold prior to pouring,
up when the pattern is stripped.
a run out also can occur with low hot
Loose sand also may result, leading
strength. Metal pressure on the mold
to inclusions in the casting.
may push back the weak sand at the
Stickers (Fig. 7) are defects reparting line. This exposed area then
sulting from the molding sand sticklifts the cope, allowing the metal to
ing to the pattern as it is drawn from
flow freely out of the mold cavity.
the mold. The molten metal then
Increasing the sand clay content
forms the sticker defect when it fills
will increase hot strength properties.
Fig. 9. RUN OUTThis defect occurs when metal
the mold cavity. While stickers also
The correct mix of clay is critical as
leaks out of the mold through the parting line.
may be blamed on tooling that lacks
sodium bentonite has higher hot
the proper draft angle or has imstrength than calcium bentonite.
proper use of mold release agents, many problems occur
Another option (which does not apply to green strength)
when sand with a low green tensile strength is used.
is to increase the sand moisture, which increases hot strength.
Crush is a defect that occurs when two mold surfaces fit
However, due to the host of other problems high moisture
together poorly. If the sand is not strong enough, one mating
content causes, this is not recommended as a solution to
surface may give-in or crush. Loose sand from crushes often
inadequate sand hot strength.
leads to sand inclusions in other parts of the casting.
To improve sand hot strength, foundries can:
In general, increasing the percentage of clay in the
increase sodium bentonite levels in the mold to provide
sand increases its green compressive strength. This is true
better hot strength properties;
for clay levels up to 12%. Calcium (southern) bentonite
introduce better mulling practices for more consistent
develops higher green strength than equal amounts of
distribution of clays, sand and other additives throughout
sodium bentonite, so adding clay for green strength probthe mold;
lems is a logical choice.
reduce the combustibles in the sand mix because they
To improve sand green strength, foundries can:
increase the mold moisture content and gas-producing
increase calcium bentonite levels in the mold to increase
ability, but usually do not strengthen the mold
mold green strength;
It is of the utmost importance that the metalcaster under introduce better mulling practices to allow for better and
stand the complex relationships that exist between the commore consistent distribution of clays, sand and other addiponents of a green sand system. While looking at the remtives throughout the mold;
edies suggested in this article, some of the solutions seem to
reduce the moisture level in the sand. Excess moisture
contradict one another. To ensure success, sand properties
weakens the mold.
should be compared to casting scrap (and to good castings),
Low Hot StrengthThis is the strength of the sand during
and limits should be set up to ensure that the sand system
and just after pouring, and is a common cause of defects for
runs at a level that does not produce either defect. Controliron and steel foundries where higher metal temperatures
ling a sand system can be like walking a tightropetoo far
are required. The defects that occur due to this problem are
one way or the other means trouble, but if you stay on the
swell, erosion and run outs.
straight path (within pre-established ranges), things come

Swell refers to swollen, oversized castings that result when

out OK at the other end of the line.
the mold wall is not capable of holding the castings shape
This article was adapted from the CMI class Practical Green Sand
Control. For more information, contact CMI at 800/537-4237.
while the molten metal is in the mold. Swell occurs when the
For a free copy of this article circle No. 344 on the Reader Action Card.
mold wall is pushed back due to the head pressure on the
metal. Although this may occur with an inadequately rammed
For More Information
mold with low sand compactability, swell typically occurs
International Atlas of Casting Defects, AFS, Des Plaines, IL (1993).
when the sand hot compressive strength is too low.
Analysis of Casting Defects, AFS, Des Plaines, IL (1997).
Mold erosion (also called cuts or washes) can be caused
Casting Defects Handbook, AFS, Des Plaines, IL (2000).
modern casting / September 2001

32

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Copyright 2002 American Foundry Society.