SoilMechanicsI

CE 222
CE222
Chapter1:Originofsoilandgrainsize

Earthscore
TheCrusthasathicknessof
about10to40km.Itismostly
madeupoflightsilicateswithan
average =3g/cm3.
Theupperandlowermantleis
about 3000 km thick and is made
about3000kmthick,andismade
upofmetallicsilicatesand
sulfideswith =3.5to6g/cm3.
Theliquidcoreisabout2100km
thickandismadeupprimarilyof
liquidFeandNi,witha =10
g/cm3.
Thesolidinnercorehasa
diameter of 1300 km and a =13
diameterof1300kmanda
13
g/cm3.

DifferentrocktypesfoundonEarthssurface

Rockcycle
Basictypesofrock:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic

ROCKCYCLE:istheformationcycleof
differenttypesofrockandtheprocesses
associatedwiththem

Igneousrocks
Igneousrocksarecreatedwhen
moltenmaterialsuchasmagma
(within the Earth) or lava (on the
(withintheEarth)orlava(onthe
surface)coolsandhardens.The
hotmaterialscrystallizeinto
different minerals
differentminerals.
Thepropertiesandsizesofvarious
crystals depend on the magmass
crystalsdependonthemagma
compositionanditsrateofcooling.
Examples:
Examples:Granite,Obsidian,
Granite Obsidian
Basalat,Pumice,Andesite,Diorite,
Rhyolite.

Igneousrocks

Igneousrocks

Anexampleofadike
An
example of a dike
crossingthrougha
limestoneformation.

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Igneousrocks

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Igneousrocks
Thisrockisanintrusive
igneousrock,thatwas
g
,
formedbyapooloflava
thathardensunderthe
surfaceandthen
becomesvisiblewhenthe
surroundings get eroded
surroundingsgeteroded.

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Sedimentaryrocks
Sedimentaryrocksaremadeupof
sedimentserodedfromigneous,
metamorphic other sedimentary
metamorphic,othersedimentary
rocks,andeventheremainsof
deadplantsandanimals.
Thesematerialsaredepositedin
layers,orstrata,andthensqueezed
and compressed into rock
andcompressedintorock.
Mostfossilsarefoundin
sedimentaryrocks.
y
Examples:sandstone,shale,
conglomerate,limestone,chert,
coal,gypsum.

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Sedimentaryrocks

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Sedimentaryrocks

15

Aconglomerateisasedimentaryrockthathaspiecesofotherrocksglued.

Sedimentaryrocks
LayeredlimestoneatTrentonFalls,NewYork

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Sedimentaryrocks
Asandstoneformationshowsthebeddingplanes.

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Sedimentaryrocks

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Thispinkcoloredsandstonewasformedwhensandwasburiedand
compressed,usuallyoffshoreofriverdeltas,butcanoccurindeserts
also.
l

Metamorphicrocks
Metamorphicrocksaremuchlesscommonatthe
earthssurfacethanaresedimentaryrocks.
y
Theyareproducedwhensedimentaryorigneous
rocks literally change their texture and structure as
rocksliterallychangetheirtextureandstructureas
wellasmineralandchemicalcomposition,asaresult
ofheat,pressure,andshear.
Examples:Marble,slate,quartzite,schist,gneiss

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20

Metamorphicrocks
Gneissisformedfromgranite,gabbrosanddioritethatmineralsin
distinctbands

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Metamorphicrocks

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Marbleisthemeltingandcoolingofalimestone.Thecolorisa
functionoftheimpuritiesoftheparentlimestone(pinkforiron,etc.)

Weathering
Weatheringconvertsexposedrocktosoilinplace
Erosiontransportsdissolvedorfragmentedmaterialfrom
transports dissolved or fragmented material from
Erosion
thesourceareawhereweatheringisoccurringtoa
depositionalenvironment.
Mostoftheearthssurfaceiscoveredbyexposureof
sedimentorsedimentaryrock,byarea.
Butthesedimentlayeristhininmostplaces,with
respecttooverallcrustalthickness,sosedimentaryrock
isaminorvolumefractionofthecrust(inpartby
definition:onceburiedtothemidcrust,sedimentsget
cooked to metasediments)
cookedtometasediments).

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25

There are two primary types of weathering:

Chemical and Physical/Mechanical
1. Physical Weathering the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller

pieces without a change in chemical composition.

Root/Plant Wedging/Action

Ice/Frost Wedging/Action

Exfoliation and Abrasion are also types of physical weathering

weathering.
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MechanicalWeathering
MechanicalUnloading.Verticalexpansion,erosionreduces
loadopeningfractures
MechanicalLoading.Impactandabrasionofwindborne
particlesindesertsandeffectofintenseraindrops
ThermalLoading.Expansionoffreezingwater,highandlow
temperatures
Wettinganddrawing.Repeatedloss&abrasionofwaterin
certainclays
Crystallization. Formationofcrystalsinfissuresandpores,
originallyinsolution
PneumaticLoading.Waveseffectontrappedairincliffs.

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2. Chemical Weathering the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller

pieces by chemical action. The rocks breaks down at the same time as it
changes chemical composition. The end result is different from the original
rock. There are 3 types of chemical weathering:
11. Oxidation oxygen combines with the elements in the rock and it
reacts. This the scientific name for rust.

2. Hydration water can dissolve away many earth materials,

including certain rocks.
3. Carbonation carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.
This makes acid rain which chemically weathers (dissolves) rocks. Other acids
also combine with water to make acid rain.
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Chemical Weathering

Sinkholes

Caves

Disappearing
streams

There are 4 factors that effect the rate of weathering:

1.. Su
Surface
face Area
ea (e
(exposure)
posu e) - Exposing
pos g more
o e su
surface
ace aarea
ea will
w increase
c ease thee rate
a e of
o

weathering. Promote chemical weathering.

2. Particle Size Larger particles weather slower and smaller particles weather
at a faster rate.
3. Chemical Composition (what a rock is made of) Certain rocks and minerals

are naturally weaker than others, while others are more resistant (stronger).
4. Climate Warmer, moister climates have the most weathering. Heat & Water
speed up all chemical reactions. This is the most important factor in weathering.
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There are 2 types of soil

relative to the location of
the
h parent rockk:
1. Transported
2. Residual

Transported Soils soils that formed in one place and were transported to their
present location either by wind, water or glaciers. You can tell when the soil
does not chemically match the bedrock below it.
Residual Soils soils that are located above the rocks that they formed from. In
other words, the soil chemically matches the bedrock below it, because it is a
product of that rocks weathering over time.
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Soildeposits

33

Heterogeneousandanisotropicmaterial
Heterogeneous and anisotropic material
Layered

34

Whattypeofweatheringoccursinanareathathasanaverageof165cmofrain
What
type of weathering occurs in an area that has an average of 165 cm of rain
eachyearandanaveragetemperatureof18C?________________________
yp
g
p p
Whattypeofweatheringoccursinanareathathasabout140cmofprecipitation
eachyearandanaveragetemperatureof5C?_________________________
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Transportationofweatheringproducts
ICE

GRAVITY

TRANSPORTATION
AGENTS

WIND

WATER

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There are 4 basic products of weathering, that can be eroded:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Soils
Solid Sediments (boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt)
Colloids/Clay Particles (not visible to your eye)
Ions (very small electrically charged particles)

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Mount Rushmore
It will not be there forever!!

There is a pile of weathered material at the

bottom. It is slowly being eroded down hill
byy gravity.
g
y
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Transportedsoils
Transportedsoils:dependsontheirmodeoftransportation
Glacialsoils
Glacial soils aretransportedanddepositedbyglaciers
are transported and deposited by glaciers
Alluvialsoils aretransportedanddepositedbystreams
andrivers
d i
Lacustrine soils arethedepositsinquietlakes
Marinesoils aredepositedunderseas
Aeoliansoils
Aeolian soils aretransportedanddepositedbywind
are transported and deposited by wind
Colluvialsoils arerapidlydepositedsoilsviagravityin
the form of mudslides or landslides
theformofmudslidesorlandslides.

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Assoonasarockparticle(loosenedbyoneofthe
As
soon as a rock particle (loosened by one of the
twoweatheringprocesses)moves,wecallit
erosion ormasswasting.
Masswastingissimplymovementdownslopedueto
gravity.
gravity
,
p,
p
Rockfalls,slumps,anddebrisflowsareallexamples
ofmasswasting.Wecalliterosioniftherock
particleismovedbysomeflowingagentsuchasair,
water or ice.
waterorice.

You can identify which agent of erosion transported each sediment by looking at
a few characteristics:

Running
R
i Water
W
sediments
di
that
h have
h
been
b
transportedd through
h
h
running water appear rounded and smooth and are deposited in
sorted piles.
p
Glaciers sediments that have been transported by glaciers appear
scratched, grooved, and are deposited in completely unsorted
piles,
il because
b
they
h were dropped
d
d during
d i melting.
li
Also,
Al boulders
b ld
can only be transported by glaciers.
Wind - sediments that have been transported by wind are appear
pitted (random holes) and frosted (glazed look) and are deposited
in sorted piles. Only very small particles can be transported by
wind.
wind
Gravity sediments that are transported by gravity are found in
piles at the bottom of cliffs or steep slopes. They appear angular
and unsorted.
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Glacialsoils
Thegeneraltermdriftis
appliedtoalldeposits
that are laid down
thatarelaiddown
directlybyglaciers.
Driftiscalledtillwhen
if
ll d ill h
unstratified(i.e.
composed of boulders
composedofboulders
weighingseveraltonsto
gravels,sands,silts,and
clayparticlesareall
mixedup).

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Glacialsoils
Thedepositsoftill
producetopographical
features called moraines
featurescalledmoraines.
Aterminalmoraineisa
ridgeoftillthatmarks
thelimitofglaciers
advance whereas a great
advance,whereasagreat
amountoftillspreadout
acrossavalleyfloorto
y
formagentlerolling
plainiscalledaground
moraine.
i

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Glacierdrift

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Alluvialsoils

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Wateristhemostimportanterosionagentand
erodesmostoftenasrunningwaterinstreams
orrivers.

Alluvialsoils
Depositionmorelikelyatlower
velocities
E i
Erosionmorelikelyathigher
lik l
hi h
velocities

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Alluvialsoils
Velocityvariationsintwoplanesinastream

48

Alluvialsoils
Zonesofmaximumturbulenceinastream

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Alluvialsoils

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River Patterns

Meandering Stream Processes and Formation of Oxbow

Lake

Oxbow Lakes

Lacustrine soils
Lakedepositiontakesplaceastheriverentersthelargebody
ofquietwater,whichforcesadropofriversflowvelocityto
practicallyzero.
Shortlybeforearrivingtotheriverlakeinterface,thevelocity
d
dropissufficienttodropgravelsintheriverbed.
i
ffi i
d
l i h i
b d
Inthedepthsofthelakearefoundthesiltsandclays.Aslake
fill
fillup,theyturnintoamarshorbog.
th t
i t
h b
Incoldclimatestheychokewithundecayedvegetablematter
th t ill lti t l
thatwillultimatelyproducepeat.
d
t
Eventuallysurfacedriesoutandthelakedisappears.

53

Lacustrine soils

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Marinesoils
Therearetwodistinctmarinedeposits:offshoreandshore.
Offshore
Offshoredepositsareverysimilartolacustrine
deposits are very similar to lacustrine deposits,exceptthat
deposits except that
theyaremuchlargerinsizeandflocculationisinsensitivedueto
highconcentrationofsaltsintheoceans.
Shoredepositsaretheproductofwavesthatbreakwhilearriving
towardsashore,anddropsuspendedsandandsiltstoforma
offshorebarorspit.
Littoraltransportisthetermusedforthetransportofnoncohesive
sediments,i.e.mainlysand,alongtheforeshoreandtheshoreface
due to the action of the breaking waves and the longshore current.
duetotheactionofthebreakingwavesandthelongshore
current
Thelittoraltransportisalsocalledthelongshore transportor
the littoraltransport.

55

Marinesoils
TheMarMenorlakeinSpainwascutofffromthe
MediterraneanSeabylittoraldrift

56

Winddeposits
Alsoknownasaeolian deposits.
Wi
Windscanmovesandysoilparticlesbyrollingthem
d
d
il
ti l b
lli th
alongthegroundandliftingtheminair.
Winddepositedsandsareknownasdunes.
Finegrainedsoilscanbeairborneoverlong
g
g
distancesbywinds.
Awind
A winddeposited
depositedsiltisknownasloess.
silt is known as loess

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Winddeposits dunes
Stagesofasanddunesformation

58

TheWorkofWind
Suspension
Sliding
Rolling
Saltation

TheWorkofWind

Onlysmallparticles(<20m)canremainin
l
ll
i l (
)
i i
suspensionforlongtimeperiods.

Colluvialsoils
Colluvialsoilsareproducedby
movementofsoilfromitsoriginal
placebygravity,suchasmudflows
andlandslides.
Usually,themovementofsoilis
ll h
f il i
slow,andiscalledcreep.
IInmountains,rocksfalland
t i
k f ll d
accumulateatthebottomforming
atalus.
Mudflowsandlandslidesarevery
commonintropicalareasdueto
highrainfall.

61

Earth / land flow

humidareas
hillsides
richinclay/silt
slowrates

Deposition the process where sediments are

released/dropped by their agent of erosion.
Most deposition happens in standing/still bodies of water
(oceans/lakes).
Deposition is caused by the slowing down (loss of kinetic
energy) of the agent of erosion.

There are 3 factors

Th
f
that
h influence
i fl
the
h rate off sediment
di
deposition:
1. Sediment size
2. Sediment shape
3. Sediment density 63

Graded Bedding/Vertical Sorting a situation where larger

particles settle on the bottom and smaller particles settle towards the
top. This happens naturally when a fast moving river/stream meets a
large standing body of water. This happens because the velocity of
th water
the
t decreases
d
very quickly.
i kl (A waterfall
t f ll emptying
t i into
i t a lake)
l k )

64

Horizontal Sorting a situation where moving water enters a

l
larger,
still
ill body
b d off water slowly,
l l andd causes the
h larger
l
particles
i l to
be deposited closer to the shoreline. Particle size decreases as you
move awayy from the shore.

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Delta a fan shaped deposit that forms at the mouth of a

river/stream
i /
when
h it
i enters a larger
l
body
b d off water. This
Thi is
i seen
under the water. The particles are horizontally sorted.

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Alluvial Fan - a fan shaped deposit of sediments that forms

when
h a stream/river
t
/i
flows
fl
outt off a mountain
t i on to
t flat,
fl t dry
d plains.
l i
These are not under water and are very visible. This only
happens on the land. You can call it a land delta.

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Cross-Bedding a situation where

layers of sediments are deposited
at angles to one another as a result
of a change of direction of the
erosional
i l agent.
These are usually found in sand
dunes deltas
dunes,
deltas, and alluvial fans.
fans

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Any Question

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