Research Paper

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient

India
C. Panduranga Bhatta

Introduction
The very fact that the Earth once supported about four billion species of life, and that the
number today has come down to only four million species shows how life is being extinguished
rapidly (Singh,1995:174). There is no guarantee that the remainder of it too, will not disappear
soon. It has become necessary on the part of human beings to work for the survival of all
living beings because their own survival is dependent on coexistence.
Swami Vivekananda observed: The problem of life is becoming deeper and broader everyday
as the world moves on. The watch word and the essence have been preached in the days of
yore when the Vedantic truth of solidarity of all life was first discovered. One atom in this
universe cannot move without dragging the whole world along with it1. Hence, what we need
today for survival is synthesis, the ecological perspective, and the holistic view besides
developing a sincere appreciation of interdependence. The achievement of this may be
facilitated through a dialogue with ancient India which is the aim of this article. It also tries to
bring a few salient points in order to influence an environment-friendly lifestyle to save
further degradation of natural resources.
The main emphasis of ancient Indian concepts in this regard is on the inherent balance of
nature. The five primary elements namely earth, water, fire, air and space together with flora
and fauna form a network of interrelations which ultimately culminates in giving rise to a
grand harmony among everything. The Mahabharata says that the coexistence of wild beasts
and the forests is necessary for the welfare of both. The presence of tigers protects the forest
from being destroyed by people, while the forest protects the tigers by allowing them to live
in its interiors in peace2. The present-day concern of ecologists starts with the assumption
that we have to take care of the environment as it affects our living. On the other hand, the
ancient concern of Indians started with the assumption that they were a part of a larger
existence (Misra, 1992:57). The Vedas and the Upanishads, the Puranas, and classical literature
clearly enunciate this viewpoint. This worldview prompted them to treat the environment with

1
2

Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. III, P. 269.

Mahabharata, Ashvamedha Parva, Chapter, 92.

C. Panduranga Bhatta is Professor at the Department of Business Ethics and Communication, Indian
Institute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata, E-mail: cpbhatta@iimcal.ac.in

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

104

reverence and also created an awareness in them that the great forces of nature-the earth, the
sky, the air, the water, and fire - as well as various orders of life including plants, trees, forests
and animals are all bound to each other within the great rhythms of nature. They were also
aware of the positive effect of pure air, water and natural plants, trees etc., on the human mind
and hence took much interest in preserving them3.
Further, the trusting kinship between human beings, birds, beasts, plants and trees, and a
conviction in their mutual interdependence mark the authentic ancient Indian approach towards
environment. Ancient Indians were deistic towards nature, holding it in a deep sense of
respect and worship (Kunhan Raja C, 1957:136-146).
The Vedic seers perceived the value of maintaining a harmonious relationship between the
needs of human beings and the spectacular diversity of the universe. To them, nature was not
only a mother to sustain their life; it was the abode of divinity. They did not believe that
humans role on Earth was to exploit nature for their own selfish purposes. Nor did they
believe in the view that the true end of humans was essentially to dominate and control nature
by all possible means. On the contrary, sanctity of life to them included not only the individual
efforts to seek salvation but also to achieve it by developing a sacred attitude towards nature
and its manifestations. This is evidenced in the sacred concept of deva-yajna in which human
beings are asked to worship the Gods who are personifications of various natural phenomena.
They had great love and regard for the five primary elements namely, (1) the earth, (2) the
water, (3) the fire, (4) the air and (5) the space, collectively called pancha-mahabhutas. The
ancient Indian view of the five elements acknowledges that they are essential for peace,
happiness and tranquillity in the universe and for the flowering and development of humanity.
Inconsiderate consumption and the accelerated exploitation of natural resources and
destruction of the precious environment cannot go on forever. The resources of the earth
have to be protected and sustained not only for humankind, but also for other species; and
not only for this generation, but for generations to follow. To sustain the resources of the
Earth, the approach must not be centered on any one species like the human being, but
should encompass the entire life-support system. According to the Vedas, the Earth is home
to a very large family of living organisms. The earth is looked upon as a gigantic superorganism which is living, dynamic, evolving and continuing. Ancient Indians concern started
with the assumption that humankind is part of a larger existence. Nature worship found in
ancient Indian literature is only a quest for fullness, a quest for integration of the part with the
whole. The fullness of life is visualized sometimes through the kinship image, the earth as the
mother, the sky as the father, the vegetation as brother or sister. The splendor of the moon, the
stars, the rising sun, the winds, the sky, the vegetation, the animals, birds, rivers, trees and
mountains together form the beauty of the natural creation in its entirety. The man, universe
and God were generally regarded as the three main themes of mans religio-philosophical
speculations. The three ancient civilizations had their respective watch words. The watch
word of the ancient Western thought was I (aham); that of the ancient Chinese thought was
3

Atharva Veda, V. XXI.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

105

We (vayam); and that of the ancient Indian thought was All (vishvam) (Dandekar,1979).
Ancient Indian thought does not consider man as standing apart from the universe, much
less as enjoying any preponderance in it. The human being is looked upon just as one of the
many forms in which the Supreme Being is manifested in this universe. Ancient Indians
realized that in so many ways the various species of animals and birds enter into our lives and
we have obligations towards them. When this awareness is keenly felt, every act becomes an
expression of harmony. One should look upon the entire creation with a unified vision a
non-differentiating, distinction-less vision. Out of compassion, one seeks to promote the
welfare of the world by setting up the right norms of action. The delicate and holistic balance
that exists in nature has to be respected and maintained. We should care for the well-being of
the planet as a whole, together with all its inhabitants (including humans) and non-living
resources.
Nature Worship and Prayers for a Peaceful Environment
To the ancient Indian psyche conquest over nature is a self-defeating goal; it is harmony and
more than harmony, it is humble submission to the infinite in the finite, which is the cherished
goal. They offered many prayers for a peaceful environment. The Atharva-Veda calls out for
peace in the hymn given below:
Now let the earth be in peace and
the air, the sky, the waters, the herbs, the trees be in peace.
Let the gods give us peace and Peace comes from these calls for peace.
With these peace calls that assuage everything,
I give peace to the terrible here,
to the cruel here, to the evil,
let them now be quiet, mean well,
let everything be good to us
(Translated into English)4.
According to the Ishavasya Upanishad, the entire universe and everything in it, animate and
inanimate belongs to God. We should not covet anything. We should treat everything around
us reverently, as custodians. We should enjoy but neither hoard nor kill5. Upanishadic sages
firmly believed that our duty is to follow the eternal law of Nature without any violation and
if we do so Nature will honour us with bounty. The following hymn given below explains this
idea in a telling manner.

4
5

Atharva Veda, V.19-9.

Ishavasya Upanishad, I.1.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

106

For one that lives according to Eternal law,

The winds are full of sweetness.
The rivers pour sweets.
So many plants be full of sweetness for us.
Sweet be the night and sweet the dawns.
Sweet be our Father Heaven to us.
May the forest trees be full of sweets for us.
And full of sweetness the Sun,
May the kine be full of sweetness
(Translated into English)6.
The ancient Indians sought fellowship with every living being and the same is expressed in
the following hymn of the Yajurveda:
May all beings look on me with the eye of a friend,
May I look on all beings with the eye of a friend,
May we look on one another with the eye of a friend (Translated into English)7.
Yajurveda states that service to animals is a heavenly activity. No person should kill animals
helpful to all; by serving them one should obtain happiness (Translated into English)8
Another popular Vedic prayer quoted below prays for universal happiness based on genuine
compassion:
sarve bhavantu sukhinah sarve santu niramayah/
sarve bhadrani pasyantu md kascit duhkhabhag bhavet / /
May everyone in this world be happy,
May everyone be free from diseases,
May everyone see prosperity,
May none come to grief (Swami Yatiswarananda, 1971:232)
The ancient Indians considered the terrestrial earth as mother. The Atharvaveda has a whole
prayer named Prithivi-Sukta in praise of earth9. The earth is seen here as the abode of a family
of all beings-human as well as others. She nourishes us all, but when angered by misdeeds of
her children punishes them with disaster. Verse 11 in the Sukta, is given below:

6
7
8
9

Rig Veda, I.90.6-8.

Yajur Veda, 34.
Yajur Veda, 13. 47.
Atharva Veda, XII,1, 1-63.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

107

O Mother Earth! Sacred are thy hills, snowy mountains, and

deep forests. Be kind to us and bestow upon us happiness. May
you be fertile, arable, and nourisher of all. May you continue to
support people of all races and nations. May you protect us
from your anger (natural disasters). And may no one exploit and
subjugate your children (Translated into English).
According to ancient Indian thought tradition all human beings must discharge five pious
obligations called rinas. Among these obligations deva-rina and bhuta-rina are directly
related to environment and hence they are discussed below (Bhatta, 2000a:29-32).
Deva-Rina: The first obligation is called deva-rina which human beings owe to the Gods
(devas), who control nature and its various phenomena. Offerings to the Gods (deva-yajna)
are made through sacrifices (yajnas) and prayers (prarthanas) to express ones gratitude for
the great gifts of nature such as water, light and air.
Bhuta-Rina: Human beings have a duty towards all those who contribute directly or even
indirectly, even an atom and they owe a debt to all sub-human species (bhuta-rina) which
contribute to the quality of life. They have to discharge this debt by observing bhuta-yajna.
Bhuta-yajna is a sacrifice mainly to the animals and birds. It is recommended chiefly on
humanitarian grounds. The animals and birds too contribute to humans welfare and therefore
humans too should feed them. The directions to give food to dogs and birds both in the
morning and evening in a ceremony known as vaishvadeva is the outcome of the noble
sentiment of universal kindness and charity.
According to ancient Indian scriptures the food to be offered should be sprinkled over with
ghee or with curds or milk but not with oil or salt. Thus, offering food that is mixed up with
inferior food to birds and insects is prohibited. It is said that even when one is not going to eat
on a particular day one must offer vaishvadeva. If one could afford no food, one must offer
fruits, roots or in the least, water. These scriptures condemn to hell one, who takes ones own
meal without offering vaishvadeva, when one is not in distress or difficulty. It may be mentioned
here that rice flour is used for making designs called rangoli in front of houses in the morning.
This practice is prevalent in many parts of India even to this day. This is to feed small insects
such as ants everyday. But now a days, without knowing the grand philosophy existing
behind this custom, people are using coloured chemical powders to make the designs, but the
insect may not get any benefit out of this instead they may die if they partake of such
chemicals.
Ancient Indian thinkers encouraged the construction of tanks near pasture lands so that
cattle coming to graze may quench their thirst; took care not to stone up all the four sides but
leave at least one side as an earthen ramp for animals; put up brick pillars to help cattle scratch
their neck and backs, and so forth. The scriptures broadly classify dharma as ista and purta.
Ista comprises those duties that spiritually elevate the individual. The purta partakes of the
character of social duties; to dig wells, tanks, to erect places of common worship, to plant
Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

108

trees, and see that no trees are cut, to lay pathways and roads, to look after orphanages, to
provide resting places for the tired wayfarer, and so on (Naganathan, 2004:25-27).
Sense of Oneness and the Theory of Divine Presence
Animals have always been a central element in the holistic perception of nature in ancient
India. In its mythology every God and Goddess is depicted with a particular animal as his or
her carrier. The bull, the eagle, the lion, the elephant, the swan, the cow, the mouse and so on
are the carriers of various Gods and Goddesses (Swami Harshananda, 1982). The point
conveyed here is that the animals are not to be looked upon as creatures to be cruelly
exploited but as partners with human beings in the journey of life. Even if one does not have
any overflowing love for the frog, at least ones self-love should dictate that ones survival is
tied up with the survival of the frog.
The distinction between the living and the non-living ceases to exist for a human being who
has attained the ultimate vision of Reality. This is the experience of saints, sages and mystics
of all countries and creeds. The pivotal teachings of the Upanishads like sarvam khalvidam
brahma - all that exists is verily the Brahman, isavasyam idam sarvam - everything is
enveloped by the ultimate Reality speak of this truth. In the world of scientific discovery, this
ancient truth is being recognized and supported in many different ways, through many kinds
of experiments with the non-living like metals, and the world of plant-life. Swami Vivekananda
observes; in science everyday they are coming to a similar broad view of matter. You speak
of matter, the whole universe as one mass, one ocean of matter, in which you and I, the sun
and the moon, and everything else are but the names of different little whirlpools and nothing
more.. It is one unchangeable, unbroken, homogeneous Atman10.
The Bhagavad-Gita describes the whole universe as a wheel of sacrifice which operates on
the ethical principle of mutual interdependence among its constituents11. It looks upon
humankind just as part and parcel of the universe, as if it is one of the many forms in which the
Supreme Being is manifested in this universe. In the divine form (vishvarupa) of Lord Krishna,
Arjuna saw the whole universe with its many divisions drawn together into one. The cosmic
life is manifesting itself as the human beings, as animals, as birds, as the vegetable kingdom
and other species12. Among the mountains, the Himalayas are the greatest, leaving its beholders
awestruck and the Lord identifies himself with the Himalayas. Ashvattha is the Pipal tree and
it yields no edible fruit and nothing in this tree is in any way useful to humans. Still it has ever
been associated with the worship of the divine as Lord Krishna identifies himself with it13.
The best of the cows, horses and the best of the elephants are manifestations of the divine
glory of the Lord. The serpent is a venomous creature but the Lord speaks of the poisonous
snake Vasuki as His own glory. The Nagas are non-poisonous snakes and the Lord rests on
Ananta and hence it has divine presence14. The lion is the lord of beasts and he is majestic
10
11
12
13
14

Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. III, P. 241.

Bhagavad Gita, III, 14-15.
Bhagavad Gita, X. 20-41.
Bhagavad Gita, X. 26.
Ibid. X.29.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

109

and magnanimous in his own way. Because of his power he has become the vehicle of the
cosmic mother. Vainateya is another name for Garuda and Lords glory is found in this bird
also. All the four elements-earth, water, fire and air are in fact purifiers and among them air is
all pervading and is capable of purifying earth, water and fire too. It makes fire burn; it
converts impure water into vapour and reinstates it as pure rain water. The smell produced by
earth and earthly things are purified and made odourless by air. The glory of the Lord reveals
itself through this great purifier as He identifies himself with it15. Finally, Lord Krishna says
that there is no being, whether moving or nonmoving in which he is not present. The
Vishnupurana says that the whole world constituted of all beings is an expansion of Lord
Vishnu. It says that the humans, animals, birds, trees and crawling creatures are forms of Lord
Vishnu. The whole creation comprising the nonmoving and the moving should be looked as
one self, for Lord Vishnu takes the form of the entire universe. According to it the whole world
is but a manifestation of Vishnu who is identical with all beings. The true worship of Vishnu is
the perception of the sameness. It says that, equal consideration of all is the worship of Lord
Vishnu16.
Ethical and Legal Practices for Protecting the Environment
The Vedas instruct people not to kill animals like bullocks useful for agriculture or like cows
which give us milk and all other helpful animals. The ancient Indian medical system namely
Ayurveda, regards the presence of animals, birds and other creatures as necessary for a
healing and balanced environment According to Carakasamhita the destruction of forests is
most dangerous for the nation and for human beings17. According to it, the vegetable kingdom
has a direct relationship with the well being of the society. According to Susrutasamhita a
physician must not render any medical aid to hunters, bird-catchers and others. According to
these writers, vegetable life and animals must be protected because they are useful to
mankind.18
The belief that a God dwelt in a tree or that the tree was the spirit naturally made the cutting
down of trees a very undesirable act. The healing power of plants and their utility in curing
human diseases were known to people during the Vedic age. Manu was of the opinion that
according to the usefulness of the several kinds of trees graded fines were to be imposed for
injuring them. According to Vasistha not even the king should be allowed to injure trees that
bore fruits and flowers19.
It may be pointed out here that Kautilya, the author of Arthashastra knew that every creature
has its own role to play in maintaining the environment. According to him, notified carnivorous
and herbivorous animals, birds and aquatic animals as well as animals in the notified areas are
neither to be caught and killed nor molested. A young one, in any area shall not be killed or
injured according to Kautilya. This reveals Kautilyas concern to ensure the preservation of
15

Ibid. X.31.
Vishnu Purana, I. 17. 82-85.
17
Charaka Samhita, 3.II.
18
Susruta Samhita, II.5.
19
Vasistha Smriti, XIX, 11-12.
16

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

110

all species. Kautilya lays down that for injuring such trees as were situated in city parks and
bore flower, fruits and yield shade, punishments were to vary according to the part of the trees
damaged. He firmly believed that human beings have no right to use animals for their luxury,
because he states that skin, hair, bones and other things are to be collected from dead animals.
According to him causing pain or killing animals is a cognizable offence20
Trees played a considerable part in the administration of ancient Indian kingdoms. The practice
of planting saplings of shady fruit trees along public roads, and laying out gardens for public
use, dates back to remote antiquity. The practice had a religious sanction and public gardens
were solemnly consecrated. The planting of trees has been proclaimed as conducive to great
merit21. Trees came to be regarded as so important that their felling or deforestation without
reason and permission was looked upon as a penal offence. Sage Patanjalis Yogasutra contains
many ethical guidelines related to environment. Yoga means discipline and control over body
and mind, through physical practices, and ethical code of conduct.
The latter has eight formal disciplines of which, the first two (yamas and niyamas) have direct
relevance to the environment and the ethics of using natural resources. Yamas are essentially
moral commandments or ethical guidelines, which deal with underlying principles governing
our relation with other human beings, other species in the biosphere and our surroundings.
Yama deals with what human beings should refrain from doing to the environment. The first
yama is ahimsa, i.e. non violence against all living creatures and all non-living materials in the
biosphere (Iyengar, 2005:27).
It also includes shunning violence in thought, word, and deed. Pollution of air, water and land
is also violence because it affects not only the life of other human beings but of all other
creations. The second yama is satya, i.e., truth. One truth is that all living creatures are a part
of one living universal family (vasudhaiva kutumbakam), and all have equal rights. Another
truth is that human beings have no right to harm any animate or inanimate creation for their
own greed. The third yama is asteya, i.e., not stealing or using materials by illegitimate means.
For its own good and welfare, humankind must avoid vandalism and wanton destruction of
ecological assets. The last yama is aparigraha, i.e., not coveting wealth or pleasures which
are unnecessary, or belong to others, or amassing wealth and worldly possessions beyond
ones requirement.
The five niyamas are self-based codes of conduct. The first niyama is shaucha, i.e., cleanliness
both in ones person and in ones surroundings. The mind must become clean of lust (kama),
and greed (lobha). The second niyama is santosha i.e., contentment which pertains to the
use of materials and other facilities afforded by the biosphere to satisfy essential needs and
comforts. The third niyama is tapas i.e., austerity and penance. It involves living frugally and
just comfortably, and doing penance for any dereliction of yamas and niyamas. The fourth
niyama is swadhyaya i.e., study of the self. This leads to the study of oneself and enlightens
one about the interconnectedness and interdependence of the entire world besides pointing
out ones place in the biosphere, and the duties and responsibilities of a matured human
20
21

Arthashastra, III.19.
Mastya Purana, Chap, 154, Verses 511-12, Chap. 59, Verses 17-20, Agni Purana Chap. 70, Verses 1-9.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

111

being. The fifth niyama is ishwara pranidhana, i.e., surrender to the Almighty prayer,
meditation, and dedication of all action unto the universal spirit. Once it happens, human
beings will control themselves from indulging in any anti-environmental activity (Khoshoo,
1995:21-23).
Supremely aware of the complexity of the moral problem of action, the Mahabharata comes up
with more than one supreme moral principle, paramadharmas that should guide human
action. One of these is anrsamsya often extolled as paramodharma in the epic. Anrsamsya
is to be distinguished from ahimsa which is another central idea in the Mahabharata.
Anrsamsya means good-will, a fellow feeling, a deep sense of the other. Self restraint in
conduct is an essential element of culture (Lath, 1990:113ff). Atmaupamya, finding out what is
right and what is wrong by putting oneself in the others position is considered to be the
highest type of yoga.
The unity between the principles of truth and non-violence was preached in ancient literature
and a verse in the Mahabharata declares that speaking the truth is no doubt good, but what
is more important is to put the principle of truth into practice by doing good to all beings22.
Again at another place it says that truth is what is good to all beings.23 Truth is what results
into the good of all. Where there is conflict, there is a need to reconcile in such a way that
good is maximized and violence is avoided (Nadkarni, 2006).
A verse in the Panchatantra says that since dharma is said by the wise to be grounded on
ahimsa (abstaining from injuring or destroying life) one should protect even a louse, a bug
etc.24 The Panchatantra also raises questions against the person who kills animals on religious
ground and it asks if by cutting trees for making sacrificial posts and shedding a profusion of
blood one can get to heaven, who will go to hell? It also says he who kills even carnivorous
animals is said to be a cruel man and goes to the horrible hell, what to say then of him who kills
harmless ones.
Non-Violent Attitude Towards the Environment in Buddhism
Lord Buddha was compassionate and he was averse to causing the slightest injury to any
living being. In addition to non-killing he stressed the harmony of interdependence between
humans and the environment. He was against the sacrifices in which animals were killed
because he did not value the happiness which was sought at the price of others sufferings25.
According to him that sacrifice is glorious in which the cows and the goats are not killed, and
even the grass is not cut.26
The middle path propagated by Lord Buddha is the harmonious development of the multiple
dimensions of the human personality which lies between the two extremes, viz. vile pleasure22

Mahabharata, Shantiparva 3.29.13.

Mahabharata, Vanaparva 209.4.
24
Panchatantra, III. 104.
25
Buddhacharitam, IX. 64.
26
Diggha Nikaya Kutadanta Sutta, I.5.
23

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

112

seeking and extreme asceticism. Here the emphasis is on: purity of conduct, truthfulness, love
and benevolence, charity and kindness and mercy to all living beings.
Lord Buddha taught non-violence and the avoidance of destruction, not only as regards our
fellow human beings but also plants, trees, and even inanimate objects. He taught that all
things are endowed with the Buddha-nature, in other words, they are a part of the entire
cosmos and therefore share the nature of the Buddha (Inoue, 1997:93)
Lord Buddha often spoke about four states of mind. In Pali, the language of the Buddhist
scriptures, these four states are known as Brahma-vihara . This term may be rendered by:
excellent, lofty or sublime states of mind; or alternatively, by: Brahma-like, god-like or divine
abodes (Bhatta, 2000b:184-88)).
They are considered to be the ideal social attitudes which are the foundations of ethical
modes of conduct towards living beings. These four sublime states are:
1.

Metta (Maitri): loving-kindness towards all; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient
beings, without any exception, be happy.

2.

Karuna: compassion; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from
suffering.

3.

Mudita: sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and
virtues of all sentient beings.

4.

Upekkha (Upeksha): equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy or

stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal.

These four attitudes are said to be excellent or sublime because they are the right or ideal way
of conduct towards living beings. They should become ones inseparable companions, and
one should be mindful of them in all ones common activities. They should be non-exclusive
and impartial, not bound by selective preferences or prejudices.
A very significant concept in Mahayana Buddhism related to environmental ethics and values
is the concept of Bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas are motivated by pure compassion and love.
Their goal is to achieve the highest level of being: that of a Buddha. Bodhisattva is a Sanskrit
term which translates as: Bodhi [enlightenment] and sattva [being]. And their reason for
becoming a Buddha is to help others. The Bodhisattva will undergo any type of suffering to
help another sentient being, whether a tiny insect or a huge mammal. Lord Buddha said: I will
become a savior to all those beings; I will release them from all their sufferings. The Jatakas
illustrate how a Bodhisattva practices the virtue of non-killing. This active concern of the
saint for the well being and emancipation of the living beings in general and the men and
women of the world in particular is noteworthy in the context of environment-friendly lifestyles.
A Bodhisattvas prayer is very significant in this regard and the same is given below:
For as long as space endures
and for as long as living beings remain,

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

113

until then may I too abide

to dispel the misery of the world (Translated into English)27
According to Buddhism all forms of life on Earth are interdependent, and their existences are
inextricably interwoven. For example every life form depends on the sun for energy and
warmth. Plants depend on sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and chlorophyll to synthesize
organic matter and produce oxygen. Most animals use that oxygen and some of them depend
on plants for food. The web of life naturally includes human beings, since they are one
element in the whole (Inoue,1997:21).
Environment-Friendly Policies of an Exemplary King of Ancient India
The ancient Indian king Ashoka is one of the greatest figures in the political history of
humankind and his messages recorded in his inscriptions are noteworthy from the point of
view of present-day environmental problems. Ashoka stressed on the ethical teachings of
Buddha, self-control and loving service to all living beings. These he popularized throughout
his vast empire by engraving them on stone pillars and by illustrating them in his own conduct.
In his dhamma policy he gave priority to ahimsa, namely non-violence, non-injury to human
beings and animals and abstention from war.
Ashoka forbade slaughtering of animals for sacrifices and food and prohibited his court from
hunting expeditions on the necessity of treating all living beings with kindness and compassion.
He gave importance to ecology and public services in order to avoid unnecessary sufferings
to people and animals.
Ashokas dhamma aims at universal good and is more humanitarian than a religious movement.
His ethics include several elements which de facto effect a reduction of exploitation and
destruction of the environment, namely, non-injury to animals, and benevolence and
compassion towards all sentient beings. It is stated in the Rock Edit I that: No living being
should be slaughtered for sacrifice. Many hundreds of thousands of living beings were
formerly killed every day in the royal kitchen. But now only three living creatures i.e. two
peacocks and one animal are killed for the sake of curry. Even this animal is not regularly killed.
These three living beings shall not be slaughtered in the future.
Ashoka shows global and universal thoughts as he orders in one of his inscriptions to
provide medical treatment and grant the right to shade and water to humans and animals
belonging to the neighbouring states or kingdoms. It is recorded in his Rock Edict II that
King Piyadassi, the Beloved of Gods, (Ashoka) has arranged for medical treatment of both
humans and animals all over his empire and in the territories beyond the borders as those of
the Chola, Pandya, the Satiyaputra and the Keralaputra up to Tampraparni and those of the
Greek king Aniyoka and also his neighbours. He has arranged also for planting medicinal
herbs, roots and fruit-yielding trees. Wells have also been dug and trees have been planted
27

Bodhisattvacaryavatara of Santideva, a seminal ninth-century text on the perfections of giving, ethics,

patience, effort, meditation, and wisdom.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

114

on the roads for the enjoyments of animals and men. After the dreaded war of Kalinga there
was a change of heart in Ashoka and he repented for his extremely painful and deplorable
action in which humans and animals numbering one hundred thousand were captured alive
and several hundred thousands of them died during, and as a result of the war. Ashoka
became devoted to an intense practice of pious actions. The Shar-i-Kuna Edict of Ashoka
states that ten years (since the coronation) having been completed king Piyadassi (Ashoka)
proclaimed piety (truth) to people. No animal or bird is killed for feeding the king and people
have also given up the same. Hunters and fishermen have stopped killing. (Bhatta, 2000c:
25-27).
According to the Pillar Edict V twentysix years after Ashokas coronation the following species
of animals were declared to be protected from slaughter. They are: parrots, mainas, ruddy
geese, wild geese, waterborne birds, bats, queen ants, terra pins, boneless fish, skate fish,
tortoises, porcupines, leaf-hares, twelve-antler stags, free roaming bulls, cats and rats etc.,
rhinoceroses, while pigeons, village pigeons and all the quadrupeds which are neither useful
nor edible. Pregnant she-goats, ewes and cows, should not be killed. Also their young ones,
less than six months old should not be killed. This reveals Ashokas concern to ensure the
preservation of all species. Further the inscription states that cocks are not to be caponed.
Husks containing living beings should not be burnt. Forests should not be burnt without
purpose or just to destroy living beings. Living beings must not be fed to living beings. Fish
should neither be killed nor sold on the three days of every three-month period, the full-moon
day in the month of Tishya (Jan-Feb), the fourteenth, the fifteenth of every bright fortnight
and the first of the dark fortnight in each case and in every fast day. These and other species
of animals should not be killed in the forests and the fishermens localities. It is to be noted
here that Tishya also called Pushya was the birth star of Ashoka. Bulls and other animals are
not to be castrated on those days, also on the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth days of the
fortnight and on the days of Tishya and Punarvasu, on the three days of every three-monthly
period and on every auspicious day. Horses and bullocks should not be branded on those
days.
The wonderful results achieved through the persuasive efforts of Ashoka are recorded in the
Rock Edict IV; For hundreds of years in the past the killing of living beings, cruelty to them,
etc. increasedbut now as a result of both precept and practice on the part of the king, the
practice of dharma has increased Abstention from the killing of living beings, non-violence
and similar other acts of dharma have developed. The Beloved of Gods will encourage their
further development. His sons, grandsons and great grandsons will exert similarly and instruct
the people for all time. Ashokas message recorded in his inscriptions advocate the cause of
sympathetic understanding of the environment leading a life of harmony and rapport.
Inculcating a Humane Approach through Literary Characters
Ancient Indians lived in close proximity with nature. They were very much impressed by the
vastness, brilliance, compassion, and bounty of nature. Sanskrit poetry was a product of

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

115

those who lived amidst hills, lakes, animals, trees and flowers and had all the time the full
impact of Nature in its beauty, severity and sublimity. (Raghavan, 1972: 9ff). Sanskrit poetry
from the very beginning has had a close integration and identification with Nature. Even
though poetry is regarded first and foremost as a means of securing a spell of detachment
from common life there is no doubt that it has many lessons for us and their value is great. A
poet is bound to express or suggest a number of thoughts and ideas on different subjects and
different aspects of life. It is possible to know from the poets characters, and their thoughts
and actions, how his mind works, what thoughts and ideas he appears to prefer, his outlook
on life and the values he accepts; in other words, the thoughts expressed by a poet are a clue
to his philosophy of life. The thoughts related to values of life have no relation to particular
times or circumstances and they are universal. The poets have a definite message to give to
the world. Their business is to sum up the immediate past in the terms of the present, at the
same time they occasionally inform the present with hints of the future.28
The great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa was a powerful advocate of discipline in individual and
public life. He emphasizes compassion, tolerance and reverence for life in all forms. Caring for
plants and animals is strongly advocated in the works of Kalidasa. At times he expresses the
idea that the overall actions of sentient beings are playing the main role in creating the
pleasant or unpleasant world. In one of his dramas viz. Abhijnana Shakuntala, king Dushyanta
asks, Is it that my sins have checked the flowering of the plants?29
Kalidasa does not appreciate the teasing of animals. In Abhijnana Sakuntala, the son of
Dushyanta viz Sarvadamana violates the practice of forbearance by teasing the cub of a lion.
The hermitage is a refuge of animals and hence he was rebuked by some female anchorite for
the offence30.
We learn from the works of Kalidasa that human life derives its value and significance only
when it is intimately associated with the life of nature. It is also learnt that the life of nature has
no significance or value when viewed in isolation, per se, and out of relation to human life
(Bhat, 1982). Kalidasa never thinks of human beings and nature as being apart from one
another. Violence to creatures was strictly forbidden in the hermitages. When king Dushyanta
in the famous play Abhijnana Sakuntala was about to shoot the deer in the hermitage of
Kanva, the sages requested him earnestly to withdraw his arrow, as the deer belonged to the
hermitage and he readily obliged them31. According to Kalidasa, it is the duty of a king to
prevent the killing of animals. The same play says that its heroine Sakuntala never quenched
her thirst, before watering the plants well. In spite of fondness for personal decoration she
never plucked even a sprout. The description of Sakuntala leaving her surroundings in Kanvas
hermitage is one of the most moving scenes in the dramatic literature all over the world.
Brought up from infancy on the lap of nature, she had a sisterly affection for the flora and
28

Sri Aurobindo Centenary Volume, No.3, p.217.

Abhijnana Sakuntala, Act V.9.
30
Arthasastra. VII. 18.
31
Abhijnana Sakuntala, Act I.
32
Ibid. IV.14.
29

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

116

fauna of the place. The strings which joined her heart to them seemed to burst as she said
good-bye to them tearfully32.
Anasuya says that sage Kanva considered the trees of his penance grove dearer than Sakuntala.
According to her, otherwise Kanva would not have engaged Sakuntala for watering the trees.
Sakuntala says that she too has brotherly affection towards them and she subordinates her
love for ornaments to her affection for the trees.
She never picked up a bloom even for bedecking herself. It was a festival for her, when they
put forth fresh foliage and flowers. Sakuntala used to apply the sore healing oil of ingudi fruits
to the mouth of fawn pricked by the sharp points of kusha grass. When king Dushyanta asks
Sakuntala to convince him about her marriage with him, she tries to wake up his memory by
referring to the fawn Dirghapanga for whom she used to give water through her hands.33
Another character viz. Ayus killing a vulture and sage Chyavana taking a serious view of it as
a transgression of the traditional law of the hermitage is described in Vikramorvashiya, another
play composed by Kalidasa. Sage Chyavana asks the female ascetic to take Ayus back to his
relatives for this act of killing34.
In Bana Bhattas Kadambari sage Harita takes pity on the parrot that got injured by an arrow
of a hunter and brings him to the hermitage, since it was not possible to put the parrot back in
his nest as the tree is difficult to be climbed by ascetics.35 He says that the parrot should stay
in a hollow of some heritage tree, nourished with juices of fruits and collections of nivara
grain brought to him by the sons of the ascetics and by himself till it becomes fit to fly up into
the sky. He says further that when wings grow, and it is able to fly into the sky, the parrot may
go wherever he likes, or may continue to stay there, if he becomes so much attached to them.
Sanskrit poets and writers have cast their admiring eyes on trees. With a passion for learning
they have sought to derive lessons from them. For example, among the didactic verses we find
what trees have to teach us. In the Abhijnana Sakuntala (V.12), Kalidasa observes that trees,
laden with fruits, bend low; from this we learn that a good human being should not be puffed
up with prosperity. Another didactic fable viz. the Hitopadesha points out that the tree does
not withdraw its shade even from one who axes it. From this we should learn that we should
not refrain from doing good even to an enemy who seeks our shelter. The tree bears the
scorching heat on its head, but assuages the fatigue of one who resorts to its shade36.
Trees become bent (i.e. humble) during the harvest of fruits; with newly-formed waters
The clouds hang very low; good men with (the acquisition of) wealth become meek; this is the
nature of benevolent persons37.

33

Ibid. Act V.
Vikramorvashiya, after verse no 10 in Act V.
35
Kadambari of Banabhatta, MR Kale (Translated into English), P.63.
36
Hitopadesha of Narayana Pandita.
37
Abhijnana Sakuntala, V Act.
34

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

117

The big trees provide shade for others, but they stand in the sun. They produce fruits for
others and not for themselves (chayam anyasya). There is an elegant tribute paid to a tree in
the following verse occurring in the Panchatantra:
Deer recline in its shade;
birds in multitudes gather to roost,
darkening its dark-green canopy of leaves;
troops of monkeys cling to the trunk;
while hollows hum with insect-throngs;
flowers are boldly kissed by honey-bees;
Oh! What happiness its every limb showers
on assemblages of various creatures.
Such a tree deserves all praise
Others only burden the Earth38
The whole life of the trees is to serve with their leaves, flowers, fruits, branches, roots, shade,
fragrance, sap, bark, wood, and finally even their ashes and coal; they exist for the purpose of
others (Prime, 1994:31). Trees show many sorts of kindness which are their daily sacrifice. To
families they give fuel; to passers-by they give shade and a resting place; to birds they give
shelter; with their leaves, roots and bark they give medicines39.
Ancient Indians did not rest content with merely utilizing the object of nature such as trees
and rivers for their comfort and convenience but they also tried to derive lessons from them.
Some of the lessons that are learnt are given below:
The sun causes the group of sun-lotuses to expand without a solicitation; the moon, though
unasked, causes the moon-lotuses to bloom; and the cloud yields water without being solicited;
good people direct their efforts towards the good of others of their own accord.40
The rivers do not drink their own water; nor do the trees consume their own fruits; nor do
clouds swallow the crops they water. Thus the wealth of good persons is only for helping
others41.
The clouds take in salt water, but give us back the same having made it (pure and) sweet. Even
so, good persons listen to the foul words of the wicked and (in reply) utter only good words42.

38

Panchatantra, II.2.
Varaha Purana, 162.41-42.
40
Nitisataka, verse 73.
41
Subhashita Ratan Bhandagara, P.180
42
Ranchor Prime, 1994. Hinduism and Ecology: Seeds of Truth, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi.
39

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

118

Conclusion
The ancient Indian tradition of reverence for nature and all forms of life, vegetable or animal,
represents a powerful tradition that needs to be re-nurtured and reapplied in our contemporary
context. What is needed today is to remind ourselves that nature cannot be destroyed without
humankind ultimately being destroyed itself.
Collectively humanity has chosen to pursue unbridled profit and pleasure, bereft of ethical
and moral sanctions. This would inevitably lead to pain, distress, disease, ignorance,
unhappiness, conflict, and chaos. The brewing environmental crisis, which only a few have
realized while most merrily ignore, is but one terminal manifestation of the anti-ethical syndrome.
Ancient concepts of development have been emphatic on minimizing our needs and
consciously limiting our wants only to what is essential for leading a healthy and comfortable
life, and on avoiding possessiveness and greed. This concept deplores self-indulgence and
ceaseless multiplication of wants, mainly for ethical reasons. An attitude of non-acquisitiveness
is very congenial for ecological balance and environmental conservation, because those who
follow this ideal make minimum demands on the earths natural resources.
This attitude does not authorize human beings to lord over the earth and exploit it in a
whimsical, selfish and anthropocentric manner. It advises humans to enjoy the world and their
life, but within reasonable limits. Mahatma Gandhis famous saying that the earth has enough
to satisfy everyones need but not everyones greed sums up this attitude. The relentless and
unscrupulous pursuit of wealth should not be the goal of human development. If we seek
human development based on satisfying needs rather than wants, it may even promote amity
apart from making the development process sustainable within the limits of earths resources
(Khoshoo,1995:47).
The ancient Indian (Oriental) cosmology has the entire universe as its center, in contrast to
the anthropocentric (human-centered)) world-view characteristic of Occidental culture. The
Occidental cultural world-view sees the universe as revolving around human beings, while
the Oriental cultural world-view sees human beings as no more than tiny grains of sand in the
vast, limitless ocean of the cosmos. Some of the ancient prayers are significant for several
reasons. They pray for the welfare of all humanity, not of one individual family alone. What
they seek is plain material happiness and freedom from sorrow. Welfare sought here is holistic,
including good health and security for all, and not material wealth as such.
Ancient India provides the most enlightened and realistic set of thoughts on the environment.
It expresses a worldview which recognizes the spirituality inherent in Nature and stresses that
to survive, the human race must consider the holistic and harmonious relationship with the
world that it inhabits. Ancient Indian thinkers stress the sacredness of rivers, lakes, land and
forests. They had realized, in their higher consciousness, that unless human beings are able
to protect the natural environment, it would simply collapse. It is necessary to restate these
ideals in a new form in the context of our present-day technologies and make them more
meaningful within our contemporary framework. There is a need to incorporate these ancient
environmental values in the formal and non-formal educational systems. There is also a need

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

119

for a coordinated programme of public awareness through every available medium to build up
public opinion to renew these ancient concepts of environment-friendly lifestyles.
The hermitages of sages used to be in forests, where hunting and killing of animals was
strictly forbidden even for kings. The concept and practice of protecting sacred groves and
veneration of herbs and trees has survived to this date. The ancient concern for conserving
biodiversity is reflected also in the insistence on offering 21 varieties of leaves and 21 varieties
of flowers to God in any formal ritual worship. The emotional attachment to cow protection
and snake worship also has to be seen in this light.
Out of compassion, we must promote the welfare of the world by setting up the right norm of
action. The delicate and holistic balance that exists in nature has to be respected and maintained.
We should care for the well being of the planet as a whole, together with all its inhabitants
(including human being) and nonliving resources. We must live in harmony with nature and
eschewing violence to any form of life. Violence harms the sacred unity and causes the
disease and suffering of life out of balance. The heritage of the past of thousands of years
codified in sacred scriptures and literary works is becoming more and more relevant today.
Ancient Indians have advocated the cause of sympathetic understanding and love between
humans and nature leading to a life of harmony and rapport.
As the environmental crisis looms ominously, we should change our dominant self-centred
life style and a throw away culture to a more sustainable civilization that recognises the
fundamental interconnectedness of all peoples and nature-a state of existence that ancient
India has been trying to awaken humankind to for the past several thousand years.
References
Bhat ,G.K. 1982. Appointment with Kalidasa. L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.
Bhatta, P.C. 1996. Ecological Ideas in Kalidasa. The Advent, Pondicherry, 53(1): 45-51.
Bhatta, P.C. 2000a. Personality development through Pancha Yajna. Yoga Life, 31(1): 29-32.
Bhatta, P.C. 2000b. Contribution of Buddhism to environmental awareness. In Muralimadhavan,
P.C. (Ed.), Facets of Indian Culture. New Delhi: New Bharatiya Book Corporation.
Bhatta, P.C. 2000c. The Environmental context: An Ashokan approach. In Hemendu Bikash
Chowdhury (Ed.), Asoka 2300. Calcutta: Buddha Dharmankar Sabha.
Bhatta, P.C. 2000d. Universal compassion in Buddhist ethics. In Kishornath Jha and Banamali
Bishval (Eds.) Hariharasatadalam. Puri: Acharya Harihara Jha Felicitation Committee.
Dandekar R.N. 1978. Insights into Hinduism. New Delhi: Ajanta Publications.
Inoue, S. 1997. Putting Buddhism to work: A new approach to management and business.
Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd.
Iyengar, B.K.S. 2005. The Tree of Yoga. New Delhi: Harper Collins.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009

Environment Friendly Life Styles: A Dialogue with Ancient India

120

Khoshoo, T.N. 1995. Mahatma Gandhi: An apostle of applied human ecology. New Delhi:
Tata Energy Research Institute.
Kunhan, R.C. 1957. The Vedas. Waltair: Andhra University.
Lath, M. 1990. The concept of Anrsamsya in the Mahabharata. In R. N. Dandekar (Ed.), The
Mahabharata Revisited. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
Mishra, V.N. 1992. Man, nature and the poet. In V.N. Mishra (Ed.), Creativity and Environment.
New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
Nadkarni, M.V. 2006. Hinduism: A Gandhian perspective. New Delhi: Ane Books India.
Naganathan, G. 2004. Ecological spirituality. New Age Books.
Prime, R. 1994. Hinduism and ecology: Seeds of truth. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Raghavan, V. 1972. Ritu in Sanskrit literature. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Kendriya Sanskrit
Vidyapeetha, New Delhi.
Singh, K. 1995. India and the world. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.
Swami Harshananda. 1982. Hindu gods and goddesses. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna
Ashrama.
Swami Yatiswarananda. 1971. Universal prayers. Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math.

Decision, Vol. 36, No.3, December, 2009