INTRODUCTORY SESSION

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Finite Element method (FEM) is a computer based numerical method for analyzing problems
that would otherwise be difficult to obtain by using analytical procedures. Structural
mechanics problems involve determining the stress and strain distribution in different types
of structures under imposed loadings. In this method, continuous systems are discretized into
many small and simple pieces called finite elements connected only at points called nodes.
For each element, it is necessary to make assumption as to how the primary variables, such as
displacement, are distributed in terms of geometric positions. This assumption is the basis of
finite element analysis procedure. Then a set of simultaneous equations is developed for
describing the constitutive or other behaviour of each element in terms of nodal point values
of primary variables. Each of these elements is then combined using proper compatibility
relations between them and global set of simultaneous equations is obtained. The application
of loads and boundary conditions are imposed to the global set of simultaneous equations.
These equations are solved simultaneously or implicitly in computer. Solution of these
equations provides the approximate results or behaviour of the physical system that has been
modelled.
Briefly, the solution for structural problems typically refers to determining the displacements
at each node and the stresses within each element making up the structure that is subjected to
applied loads.
The major advantage of finite element method is its versatility of application in various
problems having irregular shapes and sizes, multiple loadings and boundary conditions. The
strength of FEM also lies on the resemblance of the physical size of the problem with the
FEM model. There is no need to scale down or up the actual structure being analyzed to
obtain the stress and deformation behaviour. The disadvantage of finite element method is
that it does not provide close form solution and thus minimisation of error has to be done
judiciously by increasing the number of element or independent variables or by changing the
model parameters. The FEM also provide problem specific results. Sometimes, limitations of
computer facility can also obstruct the FEM analysis procedure. Lastly, the voluminous
output may have to be sorted out before any meaningful information or result can be
obtained.

GENERAL STEPS OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

There are two general direct approaches traditionally associated with the finite element
method as applied to structural mechanics problems.
Force or flexibility method: It uses internal forces as the unknowns of the problem. To
obtain the governing equations, first the equilibrium equations are used. Then necessary
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additional equations are found by introducing compatibility equations. The result is a set of
algebraic equations for determining the redundant or unknown forces.
Displacement or stiffness method: It assumes the displacements of the nodes as the
unknowns of the problem. For instance, compatibility conditions requiring that elements
connected at a common node, along a common edge, or on a common surface before loading
remain connected at that node, edge, or surface after deformation takes place are initially
satisfied. Then the governing equations are expressed in terms of nodal displacements using
the equations of equilibrium and an applicable law relating forces to displacements.
These two direct approaches result in different unknowns (forces or displacements) in the
analysis of different matrices associated with their formulations (flexibilities or stiffnesss).
For computational purposes, the displacement (or stiffness) method is more desirable because
its formulation is simpler for most structural analysis problems. Consequently, only the
displacement method will be used throughout this course.
The finite element method involves modeling the structure using small inter-connected finite
elements. A displacement function is associated with each finite element. Every
interconnected element is linked, directly or indirectly, to every other element through
common (or shared) interfaces, including nodes and/or boundary lines and/or surfaces. By
using known stress / strain properties for the material making up the structure, one can
determine the behaviour of a given node in terms of properties of every other element in the
structure. The total set of equations describing the behaviour of each node results in a series
of algebraic equations best expressed in matrix notation.
We now present the steps, along with explanations necessary at this time, used in the finite
element method formulation and solution of a structural problem. The purpose of setting forth
these general steps now is to understand the procedure generally followed in a finite element
formulation of a problem.

STEP 1
Selection of the element types and discretization
This step involves dividing the body into an equivalent system of finite elements with
associated nodes and choosing the appropriate element type to model closely the actual
physical behavior. The total number of elements used and their variation in size and type
within a given body are primarily matters of engineering judgment. The analyst must make
decisions regarding dividing the structure or continuum into finite elements and selecting the
element type or types to be used in the analysis. Typical elements, generally used in finite
element analysis are shown in Figure 1.1 (a) to 1.1 (d).

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The elements should be made small enough to give usable results and yet large enough to
reduce computational effort.
y

Figure1. 1(a) Simple two-noded line element & higher order line element (typically used
to represent a bar or beam element)

3
y

Triangular elements

8
1

3
2

Quadrilateral elements

Figure 1.1 (b) Simple two-dimensional elements with corner nodes and & higher order
two-dimensional elements with intermediate nodes along the sides (typically used to
represent plane stress/strain element)

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1
y

2
9
x

4
3

10

z
Tetrahedral elements

19
7

18

8
7

11

6
20

3
5

17

12

16
4

13

15

14
9

10

Hexahedral elements
Figure 1.1(c) Simple three-dimensional elements with corner nodes and & higher order threedimensional elements with intermediate nodes along the edges (typically used to represent three
dimensional stress state)

z
4

Triangular ring

Quadrilateral ring

Figure 1.1 (d) Simple axisymmetric triangular and quadrilateral elements used for axisymmetric
problems
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STEP 2
Selection of displacement function
Step 2 involves choosing a displacement function within each element. The function is
defined within the element using the nodal values of the element. Linear, quadratic and cubic
polynomials are frequently used functions because they are simple to work with in finite
element formulation. However, trigonometric series can also be used. For example, a twodimensional element has displacement function as a function of the coordinates in its plane
(say, the x-y plane). The functions are expressed in terms of the nodal unknowns (in the twodimensional problem, in terms of an x and a y component). The same general displacement
function can be used repeatedly for each element. Hence the finite element method is one in
which a continuous quantity, such as the displacement throughout the body, is approximated
by a discrete model composed of a set of piecewise continuous functions defined within each
finite domain or finite element.

STEP 3
Defining the Strain / Displacement and Stress / Strain Relationships
Strain / displacement and stress / strain relationships are necessary for deriving the equations
for each finite element. In the case of one-dimensional deformation, say, in the x direction,
we have strain x related displacement u by x

du
for small strains. In addition, the stresses
dx

must be related to the strains through the stress / strain law generally called the
constitutive law. The ability to define the material behaviour accurately is most important in
obtaining acceptable results. The simplest of stress /strain laws, Hookes law, which is often
used in stress analysis, is given be x Ex where x = stress in the x direction and E =
modulus of elasticity.

STEP 4
Derivation the element stiffness matrix and equations
Initially, the development of element stiffness matrices and element equations was based on
the concept of stiffness influence coefficients, which presupposes a background in structural
analysis. We now present alternative methods that do not require this special background.
Direct Equilibrium Method
According to this method, the stiffness matrix and element equations relating nodal forces to
nodal displacements are obtained using force equilibrium conditions for a basic element,
along with force / deformation relationships.
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Work or Energy Methods

To develop the stiffness matrix and equations for two and three-dimensional elements, it is
much easier to apply a work or energy method. The principle of virtual work (using virtual
displacements), the principle of minimum potential energy methods are frequently used for
the purpose of derivation of element equation.
The principle of virtual work is applicable for any material behaviour, whereas the
principle of minimum potential energy is applicable only to elastic materials. Furthermore,
the principle of virtual work can be used even when a potential function does not exist.
However, all three principles yield identical element equations for linear-elastic materials;
thus which method to use for this kind of material in structural analysis is largely a matter of
convenience and personal preference. We will present the principle of minimum potential
energy probably the best known of the three energy methods.
Methods of Weighted Residuals
The methods of weighted residuals are useful for developing the element equations;
particularly popular is Galerkins method. These methods yield the same results as the energy
methods wherever the energy methods are applicable. They are especially useful when a
functional such as potential energy is not readily available. The weighted residual methods
allow the finite element method to be applied directly to any differential equation.
Using any of the methods just outlined will produce the equations to describe the behaviour
of an element. These equations are written conveniently in matrix form as
f1 k11
f k
2 21
f 3 k31


f n k n1

k12
k 22
k32

k13 k1n d1
k 23 k 2n d 2

k 33 k 3n d 3

k nn d n

[1.1]

or in compact matrix form as f k d where f is the vector of element nodal forces,

[k] is the element stiffness matrix (normally square and symmetric), and {d} is the vector of
unknown element nodal degrees of freedom or generalized displacements, n. Here
generalized displacements may include such quantities as actual displacements, slopes, or
even curvatures.

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STEP 5
Formation of element and global load vectors
Load vectors are obtained at the element level (loads to be applied at the nodes to produce
same effect as the applied loads on the element). Then the element load vectors are assembled
to obtain global load vectors.

STEP 6
Assembly of the Global stiffness matrix and equations
In this step the individual element nodal equilibrium equations generated in step 4 are
assembled into the global nodal equilibrium equations.
The final assembled or global equation written in matrix form is {F} = [K] {d} where {F} is
the vector of global nodal forces, [K] is the structure global or total stiffness matrix, (for most
problems, the global stiffness matrix is square and symmetric), n is the total number of nodal
degrees of freedom of the structure and {d} is now the vector of known and unknown
structure nodal degrees of freedom or generalized displacements.
F1 K 11
F K
2 21


Fn K nl

K 12 K 1n d1
K 22 K 2n d 2

K n2 K nn dn

[1.2]

STEP 7
Application of boundary conditions:
It can be shown that at this state, the global stiffness matrix [K] is a singular matrix because
its determinant is equal to zero. This step involves specifying known nodal displacements.
Boundary conditions prevent the structure moving as a rigid body. After imposing boundary
conditions, we have a system matrix, which gives global force-displacement relationship of
the structure with compatible boundary conditions (in terms of nodal value).

STEP 8
Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (or Generalized Displacements)
Equation (1.2), modified to account for the boundary conditions, is a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations that can be written in expanded matrix form as

F1 K 11
F K
2 21


Fp K pl

K 12 K 1n d1
K 22 K 2n d 2

K p2 K pp d P

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[1.3]

Where, p is the structure total number of unknown nodal degrees of freedom. These equations
can be solved for the displacements by using an elimination method (such as Gausss
method) or an iterative method (such as the Gauss-Seidel method). The displacements are
called the primary unknowns; because they are the first quantities determined using the
stiffness (or displacement) finite element method.

STEP 9
Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
For the structural stress-analysis problem, important secondary quantities of strain and stress
(or moment and shear force) can be obtained because they can be directly expressed in terms
of the displacements determined in step 6. Elemental displacements are extracted from global
displacements using nodal connectivity and element strains are obtained accordingly. Finally
stresses are obtained from strains. Typical relationships between strain and displacement and
between stress and strain can be used depending on the problem.

STEP 10
Interpretation of Results
The final goal is to interpret and analyze the results for use in the design / analysis process.
Determination of locations in the structure where large deformations and large stresses occur
is generally important in making design / analysis decisions. Presentation of results in
graphical format is generally used for proper understanding of the output obtained.
Example
To understand the steps as above a simple example of spring system has been considered.
Figure E1.1 shows a linear spring system, which is one of the most elementary systems that
can be examined from a finite element point of view.
P
k1

k2

Figure E1.1 a simple linear spring system

The above figure shows two spring system connected in series with stiffness k1 and k2. The
left hand side is rigidly fixed and at right hand side a force P is acting in the +ve x direction.

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Discretization: The first step of the finite element method is subdividing the system into
discrete elements. In this case there are only two elements. Each element consists of two
nodes as shown in Figure E1.2. Forces f1, f2, f3 are acting at the nodes 1, 2 & 3 and the
associated displacements are u1, u2, u3
2

1
1

f1, u1

f2, u2

3
f3, u3

FigureE1. 2 Discritization of the system

ELEMENT CONNECTIVITY
The element connectivity is given as below:
Elements 1 2
1
2

Local node
numbers

1 2
2 3 Global Numbers

Formation of element stiffness matrix: A spring element having a stiffness k is a typical

single degree freedom system (as shown in the figure below) with possible displacement in
one direction only (x direction). It has two nodes with possible displacement u1 and u2.
2

f1 , u 1

f2 , u 2

k
Applying the equilibrium of forces we can write
f1+f2 = 0 i. e. f1 = -f2
f1 = k (u1 u 2) = ku1 ku2
f2 = - k (u1 u 2) = -ku1 + ku2
In matrix notation, the above equation may be written as

f1 k

f 2 k

k u1

k u 2

k
The element stiffness matrix of a typical element is
k

k
k

Hence the element stiffness matrix of element 1 & 2 can be written as

K1

k1

k1

k1
and
k1

K 2

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k2

k 2

k2
k 2
10

Placing the element stiffness matrix in the global format, they can be written as
k1
K1 k1
0

k1
k1
0

0
0 and
0

0
0

K 2 0 k 2
0 k 2

0
k 2
k 2

Formation of global stiffness matrix: Assembly of global stiffness matrix can be obtained
by adding matrix K1 and K 2
k1
K K1 K 2 k1
0

k1
k1
0

0 0
0 01
0 0

0
k2
k2

k1
k1 k 2

0 k1
k 2 = k1
k 2 0

k2

0
k 2
k 2

FORMATION OF ELEMENT AND GLOBAL LOAD VECTORS

Formation of element load vector
Load on element1

k1
Load on element2

0
k2

0
0
Element load vectors are: F1 and F2 , In global positioning
0
0
0
0

F1 0 and F2 0
0
0


Load vector due to load directly applied at nodes
R1
PEx 0
P

Formation of global load vector: Global
0

vectors: F F1 F2 PEx 0
0

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load vector is obtained by adding element load

0 R1 R1

0 0 0
0 P P

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The finite element equation (force displacement equation) in matrix form is as below:
k1
k
1
0

k1
k1 k 2
k2

0
k 2
k 2

u1 R1

u 2 = 0
u P
3

Application of boundary conditions: Boundary conditions must be specified for the

structural model, otherwise the stiffness matrix K will be singular, that is, the determinant
of K will be zero, and its inverse will not exist. Without specifying adequate support
conditions, the structure will be free to move as a rigid body and will not resist any applied
load. Boundary conditions are of two general types: Homogeneous boundary conditions
occur at locations that are completely prevented from movements; Non-homogeneous
boundary conditions occur where finite non-zero values of displacements are specified.
Boundary conditions are imposed generally by two methods:
(i) Method of elimination
(ii) Penalty method
In elimination approach, the boundary conditions are imposed for homogeneous conditions
by directly eliminating the rows and columns corresponding to zero displacement degrees of
freedom.
In the problem, the support 1 is fixed, hence the displacement at node 1 = 0. Now, hence the
equation transforms to:
k1
0 0 R1
k1
k k k k u = 0

2
2 2
1 1

0
k2
k 2 u 3 P
By eliminating the first row and first column, the equation transform to:

k1 k 2
k

k2
k 2

u 2 0
=
u 3 P

SOLUTION FOR UNKNOWN NODAL DISPLACEMENTS

To understand the problem in a physical perspective, let put some numerical values to the
parameters. Let P = 5 kN, k1 = 200 kN/m, k2 = 300 kN/m. The equation transform to:
500 300
300 300

u 2 0
=
u 3 5

u 500 300 0
1 300 300 0 0.025
Or, 2 =
=
m

=
u 3 300 300 5 60000 300 500 5 0.04167
Which gives u 2 = 0.025m, u3 = 0.4167m
Estimation of element forces: The element end forces are obtained by back substituting the
nodal displacements in element stiffness equation

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 f1
k1
=
f2
k1
f2 k2
=
f 3 k 2

k1 u1 200

k1 u 2 2001

200 0 5

kN
200 0.025 5
300 0.0250 5

kN
300 0.04167 5

k 2 u 2 300

k 2 u 3 300

Penalty method: In this method a spring with a large stiffness is added to the corresponding
diagonal element of corresponding degrees of freedom. The simultaneous equations are
solved in regular fashion.
In the problem, the movement is restricted along the degree of freedom 1. By adding a large
value (100000) to the corresponding value of the diagonal element, the equation transform to
0
100200 200
200
500 300

0
300 300

u1 0

u 2 = 0
u 5
3

0
u1 100200 200

500 300
u 2 = 200
u 0
300 300
3

0

0
5

The inverse can be obtained by Gaussian elimination method.

0
0
100200 200
100200 200
200

500 300 0
499.6 300

0
0
300 300
300 300

200
and subtracting from second row and by
100200
multiplying first row by 0 (zero) and subtracting from third row.
Obtained by multiplying first row by

0 100200 200
0
100200 200
0

499.6 300 0
499.6 300

0
300 300 0
0
119.86
300
and subtracting from third row.
499.6
u1 0

u 2 = 0 , which gives u3 = 0.0417mm, u2 = 0.0250mm
u 5
3

Obtained by multiplying second row by

0
100200 200

Hence, 0
499.6 300
0
0
119.86

and u1 = 5x10-5mm.
Estimation of element forces: The element end forces are obtained by back substituting the
nodal displacements in element stiffness equation as before. The other approaches of
imposing non-homogeneous boundary conditions will be discussed in details in due course.
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