Kiranavali Vol 1 Book2 2009

ISSN 0975-4067
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
The New Trivandrum Sanskrit Series

Vol.1. Book.2
October-December
2009
SANSKRIT RESEARCH FOUNDATION

T.C 39/37
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM-36
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
Editor
Dr.M. Manimohanan
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
dr.m.manimohanan@gmail.com
Executive Editor
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar
drsasikumarcs@yahoo.co.in
Managing Editor
Dr.G.Narayanan
dr.g.narayanan@gmail.com
Editorial Board
Dr.V.Sisupalapanikkar,Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd.) Uty. of Kerala
Dr.R.Vijayakumar, Professor of Vyakarana, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi,Reader in Vedanta, S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr.K.K.Sundaresan, Sl.Gr.Lecturer, Govt.Sanskrit college,TVPM.
Editorial Advisory Board

Dr.T.Devarajan, Professor of Sanskrit, University of Kerala
Dr.P.Chithambaran, Professor&Head, Dept.of Vedanta,S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr.P.K.Dharmarajan, Professor of Sahitya, S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr.S.Sobhana,Reader in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Associate Editor
Sri.R.Jinu, Research Scholar in English, University of Kerala
Views expressed in the articles are those of the authers and not
necessarily those of the publishers
Contents
Editors Note
Influence of Sankara on Later Philosophers
-Dr. P. Chithambaran
-89
-91
Dialectic of Vidy and Avidy in Indian Philosophy:a General Survey

-Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
-102
The Concept of Aumkra in the mdkyopaniad

Dr.S.Sobhana
-119
Prakti and Purua in Classical SkhyaDr.S.Geethamony Amma
-127
Influence of Natyasastra In The Dramas of Kalidasa

- Dr. Reeja B. Kavanal
-139
Position And Status of Women In Yajnavalkyasmti

Dr.N.Kalpana
Baudha Sankara Narayana Philosophies and
the Advaita Tradition of India-Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
-146
-156
Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta-Dr.G.Narayanan
-165
i|ix h jJx*
-b. +.VE
-168
{hbiOh& B. BS j
-b.Bx.xn
-171
Debates In Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial and

Contemporary-.
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi
-176
Annual Index
-178
Submission Guidelines
-180
News
-182
Our Contributers
Dr.P.Chithambaran is the professor and Head of the department of
Vedanta, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
Dr..S.Suresh Kumar is a Senior lecturer in the department of Vedanta,
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working
at Kalady campus.
Dr..S.Sobhana is a Reader in the department of Vedanta , Sree
Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working at
Thiruvananthapuram Regional centre
Dr.S.Geethamony Amma is a Reader in the department of Vedanta
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently working
at Panmana Regional centre
Dr.Reeja .B.Kavanal is a Reader in the department of Sahitya, Sree
Kalady campus.
Dr.N.Kalpana is a Guest Lecturer in the Department of Sahitya,
Dr.Dharmaraj Adat is professor of Sanskrit Sahitya, Sree Sankaracharya
University of Sanskrit, Kalady.
Dr.R. Vijayakumar is professor of Vyakarana, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Presently Director of Thiruvananthapuram
Regional centre
Dr.N.Sundaram was the director of the department of publications ,
University of Kerala
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi is a Reader in the department of Vedanta,Sree
Dr.G.Narayanan is a Reader in the department of Vedanta,Sree
Editors Note
The unique experiences prompted by the great Acharyas and
Gurus they present their visions in verbal form in verse, pithy
statements (Sutras) and parables, which are the foundation stone
laid for the Indian cultural heritage. Vedanta philosophy shows
that great men are respected by their dedicated services and
not by their birth. Swami Vivekananda declared Buddhism
brought the Vedanta to light, gave it to the people, and saved
India. The unique contribution of Buddhism was its social and
cultural element. Researchers on this, explains that Buddhism is
purified Hinduism without the poison of caste conflicts.
Sri Sankara through his Advaita philosophy proclaims equal
rights to humanity and teaches every one is great in his own
position if he is sincere in his duties. The great monistic teachings
of Sri Sankara are applicable to the daily life of all sections of
people in the world, since his message has a universal appeal.
Even in this Era his teachings provide its own abiding vitality and
relevance.
Sri Narayana Guru opened up a new way to the common
people for sincere services with the unique message in the name
of Universal Religion . Guru accepted the true spirit of the
Universal Vedanta Religion as the Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and other religions in the World. All
Religions of the world show different ways for the attainment of
the One Ultimate aim of peace and happiness of humanity, and
there is no cause for religious war. Besides these, the theory of
one Caste and one God is the special contribution of Guru to
the Universal religion.
Influence Of Sankara On Later Philosophers

Dr. P. Chithambaran
In India we have had all categories of sages, the idealists of
the Upaniads, the materialist Lokyatas, the hedonistic Tntriks
and numerous others of varying schools of thought. The nondualist Sankara was a sage with a difference. His thought was
progressive and universal. He offered a philosophy for the unity
of mankind.
Advaitavednta is the most profound and the most acclaimed

theory of philosophy, and Sri Sankara, its exponent, is pre-eminent
among Vedntic sages and saints. No other doctrine of spiritualism
in human history has so captured attention and stirred
philosophical deliberations, as Sankaras theory of Advaita. The
theory of Advaita that the almighty is inherent and in-dwelling in
all things-animate and inanimate in the world, served to reform
Hinduism and provided new dimensions of meaning to the
traditional doctrines of Faith.
The fundamental tenet of Advaita is that Brahman is the only
reality, and that the world is an illusion.1 The nature of Brahman
is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss. It is Avidy that causes
the one Brahman to appear as many, and My is the cause of the
world phenomena. Avidy has two powers, viz. varaa and
vikepa. Brahman, the pure consciousness, associated with My
is called vara. All living beings in the state of bondage and
undergoing transmigration are called jvas. They are the reflection
of the pure consciousness in the antakaraa. The jagat is a
superimposition on Brahman.
According to Advaitavednta, the state of freedom from all
bonds created by ignorance is called Moka. It is unconditional
92 Kiraval
Dr.P.Chitambaran
and absolute. It is called paramapururtha, the highest of the ends

designed by human beings. The mortal who attains to that state
becomes immortal. The aspirant of liberation should clean his
mind through the study of the scriptures and through the practice
of the instructed lessons. The spiritual practice of Advaita is called
sdhanacatuaya . 2
It consists of viveka, vairgya,
sdhanaakasampatti and mumukutva.

Viveka is the knowledge that Brahman alone is real and the
infinite, and this world is transient.3 This knowledge naturally
produces vairgya towards the world.4 The six virtues are ama,
Dama, Uparati, titik, raddh and Samdhna.5 Practice of these
six virtues produces Mumukutvam, the desire for Liberation. Then
the aspirant earns the authority to know Brahman.
During the post-Sankara period doctrinal differences within
the fold of Advaita developed to suit the needs of the aspirants of
different levels of intellect. These doctrinal differences constitute
glory of the system of Advaita. Surevara says that any theory
within the fold of Advaita is to be taken as valid if it facilitates
the easy understanding of the concepts of Advaita ultimately
leading to the realisation of the non-dual self.6 Of these schoolsthe school of Bhmat and the school of Vivaraa are important.
Till the end of the 16th century the Advaitic preceptors were chiefly
concerned with elucidating the view-points of the Vivaraa and
the Bhmat schools.
Sri Sankara established the Advaita philosophy which stood
unchallenged for three centuries. But Advaita philosophy posed
its own problems of reasoning and interpretation. The
assumptions of the world as an illusion led to the birth of different
trends of philosophical thoughts. Sankara founded his Advaita
doctrine through his learned commentaries (bhys) on the
prasthnatraya. Ramanuja and Madhva, are pre-eminent among
later philosophers who raised a storm of challenge against
Influence of Sankara
Kiraval 93
Sankaras reasoning, by propounding the visions of Viidvaita

and Dvaita respectively. Subsequently, Vallabhacharya come out
with his contribution of uddhdvaita and Nimbarka with his
exposition of Bhgavatamata , both of them launching a
philosophical warfare against Sankara. These later philosophers
have also evolved their philosophy by composing commentaries
on the prasthnatraya.
The preceptors and adherents of Advaita did not care to take
into account the pangs and tribulations of mans day-to-day life.
They inspired at least a few to run away from the realities of life
and take shelter under the blind belief that everything in the world
is the manifestation of the Godhead. It might be possible to attain
the heights of Vednta, if one relinquishes the world and its ways.
Sankaras interpretation and expositions do not offer definite
practical instructions to ordinary men about how to translate the
cult of Advaita into a habit of life. It is here that the Modern
Philosophers explication of Advaita becomes relevant to the
context of life in this world of reality. They brought Advaitadarana
down into our practical life. They do not see the world as an
illusion, though life in this world was an illusion. The modern
philosophers are called the Neo-Vedntins.
Neo-Vednta is the traditional Vednta interpreted in terms of

modern thought and applied in practical life. Vednta has always
been new, it has been constantly undergoing the process of self
renewal. Neo-Vednta is the result of the renewal and dialectical
integration held in the 19th and 20th century. Harmony and practical
application are the distinguishing features of Neo-Vednta. In the
place of the philosophical controversy among traditional schools,
the Neo-Vednta presents harmony.
Vednta has several schools, some of which are identified with
sects. The three main differences among these schools are about
the nature of the ultimate reality, about the relation between the
94 Kiraval
Dr.P.Chitambaran
individual self and supreme self, and about the relative superiority
of Jna, Bhakti and Karma. These doctrinal controversies have
their origin in the different interpretations of scriptures followed
by the different schools. Neo-Vednta tries to find harmony among
the schools by taking its stand on the validity of direct, personal
experience and by assigning the different views to different levels
of experience.
Another distinguishing feature of Neo-Vednta is its openness
to the religious experiences and traditions on the other religions.
It upholds harmony among the religions on the basis of the
principle of unity in diversity: unity at the transcendental place
and diversity at the empirical plane.
Neo-Vedntas approach is the harmony between the individual

and the society is not sociological but spiritual. It regards
individual selves as part of the Supreme Self, and service to men
as service to God. It looks upon Karma-Yoga, which is based on
this principle of worship, as a direct path of realization.
In the latter part of the 19th century and the first part of the 20th
century, many spiritual masters used the Vednta philosophy for
human welfare. Among them Rajaram Mohan Roy, Svami
Dayananda Sarasvati, Vivekananda, Sri Chattambi Svamikal, Sri
Narayana Guru, Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Sri
Aurobindo are some of the distinguishing figures.
Rajaram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)

Rajaram Mohan Roy was a monotheist and an integralist of
extraordinary impact on the Indian society and polity of his time.
He analysed the source books of great religions and studied their
pre-suppositions comparatively. He travelled to Tibet and Bhutan
to study Tibetan Buddhism. Roy had a profound conviction about
the existence of one god-one ultimate reality-one transcendental
principle or Brahman. He learned the vsyopaniad and
interpreted it as anti idolatry and fully supportive of the basic
Kiraval 95
Hindu canon. The all embracing humanist message that lay

implicit in the Upaniadic and Advaita monism found its vivid
expression in Roys social philosophy.
The most prominent contribution of Roy to the beginning of
Indian renaissance is the foundation of a theistic and society
motivated organisation known as Brahmasamj. The central aim
of Roys reformation movement was to bring about the spiritual
integration of mankind. Roy stated that all laws in the
reconstruction of society must be founded on a hope of mans
inner conversion. By this conversion he meant to produce a
readiness in each individual to accept the rights of others with as
much regard as that he would have for his own. The final objective
of the Brahmasamj was to take Indians to a state of consciousness
that in closer to God than to the material world. Roy could
perceive that all great religions had this single objective. Roy
struggled to bring about a kind of universal spiritualism- a kind
of humanism based on theism- an internationalism rooted in the
concept that every human is an image of God or Brahman.
Svami Dayananda Sarasvati (1825-1883)

Svami Dayananda Sarasvati was a great Vedic Scholar and
one of the great leaders of the modern Indian renaissance. Svami
Dayananda was a powerful human dynamo, physically, mentally
and spiritually. According to Sri K. M. Munshi, he was the first
among the moderns who lived and taught others to live up to the
permanent values of our culture.7 A distinguished religious leader,
social reformer and system builder; Svami Dayananda was a gifted
speaker and prolific writer too.
The Vedas, particularly the mantra part of them, are the words
of God. He who is called Brahman or the most high or the
paramtman permeates the whole universe. Dharma, which is
truthfulness in thought, word and deed, is the will of God as
embodied in the Vedas. Salvation is to be attained through worship
96 Kiraval
Dr.P.Chitambaran
of God, the performance of time-honoured ritual deeds and the

acquisition of true knowledge. Samskras are those rituals which
contribute to the physical, mental and spiritual improvement of
man.
Svami Dayananda rejected idol worship and polytheism. He
fought against superstitions, child-marriage, hereditary caste
system, untouchability, and enforced widow-hood. He advocated
womens education, a scientific education grafted to an essentially
Indian education, a single national language and the study of
Sanskrit. Back to the Vedas was his classic call. He said: The
Vedas are the scriptures of all-time knowledge. It is our paramount
duty to teach them to others, to hear them and to recite them to
others.8
Sri Chattambi Svamikal (1853-1924)

Sri Chattambi Svamikal was a great saint reformer of the
nineteenth century who lived in Kerala as a contemporary of Sri
Narayana Guru. He was a knower of the Supreme Self. The
inner flow of his visions and works is purely the Vednta
philosophy, mainly the non-dual philosophy of Acharya Sankara.
Chattambi Svamikal was a scholar well-versed in different
philosophical schools, in religious matters including the western
religions, and in the literatures of Tamil, Sanskrit and Malayalam.
As a great sage, he practiced yoga and learned the cinmudra
from his revered preceptor Atmananda Svamikal. He acquired
all kinds of philosophical knowledge and rejected any views with
strong arguments, except the Advaita philosophy. To him, Advaita
was a practical Vednta. He interpreted the Advaita Philosophy
and implemented it in his own life. According to him, Advaita
was an effective tool for the social, economic, religious, ethical,
moral and cultural unity of the human race.
Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928)

Sri Narayana Guru was a part of Indias long line of spiritual
masters. The philosophy and works of Narayana Guru have an
Kiraval 97
incomparable status. He developed his visions and thoughts about

life and the eternal reality on the basis of Sankaras philosophy.
It is the uniqueness of the Guru that he used his valuable
knowledge for the welfare of the contemporary society. By the
practice of religion, Sri Narayana aimed at the human benediction.
The whole philosophy of Sri Narayana Guru carries a humanistic
touch.
The creditable achievement of Sri Narayana Guru is his
discovery in Advaita, of the remedy for the evils of social
discrimination, inequality and oppression. It was with this weapon
that he ventured to fight against the pernicious caste system among
the Hindus. The social reform movement launched and led to
success by him was the practical implementations of his Advaitic
vision. Equality for all is the ideal envisaged and upheld by
Advaita. This philosophy cannot absorb or tolerate a segregation
of men on grounds of their being born in different castes or sects.
This conviction prompted the Guru to tap the resources of Advaita
for practical purpose of service to humanity and brought him the
deserved prestige as the greatest social reformer of the land. The
achievement of the Guru leaves no room for the question whether
he was a mere Advaitin or a revolutionary social reformer. The
activities of the Guru as a reformer were a translation of the
Advaita doctrine into practical life.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

The unique features of Tagores writings are creative and
theoretical. They embody his admiration for the harmony, the
inexhaustible beauty of nature and his conception of God as the
Supreme Spirit. The original Upaniadic insight that the entire
cosmic process is fundamentally one is seen in all his writings.
According to Tagore, the finite world cannot be unreal or illusory,
since this world is the creators design, his craftsmanship and
love. Tagore agrees that it is only when one is too much of an
98 Kiraval
Dr.P.Chitambaran
intellectual and tries to approach existence from the point of a

view of skeptic that he would see the world as My. For Tagore,
the world must be looked upon as an enjoyable abode and then
one would know that its objective existence is true and positive.
According to Tagore, the very appearance of nature represents
Gods genius and love. Tagores devotionalism is the direct
outcome of his early immersion in the Bhakti tradition of
Vaiavism in Bengal. His poetic compositions contain a striking
mood of surrender to God. He referred to God as the object of
mans pure love, unrestrained admiration and praise.
Tagores humanism is founded on the theory that every man is
spiritual by the very nature of his ontological structure. Man
mirrors the Divine. Tagore emphasizes the man-nature-God
relationship as one transcending mans rational essence.
According to Tagore, human beings are part and parcel of the
Divine and are dependent on it. God-realisation is not then the
absorption of the individual self by the Divine, but the selfs
communion with God. Tagore instinctively synthesized God and
the Absolute. He subscribed to a universalist monistic point of
view which is an extensive domain of Advaita.9
Vivekananda (1863-1902)
Svami Vivekananda gave a new face to traditional Vednta.
The philosophy of Vivekananda has an outstanding status and
world-wide acceptance. Vivekananda accepts the traditional
concept that the Vedas are eternal as texts of revelation. For him
the essence of the Vedic knowledge was called by the name of
Vednta, which comprises the Upaniads.
Swami Vivekananda was a man of harmony. By taking the
different systems of Indian philosophy as authoritative, he directs
that they are not contradictory. For Vivekananda the Upaniads,
the Brahmastra, and the Gt have been taken up by every sect in
India, that wants to claim authority for orthodoxy.
Kiraval 99
Vivekananda was a firm Advaitist but preached the need of

acceptance that all the philosophical strains are true in their own
way. According to him, Brahman is one in the most literal monistic
sense. He can only be realised by the individual soul.
Vivekananda perfectly accepts the Advaita philosophy in the
concept of vara that the personal God is the same Absolute
looked at through the haze of My. Vivekananda accepts the
view of vivarttavda on account of the creation of the universe.
For him Paramtman as ruling My is vara, and Paramtman as
under My is Jva. My being the cause, and mithy its effect, is
the fundamental concept of Advaita. Vivekananda accepts the
theory. For him the world only exists in relation to mind. It is a
mixture of existence and non-existence. He admits the theory of
Jvanmukti of Monism. According to Vivekananda, Vednta takes
a man above sects and dogma, and enables him to breathe the
ampler air of the upper skies of his faith from where he can realize
his freedom.
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi was perturbed by the fate of the people
around him-their poverty, ignorance, slavery to a foreign rule,
and their helplessness. His entire philosophy of life and action is
discernible as borrowed from the Bhagavad Gt. He considered
the Gt as the most important unit of the Prasthnatraya.
Gandhis world view is an admixture of humanism and theism.
His epistemology is structured around the premise God is truth
or Truth is God. Gandhi was a monotheist. His concept of God
has its origin in the Upaniads and Bhagavad Gt. According to
him, God is one. He is love, light and bravery. God is the ruling
spirit behind everything that the cosmic process has generated
and is capable of generating. Gandhis ethics of non-violence is
the outcome of his assumption that the God is the spirit behind
all existence, animate and inanimate. He looked upon the whole
100 Kiraval
Dr.P.Chitambaran
reality as one unending experiment with truth. According to him,

Gods names adopted by various religions in the world are
ultimately the destinations of the same divine reality. Gandhi
was highly charismatic and saintly. He totally dedicated himself
to the uplift of the Indian masses. He gave birth to a social and
political philosophy based on truth and human dignity. Gandhis
well known idea of satygraha is founded on the insistence on
truth as God. It is the assertion of the self within us with a view
to arouse an identical assertion in others.
Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)

Among the spiritual masters of India, Sri Aurobindo holds an
outstanding position by his fresh thoughts and perfect vision. He
established his philosophy on the basis of Vednta, mainly the
non-dual philosophy. He had his own spiritual experiences and
had the realization of the self. For his philosophy he used these
experiences rather than the previous traditional teachings. He
was a born genius and had a great intellect. He introduced the
philosophical quest of human existence and goal of life to manifest
the secret of nature and he introduced the system of Integral
Yoga.
Sri Aurobindos philosophy of integration is unique. It is
integral for two reasons: first, it not only comprehends the whole
of the reality, but also integrates the lower levels of experiences
into the higher. If reality is integral, the knowledge required for
realising it must also be integral. Since the means must be
appropriate to the end, integral yoga brings about the ascent of
consciousness leading to the realisation of the cosmic self as well
as the descent of consciousness leading to the divinization of
nature. The work of perfected beings whom Sri Aurobindo calls
Gnostic beings in bringing about this transmigration of society
is decisive.
Kiraval 101
In different periods of time many masters re-interpreted the

Advaita philosophy in response to the contemporary social need.
In the modern time, too, Advaita stands as a relevant philosophy,
by directing humanity to their welfare. The national movement
of independence was also influenced by the thoughts of this
philosophy. For the removal of social evils and for reforming the
nation they used the philosophy as a tool. The Advaitic vision of
equality contributed much to the integration process of the country.
Notes and References

1. i VMxl, nxibhb&, 6.
2. RE&, ESbh&, 19.
3. Ibid. 20.
4. Ibid. 21.
5. Ibid. 22-26.
6. i{ i{k& |iMix*
|G Y v Sxli** &.
7.
Munshi. K. M., Cultural Heritage of India (compiled edition),

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1997, p. 135.
8. Ibid. p. 136.
9. Balasubrahmanyam. R., (ed.), History of Science, Philosophy
and Culture, col. II, Part II, Centre for Studies in Civilization,
New Delhi, 2000.
Dialectic of Vidy and Avidy in

Indian Philosophy: A General Survey
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
Introduction
Life is manifested existence, is cradled in knowing and doing.
Without knowing there is no doing. If human genius is capable
of ascertaining all about knowing and doing life ceases to be a
mystery. It is in the mission of unraveling the mystery of knowing
and doing that the human being distinguishes itself from other
species of life. And it is this capability of its quest and consequent
findings that make the human beings the lord of creation. Human
social life is based on the findings of such quests by the enlightened
members of human society. In short, higher life of intelligence
and enquiry, is rooted in the truthful findings of knowing and
doing.
It is in this higher life and culture that the luminous intellectual
traditions are rooted. Among such intellectual traditions in the
world, the Indian variety of the same has been an object of
sustained fascination and a perennial oasis of hope. An enquiry
into the unifying characteristics of Indian philosophical traditions
reveals that from the very beginning of those traditions,
discussions on the problems of Vidy and Avidy have formed an
essential part of them. The reason for this striking and continued
unanimity can be found in the fact that all Indian philosophical
systems regarded Avidy as the root cause of suffering. And they
were all unequivocally bent upon discovering the means of the
dissolution of Avidy and found Vidy , the process of true
knowledge by which Reality could be realized and suffering could
be overcome.
Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy
Kiraval 103
Thus it is clear that the dialectic of Vidy and Avidy is common

to all Indian Philosophical Systems except Crvka. For example
one of the striking features of Advaita Vednta, the paramount
system of Indian philosophy, consists in the way the theory of
Avidy is made to play a central role in the theory of Vidy. Using
the metaphor of light and darkness for Vidy and Avidy
respectively, they expound the whole empirical cognitive situation
as an interplay of light and darkness mingled together. An attempt
to ascertain the true-nature of the various conceptions of Vidy
and Avidy as evidenced in the different schools like Bauddha,
Jaina, Nyya, Vednta, etc. will facilitate us to understand these
traditions precisely and truthfully.
Let us have a glimpse on the radical conceptions of Vidy and
Avidy as explained in the different systems of Indian thought.
Jainadarana
In the Jaina System, the term mithytva (perversity) is generally
used to denote the idea of Avidy. The terms mithydarana,
mithydi, daranamoha, moha, etc. are also used in the same
sense. The opposite of mithytva is samyaktva, also known as
samyagdarana (right view), which is Vidy. Bondage consists
in the obstructed and mutilated condition of the various capacities
of the soul. According to Vidynandi Svmin the causes of bondage
are mithydarana (perverse view), mithyjna (perverse
knowledge) and mithycarita (perverse conduct).1 The self is
omniscient. But its omniscience is veiled by the crust of karmamatter. The sense-object intercourse does not produce knowledge,
but simply removes the veil of karma-matter and reveals
knowledge of the self. The right attitude (samyagdarana) right
knowledge (samyagjna) and right conduct (samyakcarita)
constitute the path to Moka.2 Moka is the absolute separation of
104 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
the soul from the krmic matter, in the absence of the causes of
bondage.
Bauddhadarana
The Buddhist chain of Prattyasamutpda begins with Avidy
which is considered as the root of the world process.3 Ta is the
mother and Avidy is the father of the world process.4 One seeks
permanence so long as the truth of impermanence does not dawn
upon him. Ego-centric activity ceases when the falsity of the
notion of a static self is comprehended. Avidy consists in
mistaking suffering for happiness. Desire for happiness disappears
when the first ryasatya of universal suffering is realized.
In the course of delineating the concept of Avidy, the truth is
seen divided into two as samvtisatya (empirical truth) and
paramrthasatya (transcendental truth).5 The function of samvti
is to cover the knowledge of the truth. It is Avidy. It is also
called moha (delusion) and viparysa (perversion).6 The
Vijnavdins denounce the duality of the perceiver and the
perceived as false. There is consciousness alone, there is no
external object (dya).7 The consciousness functions as the
appearance of object, being influenced by vsan.8 The objective
world is like an elephant called up by illusion (my-hastin). It
appears to the consciousness perfumed by Avidy.9
Avidy or ajna is the common defect, the basic fault, that

compels the consciousness to project this universe and keep it
tied to it. The Vijnavdins say that it is abhtaparikalpa, the
conjuring up of the imaginary unreal. Sthiramati, the commentator
of Madhynta Vibhga Stra Bhya explains the abhtaparikalpa
as the locus or the instrument of the imagination of unreal duality.10
Generically it consists in pure consciousness and it exists from
beginningless time and ends in final emancipation (nirva).
Kiraval 105
Specifically, it consists in the imagination of the perceived and

the perceiver.11
According to Vijnavdin there is the conception of two-fold
varaas viz., jeyvaraa and klevaraha. The word jeya means
knowable, i.e., the dharmas or elements of existence. They are
not substantial and thus have no reality. The varaa in the form
of jeya is called jeyvaraa.12 It is called ajna.13 Similarly
klevaraa means the varaa in the form of kleas. The purification
of these varaas leads someone to emancipation or Nirvaa.
Lakvatra says: The jeyvaraa is purified due to a special kind
of intuition of dharma-nairtmya or un-substantiality of things as
they appear. The klevaraa on the other hand, is destroyed due
to the practice of intuition of pudgalanairtmya, the unreality of
individual ego.14 These varaas are as unreal and illusory as the
abhtaparikalpa because the consciousness is pure and luminous
by nature.15
Skhyadarana
In the Skhya system the Self or Purua is eternally liberated.
But it has a false sense of bondage and it is due to nondiscrimination (aviveka) between itself and Prakti.16 Liberation
or Moka is due to discrimination (viveka). Bondage and
Liberation are not real but apparent.17 Moka is absolute negation
of three-fold suffering or pain.18 True knowledge is the cause of
Moka.19 It is not theoretical knowledge, but direct and immediate
knowledge of the self.20 According to Skhya error is Avidy, it
is only a negative fact, the failure to discriminate. The knowledge
of the Self (Vidy) destroys Avidy.21 Prakti which was leading
us through cycles of experiences from birth to birth, fulfils its
final purpose when the true knowledge arises differentiating Purua
from Prakti. As the final purpose being attained, the Prakti can
never again bind the Purua.
106 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
The Skhya conception of Avidy is substantially the same as

that of Yoga. But there is difference of terminology. The five
kleas, viz. Avidy, Asmit, Rga, Dvea and Abhinivea
of the Yoga are respectively called Tamas, Moha, Mahmoha,
Tmisra and Andhatmisra in the Skhya.22 According to
Skhya, comprehension of eight categories of Prakti, Mahat,
Ahakra and the five Tanmtras (subtle elements) as identical
with the immutable soul is Avidy which is also called eight-fold
Tamas, while Vcaspati recognizes five-knotted Avidy.23
When this Avidy disappears knowledge becomes perfect. And
this perfect knowledge (vidy) leads to final emancipation of the
Soul. The Soul then shines in its own splendour.24 The Kaivalya
or emancipation of the purua is rather a rediscovery of its own
nature, and not the acquisition of unprecedented condition or the
relinquishment of a real limitation.
Yoga and Skhya theoretically do not differ as regards their
conception of Viparyaya and Avidy.25 But Vijnabhiku records
a dissenting note. He says that Avidy is neither valid cognition
nor absence of cognition but it is a false cognition, a category
of cognition. In the Yoga system the term Avidy does not
mean aviveka as it does with the followers of Skhya. But it is a
determinate cognition as it is with such schools as Vaieika. This
follows from both the Sutra and Bhya.26
Yogadarana
In the Yoga system also Avidy or ignorance is the cause of
suffering.27 Yoga school also recognizes two primordial categories
viz. Purua and Prakti. Purua is the principle of consciousness
while Prakti is unconscious. Puruas relation to Prakti serves to
cater the enjoyment (bhoga) of the former.28 When Purua realizes
its natural difference and distinction from the Prakti by realizing
Kiraval 107
its own, inalienable spiritual nature, it leads to final release

(apavarga). The relation between the inherently pure Purua and
Prakti is beginningless and is due to Avidy.29 The conception of
Avidy here is not negative but has a definite positive aspect.
Avidy has been defined to be a perverted knowledge which
comprehends non-eternal as eternal, impure as pure, sorrow as
pleasure and non-soul as soul. 30 According to Vysa, the
commentator, Avidy is neither knowledge nor negation of
knowledge but it is wrong cognition as opposed to true cognition
and as such falls in the category of cognition.31 He further
describes Avidy as a mental trace or a predisposition left by
wrong cognition.32
The habit of steadiness (abhysa) and non-attachment to
pleasures (vairgya) lead the aspirant to right knowledge. Right
knowledge or Vidy is the discrimination (viveka) between Purua
and Prakti.33 When by the grace of God false knowledge is
removed, true knowledge at once dawns upon the mind and the
afflictions lose their power.34 Kaivalya or Moka is described either
as the final reversion of the guas to their Prakti or as the selfrecovery of consciousness in its intrinsic nature.35
Nyyadarana
According to Nyya system also mithyjna or Avidy is the
cause of suffering. Udyotakara, the commentator on Nyyastra,
opines that body, senses, objects, etc., are all manifestations of
suffering.36 The soul bears the special qualities like desire,
aversion, effort, pleasure, pain and knowledge.37 According to
Vtsyyana, the commentator on Nyyastra, mithyjna consists
in mistaking the non-self for the self. It is a false beliefThen
the self cannot think that it is immortal in its own right and because
of its identification with the mortal body is perpetually tormented
108 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
by the fear of deathand this means the perpetuation of the

worldly career.38
Nyyastra presents a five-fold chain of causal conditions

leading to bondage. The chain begins with mithyjna (Avidy),
which is a necessary condition for doa (faults), which are in turn
productive of pravtti (activity), which results in janma (rebirth)
which is the cause of dukha (suffering). This is reminiscent of
the twelve-fold chain of Buddhism i.e., prattyasamutpda which
leads from Avidy to rebirth and misery. In both these systems
the whole thing is similar to a wheel which is called bhavacakra
or samsracakra.
Avidy or mithyjna is not equivalent to negation of

knowledge but false knowledge. It is delusion regarding the true
nature of the reals such as the self, the body etc; that is responsible
for our bondage. So it is the correct knowledge of these reals
and the correct appraisement of their values which will put an
end to our ignorance and the consequential emotional and
volitional perversions.
Nyyastra describes systematically the process of the cessation
of the worldly life and the attainment of Apavarga.39 With the
cessation of Avidy (mithyjna) , defects i.e., the evil
dispositions cease. With the cessation of defects, merits and
demerits cease. With the cessation of merits and demerits, birth
and death cease. And finally with the cessation of birth and death,
misery and suffering cease. This absolute cessation of misery
and suffering is called Apavarga or final emancipation.40 It is
possible by the practice of a particular kind of meditation and
concentration (Samdhi).41 The soul has to exert itself for the
realization of truth. The mind is to be forcibly removed from the
sense-organs and kept in conjunction with the soul with ardent
desire to know the Truth.42 When the truth is thus known and
realized, the soul gets rid of Avidy or delusion.
Kiraval 109
Vaieikadarana
Vaieika system recognizes two kinds of cognition viz., Vidy
(true cognition) and Avidy (false cognition).43 It says that Avidy
is due to the defects of sense-organs and the perverted influence
of the memory impressions.44 Avidy is classified into four, viz.,
doubt, error, uncertainty and dream. Under error, Praastapda
includes the typical false beliefs such as believing in what is
impermanent as permanent, what is non-self as self.45 He refers
to Avidy by the term viparyaya which is recognized to be of two
kinds viz., perceptual and inferential.46 Praastapda defines
viparyaya (Avidy) as wrong cognition of the form. It is A with
regard to what is other than A and enumerates the following as
the conditions of such erroneous cognition: (1) blurred vision of
two objects possessed of many well-known distinctive features
by one whose sense organs are overpowered by the bodily humours
in disorder, (2) conjunction of soul and mind accompanied with
the awakened memory-impression produced by the past cognition
of an object not present at the time, and (3) religious demerit.47
The miscomprehension of body, sense organs and mind as the
self is Avidy or viparyaya. This conception is identical with the
conception of Nyya School.
The final cause of entanglement in the cycle of being is Avidy
or Ignorance. On it depends the passions, desire and hate. When
someone is lured by them he/she gains merit and guilt. The merit
and guilt lead to new rebirths in a beginningless cycle of being.
A deliverance out of it is possible only through true knowledge
about the six categories born of dharma by which the Avidy got
vanished.48 Kada states: absence of conjunction of the soul
with the body, and the non-origination of new body on the
exhaustion of ada is Moka. 49 Kada refers to the
transcendental knowledge born of concentration (Samdhi).50
110 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
Moka is absolute and eternal quiescence when one comes to rest

and calmness like the fire, the fuel of which is consumed.
Thus Avidy in the Vaieika School stands for a more general
concept. It is not merely an absence of knowledge. It includes
not only wrong convictions, errors and delusions, but also doubtful
attitudes, uncertainties and dream states.
Prvammmsdarana
In the Prvammms system though there is no concept of
Avidy as in other systems, there is Moka or Salvation. In the
state of Moka the self remains devoid of any of its characteristic
qualities such as pleasure, pain, knowledge, etc. According to
Mmmsaka the self is not knowledge nor is it bliss or nanda as
Vednta supposes, but these are generated in it by its energy and
the operation of the senses. Thus at the state of Moka self remains
as a mere potency of the energy of knowledge, a mere existence.51
Moka is achieved when a man exhausts the fruits of actions by
enjoying them and stops the further generations of new effects by
refraining from the performance of kmyakarmas and by
assiduously performing the nityakarmas. This state is
characterized by the dissolution of the body and the freedom from
rebirth.
Uttarammmsdarana
An indepth perusal of the Upaniadic lore clearly reveals
that the concepts of Vidy and Avidy were already present
there even though we do not find a full-fledged doctrine based on
these concepts. The word My is more familiar in the Vedic
literature than the word Avidy. Conceptually, as depicted in
the Vedas and Upaniads, there is no difference between My
and Avidy. Though the idea of Avidy is evident in the content
of Brahmastra, Bdaryaa did not use the word Avidy even at a
Kiraval 111
single place in the whole text of Brahmastra and even the word
My is used only at one place.52
Advaita
Gauapda , the grand teacher of akarcrya , in the

gamastra, developed the concepts of Vidy and Avidy and
later akara and his direct disciples like Padmapda and Surevara
unfolded their implications and made a consistent theory on them.
Gauapda prefers the word My to Avidy. He introduces My
in order to explain appearance and utilizes the Buddhist critique
to explain his theory. The world appears through My, and one
sticks to the world due to the predilection (abhinivesa). According
to Nathmal Tatia, the My and Abhinivea of Gauapda stand
in the same relation as the My and Avidy of the Upaniads.53
My is the principle of cosmic illusion and Avidy is rather its
product responsible for the creation of different subjects.
According to akara, My is the cosmic force belonging to
the Lord. It is Nma and Rpa. It is the appearance of the great
tman. My is the appearance of Reality. My and Avidy are
synonymous.54 The relation of Avidy and My is a vexed
problem in later Advaita Vednta. akara does never attempt to
draw a line of distinction between Avidy and Mya. But it seems
that he postulates My mainly for explaining the origination of
the world appearance and Avidy for explaining the attachment
of the individual to that appearance. Then we can say that My
and Avidy are complements each of the other.
Vidy is the knowledge of the Absolute Brahman. It is not

bipolar like our empirical cognitions. It is pure consciousness
without subject-object determination (akalpakam). It is identical
with the Absoluteits object. The realization of the Absolute is
effected by eternal unborn consciousness and thus the unborn is
112 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
said to be known by the unborn.55In this state of Moka the mind

merges in the Absolute with its separate identity dissolved.56
Moka is the intrinsic nature of the tman. It is eternal. It is
hidden by Avidy. When Avidy is removed by Vidy, tman is
realized.57
Viidvaita
In the Viidvaita system Avidy is false identification of the
self with the body.58 Rmnuja recognizes Avidy in the Jvas,
which veils their essential nature. But he does not admit Avidy
which projects the plurality of world-appearance. The Jvas birth
is due to Avidy . Avidy obscures the essential nature of the self
and its affinity with God. Knowledge and bliss constitute the
essence of the Jvas. When Avidy is destroyed by meditation on
God the Jvas are divested of the differences and experience their
essential nature and bliss.59 They have similarity (smya) with
God in their liberated state. Prior to the state of Mukti, Jvas
knowledge was restricted. In the state of Mukti, Jva becomes
totally free from the shackles of Karma and as such its jna
manifests itself in its fullness.60
Dvaita
In the Dvaita system of Madhvcrya, Avidy is a negative
substance (dravya). By Gods will it veils the natural intelligence
of all Jvas.61 But there is not one common Avidy which appears
in different individuals. The Avidy of one individual is altogether
different from the Avidy of another individual. There is no
universal Avidy as it found in most of the other Indian systems
but each person has a specific (prtsvik) Avidy of his own.
Madhva states that the realization of ones self as paratantra
brings Mukti to the self. Mukti is the complete harmony with the
creative will. It is the living in Brahman. According to Nimbrka,
Kiraval 113
Avidy is the ignorance of ones true nature and relationship with

God which is the cause of Karma and his association with the
body, senses and the subtle matter. Moka is participation in Gods
nature (tadbhvpatti).
aivadarana
In dualistic aiva School the innate nature of every soul is
similar to that of iva. But it lies obscured. The ultimate cause of
the obscuration is Avidy. It is a positive entity called mala and
its essential function is to reduce the inherent powers of the soul
to their minimum. It is known as pa and lies mixed with the
soul like the husk to seed.62 It can be removed only by the grace
of iva.
In the monistic aiva school the Absolute Paramaiva by its
two-fold functions of self-concealment (sva-gopana) and selflimitation (sva-samkoca) conceals its own nature and manifests
itself in the subjective and objective forms. Thus the self becomes
oblivious of its true nature. The oblivion of true nature of self as
Consciousness-cum-Freedom is called ava-mala.63 This
Avidy is called spiritual ignorance (paurua-ajna). There is
another type of Avidy called intellectual ignorance (bauddhaajna), which originates after the soul has been involved in
mundane existence. The removal of spiritual ignorance leads the
self to emancipation. In this system Vidy is the spiritual process
such as dka and the like which leads to the removal of spiritual
ignorance.
Conclusion
It is the supreme prerogative of the individual soul, that it is
not satisfied permanently with anything short of a state of existence
free from all taints of suffering and pain. It is this divine discontent
with the relative values that augurs for the realization of perfection.
This perfection, free from the shackles of Avidy, is the final
114 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
salvation of the soul. It is realized when the soul entirely

overcomes and transcends mithyjna or Avidy.
Avidy generally means Ignorance or wrong cognition of truth.

Thus its meaning would naturally change along with the change
in the conception of the nature of truth. For example in Vednta
what is real and permanent is tman, and everything else is Avidy
while according to Buddhism to consider tman as permanent
reality is Avidy. It, therefore, follows that the meaning of Avidy
cannot remain constant, but there is a common thread running
through all these conceptions which makes them Avidy in the
core i.e., the appearance of one thing as something else.
Vidy presupposes unity or oneness of thought and being, a

unity that transcends the differentiation of subject and object.
Ultimately Vidy is revealed in mans very existence. The integral
knowledge of the common foundation of all existence. It is
unveiled rather than acquired. In lower level Vidy is discursive
knowledge, in higher level it is supra-intellectual Integral
Experience which is beyond the grasp of logic and epistemological
method.

1. MnxYxSix IM <itjli lnxYxSix
M <i r& *Tattvrthalokavrttika of Vidyanandisvmin,
Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1918, p. 72.
2. MnxYxSix IM&*Tattvrthdhigama Stra of Umsvti
I.1. (Pub) Jivachand Sakerchand Javeri, 1929.
3. Samyukta Nikya, XX.1.
4. ij i! i Ei ix n =i ih {xE +xnMMi
iixk i +t {iixixOi{k * Lakvatra Stra
(LS), (Ed.) Bunjiu Nanjio, Kyoto, 1923, p. 138.
5. n SSx +CE r ni * i {k S ii
x { i**Quoted by Buddhaghoa in Aakath on
Kathvattu, p. 30.
Kiraval 115
6. i +i li{Yx hni|ExSSxi i&

+t { <i {&*Bodhicaryvatra Pajik (BCAP),
(ed.) Poussin, Bibliotheca Indica, p. 352.
7. Skj x o%i uv Sk oi*
OOEx iSUn Vi** LS., III.65.
8. x ti l l E{i*
x bi Sk +l |ii**Ibid, X. 154.
9. i l Sj {jh ExE l*
il o xh Ji Sk +Yxi**Ibid, X.126
10.+ix u {E{i%xx ii{E{&* Madhynta Vibhga
Stra Bhya k, (ed.) V. Bhattacarya and G. Tucci, 1932,
p. 12.
11. +xnEE xh{x x{SkSiE xhxi

{E{&* i OOEE{&* Madhynta Vibhga Stra Bhya
k, p. 12.
12. Y Sih ..... Y B {i{ii +i&* BCAP., p.

447.
13.Yh{ x Y Yx|ixvi +C] +Yx*Trimik
of Vasubandhu, (ed.) Silvain Levi in the Vijaptimtratsiddhi,
Paris, 1925, p. 15.
14.Yh {xi vxinxunvi, Ch i
{nM xinx{E |i*Lakvatra pajik, 241.
15.|Ei| Sk* LS., X. 750.
16. Skhyapravacanastravtti (SPSV) I.19, Garbe, Richard
(Trans.) J.W. Thomas, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1888.
17. SPSV., I.57-58.
18. +l jvn& Jixixkixi{l&*
Skhyapravacanastra I.1, Nandalal Sinha (trans.), SBH., vol.
II, Allahabad, 1912.
19. vh Mxv Mxvin ivh*

Yxx S{M, {ni xv&** Skhyatattvakaumud, Krik
44, (ed.) Ramesh Chandra, Calcutta Sanskrit Series, No. 25,

Calcutta, 1935.
20. EH {IiEi & |vx ii{l {x]x i, Eilii

Ei* Skhya Pravacana Bhya, VI. 43.
21. Skhya Stra Vtti, II.1.
116 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
22.+t%i Mu x C <i Bi B Y& i

i%xvi <i .... Yogastra Bhya of Vysa (YSB),
I.8. (ed.) Bangali Baba, MLBD., Delhi , 1990.
23.i i xvYE&*
+t {\S{ |ni ix&** YogastraVrtika (YSV), (Ed.)
T.S.Rukmani, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, I.8. +t {\S{* Yuktidpik, Pandeya
Ramachandra, (ed.) MLBD., Delhi, 1967, p. 154.
24. B ikzz xi{*
+{ur Ei{ti Yx**
|{i n Silii |vxxk*
BExiEixiE E{xi**Skhya Krik, 64, 68.
25. Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, P. V. Research
Institute, Varanasi-5, 1951, p. 95.
26.+S n x J x E x +tn l & Exi
Enu]Yxi j +Mxi*Vrttika on YSV.,
II.5.
27.M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 294.
28.Ci& {{vi& M&*Yogastra, II.23, (ed.) Pandit
Dhundhiraj stri, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi,
2001.
29.i it*Yogastra (YS), II.24.
30.+xiSn&Jxi xiSJiJit*YS., II.5.
31.+t x |h x |h& Exi t{i Yxxi+ti*SB.,II.6.
32.{Yxx*Ibid, II.24.
33.+M izv &* YS., I.12, EJi{ x{&*Ibid,
II.26.
34.iniM x iq& E*Ibid, II.25.
35.{lxx Mhx |i|& E,{|i` SiH& <i* Ibid,
IV.34.
36.BEi |nz {xn&J , bxph, b&, br&, J n&J

Si*Udyotakara on Nyyastra I.1.1, (ed.) r Nryaa Mira,
Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, 1990.
37. <SUu|ixJn&JYxxix RM* Nyyastra (NS) I.1.10.
38. E {xixlYx? +xix +iO&, +i % R E <i*
+xix Ji {i o]RE <i* E {xinlVi
u%R E&? xpxnxr&* El iu%R E& V
i? + J tlVii iinSUnxiSUn
Kiraval 117
xx%xSUnih {{i& {x{xin{nk, in{nx Vxh ii*

ixMi x +ixin&Ji Si <i* NS., Introductory Bhya,
IV.2.1, (ed.) r Nryaa Mira, Chaukhambha Sanskrit
Sansthan, Varanasi, 1990, pp. 543-544.
39. n&JVx|kn lYxxkk { inxxi{n{M&*NS., I.1.2.
40. inixiI%{M&* Ibid, I.1.22.
41. vi*Ibid, IV.2.38.
42. i |i i xp x v E h |ix x v hix
Miki]&*Vtsyyana Bhya on Nyyastra IV.2.38,
(ed.) r Nryaa Mira, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan,
Varanasi, 1990, p. 583.
43. iq]Yx* Vaieika Stra (VS), IX.ii.11, +n] t* VS.,
IX.ii.12.
44. <xpn i En SSt*Ibid, IX.ii.10.
45. Padrthadharmasagraha, Included in Udayanas Krikval
(ed. J.S.Jetly, Gaekward Oriental Series, Baroda, 1971.), pp.
171-182.
46. {%{ |iIxx B i*Praastapda Bhya on
Vaieika Stra, (ed.) Paita r Durgadhara Jha,
SamprnandSanskritUniversity, Varanasi, 1997, p. 423.
47. |rxE&{kEx{ixp +llSxnzi
YxVE{Inix& Mi +vSS +iini |i {&*
l M <i*Paita r Durgadhara Jha, op. cit. pp. 423426.
48. v|inpMhExx {nlx vv
ikYxz&*VS., I.1.4.
49. in M%|nS I&*Ibid, V.ii.18.
50. Ibid, IX.i.11-15.
51. Nathmal Tatia, op cit., p. 113.
52.j i EixxxH{ii* Brahmastra, III.2.3.
53.Natmal Tatia, op. cit., op. cit., p. 121.
54.Yii <tE{i x{ ikxixSx
|{\SVi Y H& |Eii S ii{i*
Brahma Stra kara Bhya., II.1.14.
55.+E{EV Yx Yz |SIi*
YV xiVxV nvi** Gauapdakrik (GK), III.33.
56. {Mi& Sxi ili&*
|xi& EVVi& vS%&** GK., III.34-35.
118 Kiraval
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar
57.+t|ixvj I xx|ixv&, xiii +iiiSS*kara

Bhya, Mu., III.2.9.
58. Vtsya Varada, Tattvasra, pp. 38-39.
59. rnivscrya, Yatndramatadpik, (ed.) Swami
didevananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1978, p. 7.
60. S.M.Srinivasachari, Fundamentals of Viidvaita Vednta,
MLBD., Delhi, 1998, p. 73.
61. +i& { B knMht vix +t vx |EiSxini
Ci V |E{ {Six{SUni*Jayatrtha, Nyyasudh
commentary on Aubhya, N.S. Press, Bombay, 1895, p. 64.
62. BExEHoCGSUnE {*
iEEVYki Eu**Tattvapraka of r Bhojadeva with
commentary of rkumra, TSS, vol. LXVIII, p. 56.
63. n Sn i { & ixjn n {i +i in in
<SUnH%RESi +{ RESi xi inx S% i&
i*
il +|iiixj{ <SUH& +{hxi{ +h
*Kemarja, Pratyabhijhdaya, (ed.) Jayadev Singh, MLBD.,
Delhi, 1980, p. 21.
The Concept of Aumkra in the

Mdkyopaniad
Dr.S.Sobhana
Realization of Truth is the ultimate aim of life. Life in this
material world is full of miseries. In the process of life man must
put up a relentless struggle against the ills of life. He must direct
his life for the achievement of eternal happiness through the
realization of the ultimate reality. Our philosophers give guidelines
for this. The Upniads embody the fundamental principles of
eternal dharma. Sree Sankaracharya, the Advaita exponent, has
commented on the ten principal Upniads among the 108 known
Upniads. Sree Sankaracharyas Paramaguru, Sree Gaudapada,
has given bhasya in the form of krik , only for the
Mdkyopaniad, which has the minimum number of important
Advaitic Mantras. That itself reveals the importance of this
Particular Upniad. Moreover the Muktikopaniad says
Mdkyopaniad alone is sufficient for the knowledge of Advaita.
All these point to the fact that the study and practice of this single
Upniad itself is enough for man to attain his goal.
Based on this Upniad, Sri Gaudapda has written 215 kriks.
Like all other Upniads, the Mdkya also tries to determine the
concept of self knowledge. It asserts that Atman is Brahman
itself. Brahman is nothing but Praava. Words do not exist without
meaning. The basic sound Aumkra includes all other words.
Aumkra and Brahman are inseparable. A, U, M are the three mtrs
of Aum. The fourth mtr - Amtra is the Atman itself. These
three mtrs indicate the waking, dream and deep sleep stages
which can be considered as the gross, subtle and causal forms of
Brahman. The fourth State Atman, which is beyond all empirical
doings and which cannot be defined, is called Turya. The A, U,
120 Kiraval
Dr.S.Sobhana
and M mtras merge in amtra. Thus, Turya becomes the only reality
and all the others are mere illusions. The knowledge that the Atman
is the basis of all knowledge which is calm, blissful and eternal,
comes from the vision of truth.
The Mdkyopaniad begins with the mystic sound Aum,
which embodies the sense of all this (the universe). A clear
explanation of this (utterance) is as follows : All that is past,
present and future is verily Aum. That which is beyond the triple
division of time, is also truly Aum1 Sri Sankara says that the
mystic syllable Aum comprises all objects and the names
connoting these objects. In one word, all this is Brahman, of which
Aum is the symbol. Aum appears as the absolute, the totality of
reality, the whole universe. Aum stands for Sagua Brahman and
Nirgua Brahman. This reminds us of the famous saying of the
Chndogyopaniad, All is Brahman.2 The ancient Rig.Vedic
utterance reminds us: All this is Purua, what is past and what is
future,3 The Kathopaniad too expresses the same idea : Aum or
Akara is Para Brahman4. The pranopaniad asserts : Aum is the
supreme (higher) and the lower (manifested) Brahman. 5
According to the Mudakopaniad, All this world is Purua6. So
the sacred syllable Aum expresses that Atman is Brahman which
is the supreme non dual reality. This view exhibits the true spirit
of Advaita Vedanta. Thus Aum is Brahman, which is nothing
but the Atman, and it has four quarters or Pds.7 Viz., Viva,
Taijasa, Prjna and Turya.
Meditation on Aum
Aum is the sound which is suggestive of the Brahman-self. It
is inclusive of all sounds, and hence it is the support of the world
of speech (vk - Prapaca). And, of all, this is denoted by sound,
the ground (hetu) is Brahman. So, meditation on the sound Aum
is made because it stands for the self or Brahman. Of all the
symbols, the sound Aum has come to be regarded as the most
Aumkra in the Mdkyopaniad
Kiraval 121
important and fruitful.8 The Kahaopaniad says, The word (or

goal) which all Vedas state, that which all penances cry out, and
desiring which people lead an ascetic life, that word I tell you in
brief : it is Aum9. The Mudakopaniad compares the Praava
(Aum) to the bow, the individual soul to the arrow, and Brahman
to the ultimatum, and says that the ultimatum is to be unerringly
hit; thus is union with Brahman attained.10 The Pranopaniad
describes the meditation on Aum as a means to the realization
of the higher and lower Brahman, i.e., the unconditioned Brahman
and Brahman as conditioned. It is stated there that by means of
Aumkra, the jni arrives at the Highest reality which is quiescent,
and free from decay, death and fear.11
The importance of meditation on Aum or Praavadhyna, is
thus well recognized in the Upaniads . Really, the
Mdkyopaniad starts by saying that its object is to expound the
importance of Aumkara, and describes the method of combining
the parts of the sound Aum with the aspects of the self, and
thereby realizing the non-dual reality. There are four mtrs
(morac) of Aum corresponding to the four pds of the self. The
four mtrs are A,U,M and the fourth, which is really amtra is
represented by the point (bindu) of the anusvra. The principle of
the meditation on Aum is to equate the mtrs with the pds.12
Sri Gaudapada calls the knowledge or equation of mtrs
sampratipatti (i.e., knowing the mtrs to be identical with the pdas
and Aumkrasya padao vidyt (knowledge of the mtrs of Aum as
the pdas of the self).
The first of the mtrs is A and the first of the pds is viva.
These two are to be regarded as identical because of the common
quality of being the first (di) as well as that of pervading.13 Of
the sound parts of Aum A is the first; so also of the aspects of
the self, viva is the first. A is pervasive of all speech. The sruti
says, The sound A is indeed all speech14 A is prominent among
the words.15 Similarly, viva is pervasive of the universe. In the
122 Kiraval
Dr.S.Sobhana
case of the second mtra, U, and the second pda, Taijasa, the
common qualities are exaltation (utkara) and intermediateness
(ubhayatv). The Utkara of U is due to its being subsequent to
A. Similarly, Taijasa is exalted over viva, because of its
superior order. U is intermediate between A and M, and Taijasa
between viva and prja.16 The common features that constitute
the basis for the unification of M and praja are being the measure
(miti or mana) and the locus or mergence.17 (apti or laya). In
sounding Aum repeatedly A and U merge into and emerge
from M, as it were. Hence M is said to be the measure of the
other two mtras. Prja is the measure of viva and Taijasa because
these two evolve out of it in creation and enter into it in dissolution;
the stages of waking and dream get resolved in deep sleep, and
from deep sleep they emerge again. The second common quality
is laya or disappearance, just as A and U end in M visva and
taijasa disappear in prja. It will be clear that the letters, A, U and
M are employed in this meditation as mnemonics. Each letter
stands for the first letter of the words signifying certain feature of
the self in its manifestations as viva, taijasa and prja. The second
quality, of prja is the only exception. Thus A stands for di and
pti, U for utkara and ubhayat; M for miti or mn.
The fourth mtra is really amtra. It is the partless Aum, Turya
beyond all conventional dealings, the limit of the negation of
the phenomenal world, the auspicions, and the non dual. Aum
is thus the self, to be sure. 18 This Turya self or pure
consciousness, transcends the distinctions involved in the forms
of viva and Taijasa, and the seed of plurality implicit in prja.
The Mdkyopaniad praises the meditation on the unity of
the mtras and pds by specifying the fruit, which each stage in
the meditation yields. The Upaniad says, He who knows vaivnara
(viva) as A, obtains all desires and becomes first among the
great. He who knows the unity of Taijasa with U increases the
current of knowledge and becomes equal to all. None is born in
Kiraval 123
his family who is not a knower of Brahman. He who knows the

oneness of Prja and M measures the whole universe and
becomes the place of its absorption. (i.e., he becomes the self
which is the cause of the Universe). He who knows the partless
Aumkra in its fullness, as signifying the Turya, realizes the self
and does not return to empirical life.19
In the Pranopanisad, there is a similar praise of the meditation
on the mtrs of Aum : If a person meditates on Aum as of one
mtr, he enlightened by that, attains the earthy world soon (i.e.,
he returns to this world of men; there becoming rich in penance,
austerity and faith, he enjoys supremacy. If he meditates on Aum
as of two mtrs he attains the mind (i.e., gains self possession
through concentration); he is led by yajus to the interspace, the
world of moon, after enjoying supernatural powers there, he
returns to this world. But if he meditates on the supreme self
with the sacred syllable Aum with three mtrs he becomes one
with the light which is the sun. Just as snake casts off its slough,
he sheds all sin and is led upward by the sma chants to the world
of Brahman, he sees there the supreme purua living in the heart
city as superior to Hirayagarbha.20 The indication of the praise is
that the sdhaka should understand the importance of Aum and
meditate on it, the deeper the comprehension, the greater will be
the benefit. That is why the meditation on Aum as of one, two
and three mtrs respectively, leads to the world of men, the path
of the manes (pityna) and the path of the gods (devayna).
Of these three mtrs of Aum mention is made in the
pranopaniad, the Mdkyopaniad adds a fourth, amtra,
signifying the supreme non-dual reality. It is this amtra arthamtra
(half matra) that is described as the crown of the syllable Aum21.
It is this which leads to the final goal.22
Sri. Gauapda points out what is of real value in the meditation
on Aum. He says that A leads to viva, U leads to Taijasa, M
124 Kiraval
Dr.S.Sobhana
leads to Prja, and with regard to one freed from letters, there
remains no attainment.23 Anandagiri explains this statement thus
: He who meditates on Aum as being predominantly of the
form of A, attains viva -vaivnara. He who meditates on Aum
as being predominantly of the form U attains Taijasa , the
Hirayagarbha . And he who meditates on Aum as being
predominantly of the form M attains Prja-avyakta. The gross
universe, waking state and viva these three are A, the subtle
universe, dream state and Taijasa these three are U, the cause of
the two worlds, deep sleep and prja these three are M. Here
also, each earlier factor attains the nature of that which succeeds
it. The purpose of this meditation is to lead the aspirant from the
grosser to the subtler, till that stage is reached where all duality is
removed and the journey comes to an end. In the Turya self,
there is not the distinction of attained, object to be attained, and
attainment. So Sri. Gaudapaada by that there is no movement or
process in the amtra.24
Upsana or meditation is defined thus by Sri. Sankara. The

process of taking hold of some stay or laimbana established as
such in the stra and directing a continuous flow of even psychosis
towards it, without the intervention of any other cognition contrary
to it, is Upsana.25 There must be some point of attention for
concentration. This is the lambana. It is of service in steadying
the thought current and making if flow in one direction. The
images (pratks) are useful in this way. The diverging tendency
of the mind is restrained and it becomes unwavering and one
pointed like the flame of the lamp kept in a still place.26 The
images which are miscalled idols have a place in spiritual
discipline because they help to turn the mind of the aspirant
Godward.
That Aumkra or Praava has the pride of place among the self
symbols of the invisible spirit, has already been stated. Its
Kiraval 125
importance and the method of meditation there on have also been

explained. Sri. Gauapda concludes his exposition of Praava by
praising it and those who practice it. One should concentrate
ones mind on Aum or Praava, for Aum is Brahman beyond
fear. For a man ever fixed in Brahman, there can be no fear
anywhere. Praava or Aum is the inferior Brahman, it is the
superior as well. It is without cause, without inside and outside,
and without effect, and it is undecaying. It is the beginning, middle
and end of everything. Having known Aum in this way, indeed,
one attains the self. Aum is to be known as the God present in
the hearts of all. Having understood the all pervading Aum,
the intelligent man does not grieve. Aumkra is without measures
and possessed of infinite dimension (amtra and anantamtra); it
is that in which all duality ceases, it is Bliss. He who knows it
thus is a real sage, and no other.27 So one who tries to know this
Non-dual Reality should have infinite self control and
perseverance.
Conclusion
The knowledge and practice of Aumkra dhyna is very essential
to all for eternal happiness and peace. One who tries to know this
Turiya Reality should have infinite self control and
perseverance. Fearlessness is the main aim of Praavadhyna. It
is a remedy for different ailments like diabetics, blood pressure,
asthma, mental tension etc., especially for the youngsters of the
modern age who seek material pleasures from different sources
but, infact, are deprived of the spiritual values that give meaning
to their disoriented lives. Praavadhyna can be the only way to
redeem man from this dis-orientation as well as lack of spirituality,
and provide mental tranquility.
Notes And References

1. Omityetadakaramidam sarvamtasyopavyakhynam bhtambhavad
bhaviyaditi sarvam omkra eva. Yacchnyatriklttam tadapyomkra
eva. Mdkyopaniad (M.U).I.
126 Kiraval
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Dr.S.Sobhana
Sarvamkhalvidam Brahma. I. 3.14.1.

Puruaivedam Sarvam, yadbhtam yaccha bhavyam 10 90 - 3.
Etadhyevksaram Brahma, etadhyevkaramparam. II. 16.
Paramcparam ca Brahmayadomkra - V - 2
Puruaivedam v svam. I. I. 10
Sarvam hyetad Brahma, ayamtm brahma, Soyamtm catupt, M.U. II.
SB on pra. Up, v.2.
Sarvvedyatpadammanti .. yadicchanto brahmacaryam
carantitattepadamsamgraheabravmi omitytat. I. 11. 5.
praavo dhanuh Saro hytm brahmatallekaamucyate. II. 11. 4.
Tam omkreaivyatanna .. sntam aja ram amrtam abhayam
paramca. pra.up.V.7.
Pd mtra mtr sca pdh - M.U. 8.
Jgaritastno vaivnaroakrah pratham mtra pterdimatvt, M.U. 9;
vivasytvavivakymdismnyamutkaam mtrsampratipattau
sydptismnyamevaca, M.K., 1.19)
Akro vai sarvvk, Aitareyranyaka, II, iii. 7.13.
akarmakrosmi, B.G, X. 33.
Svapnastna staijasokrdvitya mtrotkardubhayatvt, M.U. 10;
taijasasyotvavijnnamutkaro .. M.K., I . 20.
Suuptastnah prjo makrastrty mtr miterapiterv, m.u.11,
makrabhve prjsya .. laya smnyamevaca, M.K., 1.21.
amtra scaturtho vyavahryah prapacopas amahsodvaita evamomkra
tmaiva . Mu, 12.
M.U, 9 - 12, jgaritastno vaivanaro akrah
amtra s caturtho
avyavahrya prapancopa sama
V - 3 - 5 Sa yadyekamtramabhidhyyta
sa smabhirunniyate
brahmalokam.
Maitryyupaniad, VI. 23)
Yogatattvopaniad, 7.
Akro nayate vis vam ukra scpi taijasam, makras ca punah prjam
na amtre vidyate gatih, MK, 1-23.
M K . I - 23.
Upsanam tu yadha Sstrasamarthitam kicidlambanamupdya tasmin
samnacittavrtti Santnakraam Cha.up. I. 1.1.
S.B on pra.up., V.I. B.S., I. I. 11.
M.K, I - 25 - 29. yunjita praave cetah praavo Brahma nirbhayam
omkro vidito yena sa munirnetaro jan.
Prakti and Purua in

Classical Skhya
Dr.S.Geethamony Amma
The Skhya philosophy propounded by Kapila has been
considered the most ancient of all the philosophical systems in
India. Classical Skhya is rigidly dualistic. It accepts the
independent reality of Prakti and Purua which are radically
different from each other. Prakti is the mass of undifferentiated
being and as such the ultimate ground of the world. Purua is the
fact of consciousness, the ultimate ground of man.
Prakti
Smkhya postulates Prakti as the ultimate cause of all worldly

existence1. It is the equilibrium of three gus ie, sattva, rajas and
tamas2. The term gus does not stand for quality or characteristic.
The gus are to be understood in the sense of constituents or
components of Prakti . Some eminent thinkers such as
S.N.Dasgupta, R.Garbe, S.Radhakrishnan, etc., tend to interpret
the gus as material constituents or reals. However, the
Skhyakrika and its commentaries are ambiguous on this point.
Isvara Krishna does not say specifically whether the gus are
qualities or constituents of Prakti. These three constituents,
though essentially distinct in their nature, are conceived as
interdependent so that they can never be separated from one
another. It means that they are not mechanically placed together,
but reciprocally involve one another and form a unity in trinity.
That is, they not only coexist but also cohere.
One important point to be noted here is that Smkhya conceives
of Prakti as ever active. The reason behind it is that if the
movement of Prakti be stopped in the state of dissolution, there
128 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
would be no further evolution. There is no other outward agency

which can move it into action. The only other reality apart from
Prakti is Purua, which is supposed to be completely inactive
and indifferent. Smkhya does not postulate any third principle
of God. Hence, Smkhya conceives of motion as inherent in
Prakti . The fact that Prakti is always in motion implies that
every object of the world, being an effect of Prakti, is also in a
state of constant motion. It is not worthy that this Smkhya view
of Prakti, ie, primordial matter is in accord with the view of
modern science. First of all, gus bear some affinity with the
electrons of modern physics. Like them, the gus are also intraatomic. The electrons constitute a unit of negative charge, having
inertia. Similarly, gus constitute mass (tamas) charged with
energy (rajas). Moreover, the Smkhya view of objects as dynamic
entities is also in tune with the findings of modern science.
Modern physics has established that all material objects are
complexes of molecules, electrons, etc which are in a state of
constant motion and transformation.
Each of the gus stands for a distinct aspect of physical reality:
sattva signifies whatever is pure and fine: rajas, whatever is active:
and tamas, whatever is stolid and offers resistance. From the
standpoint of the experiencing mind, they are also described as
being of the nature respectively of pleasure (sukha), pain (dukha),
and bewilderment (moha) for they give rise to, or condition, those
feelings3. The gus are not merely distinct, but are also, in some
measure, antagonistic in nature. But their harmonious action is
illustrated by the example of a lamp-flame- the result of cooperation between the wick, oil, and fire, which, in their separate
nature, appear to be hardly fitted so to co-operate4. Everything
that emerges from Prakti is also similarly constituted, for the
doctrine maintains that effects are essentially identical with their
material cause. In fact, it is by a proper synthesis of the common
and enduring features of the things of experience that the
conception of Prakti has been reached.
Prakti and Purua
Kiraval 129
The existences of Prakti and Purua have been reached through

reason. Prakti is postulated on the principle that effects
presuppose a cause that is immanent in them, the Purua is
postulated on the principle that objects point to the subject or
that the non-sentient implies the sentient5. Another argument is
that spirit is the principle for the sake of which Prakti evolves.
Evolution
Prakti is the substratum of the changing phenomena of the

world. Smkhya conceives of Prakti as consisting of mass, energy
and illumination in the form of tamas, rajas and sattva.Therefore,

it contains all the potentialities for creating the world all by herself
out of herself. According to classical Smkhya, due to the
transcendental influence of Purua, the equilibrium of Prakti gets
disturbed. When the equilibrium of the gus is disturbed, some
gus overpower the other gus , and starts the process of
evolution. Production is manifestation or evolution. Destruction
is non-manifestation or envelopment. The Smkhya has clearly
enunciated the doctrine of evolution. The manifold world is
evolved from Prakti, which is the first cause. It is the matrix of
the whole world of effects, physical and psychical. The world is
unconscious. It cannot be transformation of a spirit, which is
unchangeable and immutable (kastha). It is the transformation
of the unconscious Prakti. Change is said to be of two kindshomogeneous or Svarpaparima and heterogeneous or
Virpaparima. During the state of dissolution of the world, the
gus change homogeneously, sattva changes into sattva, rajas
into rajas, and tamas into tamas. This change does not disturb the
equilibrium of the gus and evolution cannot take place.
However, when the gus exert mutual influence upon one
another or start interacting, it is called the heterogeneous change
(virpaparima). At this state, the balance of the gus is disrupted
and they begin to manifest their various characteristics and thus
bring into existence new qualities and substances. Thus evolution
130 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
starts when there is heterogeneous change into the gus . But, as

r akara has said It is impossible to see why Prakti should
sometimes transform itself into mahnand sometimes not.6
Prakti evolves into mahat or buddhi. It is the unindividuated

cosmic intellect. The cosmic buddhi becomes individuated, and
evolves into the cosmic egoism or Ahamkra. The cosmic
Ahamkra is bifurcated into the subjective series and the objective
series. Smkhya holds that Ahamkra in its sattvika aspect evolves
into manas, the five organs of knowledge, and the five organs of
action. Ahamkra in its tmasa aspect (bhtdi) evolves into the
five subtle essences (tanmtra). Ahamkra in its rjasa aspect
plays its part in both. This aspect is also called the taijasa aspect.
The five subtle elements evolve into the five gross elements of
earth, water, light, air, and ether by a preponderance of tamas7.
These are the 24 principles. Sattva and tamas are inactive in
themselves .They are energized and moved to function by rajas
which is not ineffective. In the evolution of these modifications,
sattva, rajas and tamas are all-present, and perform their functions,
though sattva predominates in the evolution of the psychical
apparatus, and tamas predominates in the evolution of the physical
universe.
There is some similarity between the conception of evolution
in Smkhya and that in modern science. Darvins theory of
evolution (Parimavda) is famous in the field of material science
especially in biology. Later scientists have made various
modifications to it. Parima, as used in modern science, signifies
not the derivation of anything from anything else, but the growth
of an indefinite incoherent homogeneity into a definite coherent
heterogeneity. Dr Seal says: Evolution is a process from a
relatively less differentiated, less determinate, less coherent whole,
to a relatively more differentiated, more determinate, more
coherent whole.8 Dr.Seal has elaborately explained the Parima
Prakti and Purua
Kiraval 131
in Smkhya in the light of modern scientific concept of

evolution9.But it is a fact that there are important points of
difference between the evolution of the biologists and the
evolution of the Smkhya.
Parimavda
In Smkhya, Prakti is the updnakraa of this universe.
Parima is that process by which the unmanifested Prakti
becomes transformed into this manifested state of the objects of
experience. This involves the problem of causality of the relation
between cause and effect. The theory that the effect exists
beforehand in its cause is one of the central features of the Smkhya
system. This theory of causality in parimavda of Smkhya is
called Satkryavda, which establishes that the effect pre-exists
in the cause in a potential condition; the effect is a modification
(Parima) of the cause; it is a manifestation, development, or
redistribution of the cause. The effect is not a new beginning
(rambha) as the nyyavaiika holds. It is not a new creation. It
is not non-existent (asat) in the cause. It exists (sat) in the cause
prior to its manifestation. So the Smkhya advocates the doctrine
of Satkryavda as distinguished from the Nyya-vaiika doctrine
of Asatkryavda or rambhavda. The Advaita Vedanta also
holds that the effect pre-exists in the cause, and so advocates the
doctrine of Satkryavda. But the Smkhya maintains that the
effect and the cause are equally real, the former being a
modification of the latter, while the Advaita Vedanta maintains
that the effect is an unreal appearance (vivarta) of the cause, which
is real. The Brahman is the ultimate reality; it is the substratum of
the world of appearance. In this sense, it is the ultimate cause of
all appearances, which have only empirical reality. The Smkhya,
on the other hand, holds that the cause and the effect both have
ontological reality- the cause being the unmanifest condition of
the effect, and the effect being the manifest condition of the cause.
Smkhya advocates Parimavda while the Advaita Vedanta
132 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
advocates vivartavda both of which are different forms of

Satkryavda.
The Mdhyamika Buddhists hold that an entity is produced by
a non- entity, an existent effect springs from non-existence or
void. The Smkhya holds that an entity is produced by an entity;
an existent effect is produced by an existent cause; the effect preexists in the cause in a potential of unmanifested condition; the
effect is the actual or manifested condition of the cause. The
cause and the effect are identical with each other; the effect is the
manifestation of the cause. This is the Smkhya view. Hence the
existence of Prakti can be inferred from its multiform effects in
the world10.
The Smkhya offers five arguments11 to prove the pre-existence
of the effect in the cause: The first argument states precisely that
the non-existent can never be brought into existence. For example,
no effort can produce oil from sand where it is non-existent.
Secondly, it is a matter of our daily experience that one seeks a
particular material for a particular effect. One who wants to
produce curd chooses milk, not water. Thirdly, if the effect was
non- existent in its cause prior to its production, then anything
could be produced out of anything which is really not the case in
the world. Fourthly, we find that the cause can produce the effect
only in which it has the potency or power. Only milk possesses
the potency to produce curd; while water cannot. Lastly, an effect
is of nature of its material cause. For example, oil seeds and oil
are identical in essence, though different in forms. 1. If the effect
is non-existent in the cause prior to its operation, none can bring
it into existence out of the cause (asadakarat). The effect is related
to its cause. If it is non-existent prior to the operation of its cause,
it cannot be related to it. The causal relation exists between two
entities, which are existent. So the effect exists both before and
after the operation of the cause. Effectuation is nothing but
Prakti and Purua
Kiraval 133
manifestation (abhivyakti). Oil is pressed out of sesames; rice is

threshed out of paddy; milk is squeezed out of the udders of a
cow. 2.A particular effect can be produced out a particular
material cause (updnagrahat). A jar can be produced out of
clay only; cloth can be produced out of threads only; curds can be
produced out of milk only. There is a law that particular causes
can produce particular effects (updnaniyamt). This proves that
the effects are pre-existent in their causes in a latent condition.
3.If the effect unrelated to the cause could be produced, then every
effect would arise from every cause. But every effect does not
arise from every cause (sarvasambhavbhvt). 4. A potent cause
has causal energy to produce a particular effect. The causal energy
in the cause is inferred from the perception of the effect. This
accounts for regularity in the production of particular effects by
particular causes. This causal energy (akti) to produce a
particular effect resides in a potent cause only. If it resides in all
causes, there will be confusion, and any effect will arise from any
cause.5.The effect pre-exists in the cause, since it is identical in
nature with its cause (kraabhvt). The effect is not different
from the cause. The cause is existent. The effect, therefore, cannot
be non-existent. There can be no identity between an entity and a
non-entity.
The difference of functions and purposes does not prove
difference in essence, since a single substance can have different
functions, as the same fire can burn, cook food and give light.
Nor can the uniqueness of functions prove difference among
substances, since the same substance can have different functions,
singly and collectively.
Cause and effect are different states of one and the same
substance. So they are distinct from each other. Their distinction
is based on our practical interests. A jar can hold water, but a
lump of clay cannot. They are distinct from each other because
134 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
they serve different purposes. But they are not different from each
other in their essential nature.
As opined by S.D.Roy12 & K.P.K.Nampoothiri13through the
theory of causation as well as the theory of the evolution of Prakti,
Smkhya has recognized the scientific principle of the
conservation of energy. In the process of evolution, cause and
effect, in Smkhya view, being only more or less evolved forms
of the same ultimate energy, the total amount of energy has been
shown to remain the same. Smkhya has maintained that Prakti
constantly makes good the loss of energy sustained by the different
evolutes in the act of generating their respective effects.Again,
the tanmatras of the Smkhya School can be compared to the
atoms of modern science because the tanmatras have been
regarded as the subtle causes of the five gross elements. The
qualities of the gross elements, viz., sound, touch, etc., are held
to be due to the qualities latent in these infra-sensible elements.
Again, the Smkhya conception of object as always in motion is
also in tune with the view of modern science. These are all strong
evidences of the scientific awareness of Smkhya.
Purua
The Smkhya approach is based on an analysis of human
experience. The fundamental principles and categories of this
system were not dogmatically postulated, but were discovered
and accepted after proper study of human experience. The
fundamental and independent principles of Smkhya are Prakti
and Purua. They are at the very root of the possibility of knowledge
or experience. Knowledge is not possible unless there are objects
of knowledge and the subject of knowing. In classical Smkhya,
the term Purua has been used as a technical one, to signify the
self. Purua has been defined in the Karika as-na Praktih na vikrtih
Purua14. Prakti is neither creative nor created. This definition
implies that Purua is not organically connected with the other
Prakti and Purua
Kiraval 135
twenty-four tattvas of Smkhya. This idea has been further

emphasized by holding that Purua is the opposite of both vyakta
and avyakta-tadviparitastath ca pumn15. Prakti and Purua are
entirely different from each other. They have opposite
characteristics. Prakti is composed of the three gus. Purua is
not composed of the gus. Prakti is non-discriminating. Purua
is discriminating. Prakti is an aggregate. Purua is simple. Prakti
is the object of knowledge. Purua is the subject of knowledge.
Prakti is common to many persons. Purua is different in different
bodies. Prakti is non intelligent or unconscious. Purua is
intelligent or conscious. Prakti is productive. It is transformed
into modifications. Purua is non-productive. It is not subject to
modifications. Purua is neither a cause nor an effect. It is
unchangeable and immutable. All things change every moment
except the conscious self or Purua. Prakti is active. Purua is
inactive. Prakti is constant in the midst of mutations
( pariminitya ). Purua is constant beyond all mutations
(kasthanitya). The essential difference between Prakti and Purua
lies in that the former is the unconscious and known object, while
the latter is the conscious knower or the subject Prakti with all
its modifications, manas, buddhi and ahamkra is unconscious.
Only Purua is conscious.
In Smkhyakrik, five arguments are put forward to establish
the existence of Purua-Samghta parrthatvt trigudiviparyayt
adhihnt Puruo sti bhotrbhvt kaivalyrtham pravrtteca16.Of
these, the first four arguments refer to Purua as the central goal
of the world of change and mutations; they can be regarded as
ecological arguments.The fifth argument may be characterized
as a form of ontological argument -Purua exists since there is
activity for the purpose of release from the threefold miseries.
Objections can be raised against the Bhoktbhva of Purua because
Purua is said to be neutral, indifferent and inactive. The word
Bhoga is derived from the root Bhuj.It is an action. Then we
136 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
cannot say that Purua is inactive when he is an experiencer. The

above objections can be met by the following arguments. Purua,
when he is the subject in an experience, is not the pure Purua. He
is in bondage. He can be called Jiva Purua or the soul. Then he is
not Nissanga. The liberated Purua is neutral, indifferent and
inactive. Dr.Anima Sen Gupta says: Perception of the visible
world is not possible in the case of pure matter; nor is it possible
in the case of pure spirit. It is only the seemingly unified category
of spirit and matter (Jiva Purua) that can be the perceiver of the
dya through modifications of the intellect17 Thinkers like
Vcaspatimisra and Vijnabhiku accept the theory of reflection.
Purua, due to its reflection as well as indiscrimination, mistakes
itself for the owner of the buddhivttis and appears to be undergoing
experiences and sufferings. Consequently, as soon as ignorance
is dispelled with the dawn of discriminative knowledge, the self
becomes free.
An important feature of the Smkhya philosophy is that it
accepts the plurality of the self. The plurality of Purusa certainly
follows from the distributive nature of the incidence of birth, death
and of the endowment of the organs of cognition and action, from
engaging in action, not all at the same time, and also from
differences in the proportion of the three gus18 .Here the
statement made by Dr.Radhakrishnan is noteworthy:Throughout
the Smkhya there is a confusion between the Purua and the
Jiva19The self or Purua, according to Smkhya is not one; rather
there is multiplicity of Purua and all of them are infinite ,
unchangeable, all-pervasive and eternal. Though there is the
numerical plurality, there is also the qualitative identity with the
self. But qualitative identity cannot go with numerical plurality.
Multiplicity without some kind of distinction is unthinkable.
Plurality would involve limitations, and an absolute, immortal,
eternal and in conditional Purua cannot be more than one.20The
Smkhya arguments for the existence of Purua turn out to be
Prakti and Purua
Kiraval 137
proofs for the existence of the empirical individuals and not

transcendental Purua and this fact comes out more clearly in the
Smkhya theory of the plurality of Purua . To avoid this
inconsistency of the Smkhya, commentators like Goudapda are
inclined to interpret the Smkhyakrik21 in such a way that there
is only one Purua in the transcendental level. But
Dr.Radhakrishnan says, It is difficult to believe that the authors
of the Smkhya were aware of it and so adopted the theory of a
single supreme self to avoid the danger.22 It is true that the theistic
Smkhya concepts before and after the period of the classical
Smkhya contain the idea of the one universal self or Purua. But
there is no clear evidence to prove that there is such a concept in
the Classical Smkhya.
References
1.sarvopdna pradhna,Vijnabhiku Smkhya pravacanabhsya
1:76
2. Sattvarajastamogun smyvasth Praktih; Ibid-1:61
3. Prtyaprtividtmakh prakapravttiniyamrthh; Skhya krik,
12
4. Sattvam lakhuprakakamiamupaambhakam calam ca rajah; Ibid; 13
5. Ibid; 14, 17.
6. Brahmastrankarabhya, 2-2-4
7. Skhyakrik, 2225.
8. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Banaras 1958 p-7
9. Ibid
10. Skhyakrik, 8
11. Ibid; 9
12. Pholisophies of Skhya & Locke, Sundeep Prakashan-2006,
pp-110-111.
13. The Concept of Apavarga in Skhya Philosophy, Nag
Publishers, 1990, pp-74-77.
14. Skhyakrik, 3
15. Ibid; 11
138 Kiraval
Dr.S.Geethamonyamma
16. Ibid, 17
17. Classical Skhya: A Critical Study, Patna, 1969, p.112.
18. Skhya krik, 18
19. Indian Philosophy, Vol.11London, 1962, p.323.
20. Ibid, p.422.
21.Skhyakrik, 11,14
22. Forward to Abayakumar Majumdars, Skhya Conception
of personality, Calcutta, 1930, p.11.
Influence Of Natyasastra In
The Dramas Of Kalidasa
Dr. Reeja B. Kavanal
On the science of Indian drama, dance and music, Bharata
happens to be our earliest authority. The name Nya in Sanskrit
denotes drama as well as dance. The indigenous and authentic
drama of India was essentially an art which was enriched by the
beautiful combination of music and dance.The various situations
of life are re-lived through this dramatic art.The actor takes the
role of the character and adopts gestures, speech and mental state
of that character and creates before the spectators the life that the
character lives, making them one with that life. Music helps the
representation by intensifying the particular mood. The grace of
physical movements is supplied by dance. Thus the Nya becomes
the art of representation in which, speech, music and appropriate
graceful gestures are harmoniously blended. Nyastra, the first
authentic work on theatrical art in India, elaborately discussed
these concepts and formulated its own theories on these matters.
All the three dramas of Kalidasa especially Mlavikgnimitra
illustrate the essentials of these theories presented in Nyastra.
According to Indian Dramatic theory, form manifests in the
elements of character, language, and setting, as well as plot. The
formal and purposive aspects of the dramatic theory are
inextricably linked in the dramas of Kalidasa.We find that the
expression has become more poetic. But the poetic and dramatic
go hand in hand to complement the beauty of each other.
Bharata states that the director should organise song, action
and word in unbroken continuity and as in the wheeling flame in
which one could see no beginning, middle or end; i.e. they must
be harmonised and composed.
140 Kiraval
Dr. Reeja B Kavanal
B Mi S t S x] S v
+iSG|i Ei x]H & ** [29. 7]
Dance and music were highly evolved court arts in ancient
India. The palaces contained separate halls for Nya.Kalidasa
furnishes the information that the palace of king had a Citrala
and a Preksgha- a hall for viewing Nya. It is in this Preksgha
that the Mlavikas dance is presented.The dramas of Kalidasa
contain the techniques of dramatic arts. In Mlavikgnimitra
Stradhra says to nai let the music be begin. Thus one can
understand that the music is one of the inoperable parts of a
drama and one can guess that usually the dramas took place
during the spring season.1 From Mlavikgnimitra one can get a
clear picture of the favourable dispositions of the palace people
towards arts. The Queens and the members of the court learned
dance and drama. Mlavik the heroine of the drama is a student
of the royal dancemaster Gaadsa. The Queen Dhrii has
ordered the maid to find out the degree of proficiency that
Mlavik has attained in chalita2 at which she is taking lessons .
Gaadsa and Haradatta were the two dance teachers of the court
of Agnimitra. The beginning of the second act of the play is
devoted to a dramatic competition. Mlavik, the expert student
of Gaadsa, performs the dance infront of the king Agnimitra,
queen Dhrii and others. Gaadsa chants a universally accepted
verse about the birth, purpose, and the theme of Indian dance
and drama.
n xnxxi x& xi Gi SI
phn EiiE RM H uv*
jMhn j ESi xx oi
x] zSVx |v{E vE**(1.4).
Sages consider drama as a sacrifice that is pleasing to the
eyes of the gods. Its two modes are showed by Siva himself in
the body he shares with Uma. Dramatic art is the one chief
amusement of the people though they have different tastes.
Kiraval 141
Abhinaya or the art of expression of gestures is the means of

realisation of Rasa. It is expressed in four fold ways, ngika, vcika,
hrya and stvika. It is represented by the triad of, play of
instruments, comprising the rhythmic presentation of formal
gestures through balance of the limbs, eyebrows, fingers, arms,
entire nervous system and muscular parts of the body. The aim of
nrtya or dance is said to be the experience of Rasa is the sole aim
of all dramatic presentations.
The three dramas of Kalidasa illuminate the essentials of the
theories of abhinaya presented in Nyastra. Kalidasa has
introduced the use of dance and music in Mlavikgnimitra where
Malavika is made to sing a song and render abhinaya before the
king, queen etc. According to Nyastra, nya is one of the
paramount arts of the people equalant to sacrifice. 3
In Mlavikgnimitra, Gaadsa praises the progress of Mlaviks
skill in dance that whatever manner he demonstrate to her she
shows it back again with perfecte technique. Through these verses
the poet depicts the teaching technique of dance and the method
of learning by the student.4 The word Bhvika is used by Kalidasa
to mean graceful movements and gestures. He also used the word
karanam which is a pose of natya. The simultanious movements
of hands and feet while dancing is called karaa.5 Mlavik is
portrayed as a very good dancer who expressed her sentiment
towards the king through her action. Through Mlavikgnimitra
Kalidasa not only elucidates the techniques of dance but also
explaines the mode of music, and some other aspects along with
the examples of dance. The enquiry of Gaadsa to the queen in
what particular piece of acting should he shows his skill, shows
that there were different varietes of dances. A few significant
remarks by Parivrjika throws light on the nature of classical dance
performances of that time.6 She wants the performer to come
without excessive makeup and costume, so that her movements
can be seen clearly. The second act of Mlavikgnimitra mentions
142 Kiraval
Dr. Reeja B Kavanal
the posture of nya. The left hand with its bracelet resting on the
wrist, placed upon her hip, and the right hand hanging loosly
down like a branch of syama creaper, the eyes cast on the
pavement where the flowers are pressed by the toes of her feet.7
Her posture with the upper part of her body streched up right, is
more attractive than her dancing posture. Here the yata posture
is deliniated.8 The eighth verse of the same act portrays Mlavik
as a good actress through the words of Parivrjika. The meaning
was suggested by her limbs that were expressive. The movement
of the feet was in perfect harmony, and she perfectly absorbed
the various sentiments, but the main sentiment of love remained
the same throughout. Here the first sentence shows the various
expressions of her body which was words concealed in her
movements.The ideas of the song were very well brought out in
acting by means of silent movements of the various parts of the
body which thus expressed the actual words of the song within.
Here the poet wants to say that Mlavik is fully absorbed in the
art of dancing.
In Vikramorvaya ,Urvai the heroine is a heavenly dancer and
hence it was possible for the dramatist to show that her actions
were full of graceful dance movements. But as in Mlavikgnimitra
one cant see the exact mode of dances but the reflections of
techniques can be traced out. Thus Kalidasa has blended the poetry
harmonously with many dramatic tecniques and has offered us a
very charming Sanskrit drama. In the first act of Vikramorvaya
the king rescued the unconsious Urvai. Urvai opens her eyes to
full consciousness and when she realises the true identity of her
rescuer, she depicted the emotion of the kindling of love through
the movements of eyebrow, enacting the two stages of bhva
and hva, .9 Here the dramatist clearly follows the words of
Bharata and his Nyastra .10
In the third act of Vikramorvaya there is an entry of Urvai
dressed as abhisrik together with Citralekha by ariel path. They
Kiraval 143
gesticulate descending to the palace terrace and listened

unobstructively to the conversation between the king and vidaka.
Here their entrance is by performing ariel cris to show that they
are moving through the sky. Cris were stylised stage walks
indicative of different stage actions. According to Nyastra the
simultanious movements of feet, ankle, thighs and hips is known
as cri.11 In the fourth act it is described that Citralekha hears a
song khandadhara, it is a kind of music12. In the same act the king
enters as a insane person due to the seperation from Urvai. In
this situation there is a variety of dance carcari, which is a mode
of dance in Troaka. In the same act itself the king searching for
his beloved reposing on the bank of the mountain stream and
enjoying the breeze is depicted with anjalihasta.13 According to
Nyastra both hands in patk with palms joined together is
known as anjalihasta14 The act also tells us about dance and
musical instruments with the examples taken from nature. One
can listen to the names of songs and dances in this act jambalila,
galitaka etc.15
According to Kapila Vatsyanan The Vikramorvaya
however,still doesnot give us insight into the exact nature and
quality of angikbhinaya. Everytime this bit has to be recreated;
it makes demands on the originality and imagination of the dancer
or the director presenting it. The presentation is inconceivable
without stylized dancing.16
If we go through Abhijnakuntala, the universally enjoyed
drama of Kalidasa, we come across a number of brief stage
directions which throw light in how Sanskrit play was enacted.
There is no direct reference to dance in this drama but it present a
vivid picture of the gesture with the techniques of dancing known
to the audience as well as to the actors.
At the beginning of the act-I, Dusyanta and his followers are
coming in a chariot on a hunting expedition. From the stage
144 Kiraval
Dr. Reeja B Kavanal
directions rathavegam nirpya (acts travelling in a fast moving

charriot) and iti sarasandhnam naayati (gesticulates fixing the
arrow in the bow), it is clear that there is no actual charriot used
as stage property. The charioter represented by the abhinayaof
the hand, the speedling of the chariot.This is done with the hands
in a kaakamukha position. The legs placed in a riding position,
and the motions of hands show the act of riding and holding reins
of the horses. The movement of riding , moving fast, getting in
and alighting from the charriot is shown only by appropriate
gestures.17 In the same act akuntala and her friends do not carry
pots to water the trees. These actions were done only by mime.18
The stage directions are vkasecana rpayati (acts watering
the trees). The commentator Rghava Bhaa further explains how
these delicate actions are to be performed. Accordingly the hands
are first to be kept in nalinpadmakoa pose and taken to the
shoulder level,to show the pot being placed there. Then with the
hand and the whole body bend slightly the hands in
nalinpadmakoa are brought down and used in such a manner as
to depict the watering of trees.19
The fourth act of the drama is not only important for its literary
merits but also for its dramatic techniques. The act begins with
the plucking of flowers by Anasya and Priyavad. These actions
were represented through gestures by hands and arms. Hastas
and samdaa are the techniques that Bharata prescribed for this
kind of actions ie.bhramara20 plucking of a flower from the
stem.21 etc.
Nyastra is the well known treatise which provides the basis

for the structural and representational aspects of the different type
of dances and dramas prevalent in all parts of India in theory and
practice. Bharata, no doubt, is the compiler and originator of
vast encylopedic information regarding all the facets of dance
and Sanskrit drama. In the dramas of Kalidasa the practical
Kiraval 145
realisation of Nyastra is very clear. The essentials of the

performance are emphasised, the music and its elements, soft
vigorous tempos, styles, musical instruments. The dialogues in
Sanskrit and Prakrit with appropriate pitch, clarity, the nature of
characters and their emotional status are applied in a well knit
plot. It is clear that Dramatic techniques are beautifully represented
in the dramas of Kalidasa.

1.EMxj x x]Ex xii |H*
Mlavikgnimitra, 1.P.2.
2.Chalita dance is a variety of dancing in which the dancer while

acting the part of another gives expression thereby her own
sentiment. It depends upon four verse quardrants to be very
difficult to act.
3.Nyastra, 1. 85-86.
4.Mlavikgnimitra .1.5
5.Nyastra. 4.30.
6.Mlavikgnimitra, P.30.
7. Ibid. .2.6.
8.Nyastra. 13.131. rngadeva albso calls it as the posture of
ladies. Sangtaratnkara. 1 0.2. 8
9.Vikramorvaya. Act 1.
10.N.S, 24.7-8.
11.N.S. 11.1.
12.Vikramorvaya. Act IV
14 N.S. 9. 112
16.Classical Indian Dance in Literature and Arts, p.2191
17. N.S. 24. 40-47.
18. Abhinjnanasakuntala. Act I.
19. Sanskrit Drama inTheory and Practice. P.66-67.
20. N.S, IX. 86.
21. N.S, IX. 96, 97.
Position And Status Of Women In

Yajnavalkyasmti
Dr.N.Kalpana
The Dharmastra is one of the celebrated disciplines of Indian
knowledge systems. It occupies a place of prominence next to
the Vedas in regard to its authority. It modulates the people a life
full of decency, discipline, serenity etc aiming at a real meaning
to human existence. Such a living is regarded as Dharma. Thus
the Dharmastra is a science to analyze, interpret, determine and
finalize the characteristics of Dharma.
Before entering into the Dharmastra literature we may discuss
the Kalpa tradition. Kalpastras comprised ruta, Ghya, Dharma
and ulbastras. Of these rutastras deal with the vedic sacrificial
rites. Ghyastras deal with the rules meant for Ghasthas (householders), Dharmastras deal with the secular life of people in
general. Finally the ulbastras deal with the technological
materials used in the measurement of sacrificial altars.
In the evolution of Dharmastra literature a few well-marked
stages of growth have been recognized. The first stage coincided
with the evolution of Kalpastras of Apastamba and Baudhyana.
The manuals of vedic rituals in its various sections of rauta,
Ghya, ulba and Dharma are narrated completely in the stra
form.
The next stage is to be seen in the composition of versified
Smts, which amplify the Stra literature. The third stage is that
of commentators like Medhtithi, Vivarpa and others whose
Women in Yajavalkyasmti
Kiraval 147
attempts to interpret the Smts in a homogenous manner and

avoiding any conflict of opinion in consonance with the rules of
interpretation. The fourth and fifth centuries saw the emergence
of the commentaries and the Nibandhas and the Bhyas which
by themselves can be regarded as Digests. The best example is
the Mitkar commentary of Vijnevara on Yjavalkyasmti.
The position which women occupy in any Law code is not
only an index of civilization but also a correct criterion of the
culture of the race. The status of women in any civilization shows
the stage of evolution at which the civilization has arrived. The
legislative and judicial trends are the agencies by which the life
of the nation is developed and the status of women furnished and
reflects the civilization and culture of the nation. In the vedic
period the marriage tie was regarded as sacrosanct and the family
ideal was decidedly very high. The women on marriage acquired
an honorable position and considerable status. The status of the
women in any system of Law truly represents the thought and
feeling of the community with regard to them at the time, when
the law was made. Status of women in any legal system is
determined by her rights, duties and liabilities to the society and
her family members. It also includes the property rights of women.
I stress only the right of inheritance of women.
The study of evolution of the property rights of women is a
very important subject. Yjavalkya is the first Smtikra who
recognized the widow to acquire the property. This shows the
respectable position and status given to the women. Generally
there are two schools of law, namely the Mitkar school of
Vijnevara and the Dyabhga school of Jmtavhana. Mitkar
school of law prevailed throughout India except in Bengal.
Dyabhga prevails in Bengal. The fundamental difference between
the two is, Mitkara school allows right by birth itself,which is
148 Kiraval
Dr.N.Kalpana
called the Janma-svatva-vda. Jmtavhana holds on to the view

that one acquires right of inheriting the ancestral property only
after the death of the parents. This is known as uparama-svatva-
vda.
Definition of Dya
The word Dya means that the property both movable and
immovable, one inherits as owner from ones father or grandfather.
Dya is of two kinds- aparatibandha dya and sapratibandha dya.
Aparatibandha dya is that kind of property which is directly
inherited by the sons and daughters of a person or the grandsons
and grand-daughters of a person. When the property, on the other
hand, is inherited by the nephew or other relatives or sapias of
a person due to the absence of sons and daughters, the dya is
called saparatibandha dya.
Sapia : If two persons are connected by particles of one body;

i.e. common ancestor, the two are called Sapia. In other words
Sapias are connected by community of blood. This is the
definition of Vijnevara.
nnx rx xvn xknx i

inSi * S uv&-+|ixv& |ixvS* ij {jh
{jh S {jix {jix S {ivx {ivx S
ii|ixv n&* {ijnx i {j
S ii |ixv n&* 1 The word vibhga in the
Dharmastras means the sharing of property among the
coparcencers according to the amount as prescribed by law.2
The evolution and development of a society is reflected by the
status of women. And it goes without saying that among various
social aspects, the financial aspect is the most important factor
which plays the pivotal role in the assessment of the status of a
section of society. Thus the property rights of women assume
Kiraval 149
importance in the study of social and cultural history of a society.

Thus it would be interesting and rewarding to discuss and
deliberate as to what yjavalkya, the author of an influential smti
has to say on the property rights of women.
Vijnevara, in the Mitkar commentary on the

Yjavalkyasmti, expanded the scope of strdhana. The term
strdhana literally means womens property. But in the ancient smti
works, the word was restricted to certain special kind of property
given to a women on certain occasions like marriage or at the
different stages of life. Yjavalkya and all other smtikras
enumerated more than six kinds of strdhana. The property rights
of women can be discussed under different headings-as a daughter,
as a wife, as a widow and as a mother.
Most of the jurists wanted to continue the old traditions, i.e to
allow a brotherless daughter to inherit or to have a share in her
patrimony. Yjavalkya laid down that such a daughter should be
the next heir after the son and the widow. He suggested a scheme
of devolution of the property of a sonless father. Accordingly,
such a property would devolve to the wife, the daughter , parents,
son of the brothers, sagotra, disciple and the co-partner of the
deceased. In the absence of the preceding heir it would go to the
succeeding one in the order mentioned here.
{ix n iS {i iil*
iii MjV xv& & Sh&**
B { vxMkk &*
i {j h v&** 3
In general, sons and daughters son are entitled as the actual
heirs. However, the daughters son is no expressly mentioned in
the list of heirs by Yjavalkya. The Mitkar says that by the
import of practice also the daughters son succeeds to the estate.
150 Kiraval
Dr.N.Kalpana
Vijnevara was one among the progressive commentator who,

while commenting upon the Yjavalkyasmti quotes a verse
attributed to Ktyyana which reflects the right of inheritance of
daughters.
{ix iv x nSh *
in i n i txf kn** 4
During the post vedic era marriage of girls become obligatory.
Naturally, it was laid down that reasonable marriage expenses
should be a charge on the family property. The sons were bound
to meet the amount for the suitable marriage of their sisters out of
the family estate, if the father had died prior to the wedding of his
daughters. This amount used to vary according to the status of
each family. As a general rule, however a brother was expected
to spend an amount equal to one-fourth of his share over the
marriage of his sister.
+Eii
E i& {Ei&*
MxS xVn qi% i iE** 5
The language used by Yjavalkya in this verse appears to be
vague and ambiguous and more than one interpretation can be
possible from it. However, as it appears to us, it was not the
intention of jurists to assign a one-fourth share to the daughter.
They points to her marriage.Thus as a daughter she enjoys her
fathers property. Yjavalkya fully supported the revival in this
field.
Yjavalkya allowed the wife, a one-third share in her husbands

property.
+Y{nx nI |nx*
iVx n{iip h j&**6
In the absence of the son the wife as a full heir of her husbands
property.
Kiraval 151
Yjavalkya allowed the wife of a deceased husband a share

equal to that of her son.
n Eixx {ix& E& E&*

x nk jvx i h **7
This is not possible only if she gets any strdhan from her
husbands house.
Some writers attempted to curtail the full share allowed to the
mother by suggesting that the expression equal share must not
be interpreted literally.{iv Vi i{ i*8 It
was really intended to mean that just as much money as might be
necessary for her maintenance. The Mitkar points out that such
an interpretation is most unreasonable and maintains that she
should get a full share.+l {ix& E& EU <ij
i{ i <ij S Vx{H vx j ii
i* ini* +n n S%%xlC|RMi**9
Most of the jurists accept the view of the Mitkar. However,
the wife of a deceased husband could get this share only if her
sons sued for a partition. This was indirectly the denial to give
the share to the wife as it was against the spirit of Hindu Law.
Vijnevara maintains that if a husband abandons his virtuous
wife or willfully misappropriates her property and refuses to
restore it, she can move a court of Law to get her grievances
redressed.
M& {i& {j n{i& i&* v i li

x nv i* <i in{ MnxixiE
|iv{ x i* n IniE h n jvx i Ei
txvx%{ Sx x nn i in n{i{i B
&** 10
152 Kiraval
Dr.N.Kalpana
As a wife, a woman had direct share in her husbands property.

However, a forsaken wife was entitled to one-third of her
husbands wealth. If wife was poor her husband should provide
her maintenance. But if the property was divided during the lifetime of husband, his wife was to get an equal share with her sons.
The Mitkar expressly declares that she can spend out of the
family property only with the concurrence of the husband. 11
Yjavalkya enunciated the doctrine of the dependence of

women. He also had given the life-long protection.
IiEx {i z {i& {ji vE *

+ Yii Exj x CSij&**
12
Yjavalkya is more liberal towards the rights of women. The

son and the widow should get an equal share of property. It is his
verses which were mainly relied upon by the courts when they
recognized the right of inheritance of the widow on the failure of
sons.13 Vijnevara attribute a verse to Ktyyana which clearly
supports the widows right of inheritance.
{ix iv x nSh*
in i n i txf kn**14
Smtikras like Viu and Yjavalkya say that who inherits the
property shall perform the srdha and shall offer the Pias to the
three ancestors15 . In the verses of Yjavalkyasmti.II. 135-136
the word wife stands for the widow. Viu and Yjavalkya were
ready to accept the widows right of inheritance of her deceased
husband.
Yjavalkya lays down that when number of a family have

reunited after separation, the surviving male coparceners will
succeed the deceased and not his wife.
]xi ]. n i n &*16 This clearly shows
that Yjavalkya intended to recognize the right of inheritance of
Kiraval 153
the widow provided her husband was not a member of the jointfamily at the time of his death. Taking advantage of this fact,
Vijvevara recognized widow, if the husband had separated from
the joint family before his death. in { j i
H]x vx {h j i E Mhii
li*17
Taking the same view of this point and quoting Vddha manu
the Mitkar would have granted the right to offer oblation on
her deceased husband and thereby to entitle her to inherit the
property of the husband.
+{j& x i& {xi i li*

{xi ntki{hb Eix i S**18
All the prominent jurists have reached the same conclusion of
Vijnevara. This shows that all the authoritative digests and
commentaries established the widows right to inherit her
husbands property.
Vijnevara could have liberalized the law by drawing further

deductions from the text of Bhaspati which declares that no one
can touch the property of a person as long as his wife is alive. She
is allowed to enjoy the property of her husband irrespective of
the consideration, whether her husband had separated from the
family or not, before his death.
As a mother, women received high esteem in early society. In
Manusmti a verse is attributed to it.
={vx nS +Sh i {i*

i {ix i MhiSi** 19
An crya is more glorious and gracious in esteem than ten
Updhyyas; a father is even more glorious and gracious than
hundred cryas; but a mother in profundity and aroma of grace
and glory, stands of a still higher pedestal than thousand fathers.
154 Kiraval
Dr.N.Kalpana
Yjavalkya has also given high esteem to the women in the

society. He allows the widowed mother to get a share equal to
that of her son20.
The Mitkar however rightly points out the utter
unreasonableness of this interpretation and maintains that the
widowed mother must get a full share21. Most of the Jurists have
accepted this view. This was employed in Modern Law Courts.
Thus the status of women is reflected through the inheritance
of property. In the Yjavalkyasmti we can see a progressive
stand in the matter of property rights of women, in contrast with
other major Smtikras. Various standpoints taken by him as well
as his commentator Vijanevara as regards property rights of
women are not only progressive, but also have exercised strong
influence in the formation of Modern Law of the matter.
Notes
1. Mit. On Yjavalkyasmti (Y.S.) II,P.114-116
2. Ibid.M x pn hxEx inE n
l{i*
3. YS.II.135-136
4. Mit.on Y.S. II.136.
5. Y.S. II.124.
6. Y.S.I.76
7. Ibid.II.115.
8. Ibid.II.123.
9. Mit. On.Y.S. II.136.
10. Ibid.II.32
10. in i SU +{ pM i x SU*
Mit. On Y.S.II.52.
11. Y.S.I.85
Kiraval 155
12. Ibid II.135-136

13. Quoted by Vijnevara attributed to Ktyyana.
14. Mit On Y.S.II.135-136.
15. Y.S.II.138.
16. Mit. On YS.II.136
17. Ibid.II.135-136.
18. MS.II.45.
19. n Eixx {ix& E& E&*
x nk jvx i ** (YS.II.115)
{iv Vi i{ i** (YS.II.123)
20. Mit. On YS.II.136.
Debate
[We are commencincing a New feature, Debate, from this issue onwards
with a view to promote live discussion on contemporary trends in the study
and evaluation of Indology. Anybody interested can join the debate by submitting their article.The editor reserves the right to accept or reject an article submitted. In this article Dr. Dharmaraj Adat presents the theme paper.
He will reply the doubts and criticisms in the concluding article of this debate session
Editor]
Baudha Sankara Narayana Philosophies and

The Advaita Tradition of India
Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
Scholars have discussed, though rarely, the relation between
Buddhist philosophy and the philosophy of Sri Narayana. But
ignoring the historical undercurrent, a research intellect considers
Buddhism as a developed form of Upanisadic thought and puts
forward an idea that Buddhist philosophy and Sri Narayana
philosophy are one and same. Not much effort is needed for such
a conclusion. For this, some doctrines should be proclaimed as
ultimate truths and stick to these doctrines to conclude their
judgments. This is the only conclusion that an exercise like this
can lead to. How a modest intellectual, who is not ready to cop
with these conclusions that rely purely on hereditarily transferred
mythological expositions and legends, can bow to them? The
conclusion that unites the Buddhist philosophy and Sri Narayana
philosophy is certainly subjective. Unfortunately, not only those
sectarian scholars but consensus scholars also fallen into such
traps.
Prof. K. Balaramappanikkar, a renowned, prominent scholar
of previous generation, who received respects from the people of
Kerala, especially from those who belong to Sri Narayna. In his
well known book Sri Narayanaguru Prabandhangaliloote (Sri
Advaita tradition of India
Debate
Kiraval 157
Narayanaguru through essays) he focuses on to illustrate an idea

that the Advaidic principles rose from Sri Buddha, shined in Sri
Sankara and spread through Sri Narayana.
It is interesting to see how Buddha became the source of
Advaidic thought. It is widely accepted among scholars that the
Gaudapadakarika is the base of Sankaras philosophy. Some
scholars believe that the author of Gaudapadkarika is a follower
of Buddha. Prof. Balaramappanikkar begins his views by
considering Buddha as the founder of Advaitic principles by
putting forward the second opinion above, which is not widely
accepted. He writes if Gaudapadakarika can be considered as a
Buddhist text then it should be accepted that Buddha is the founder
of Advatism.
He clarifies that the evidences put forward for this opinion are
the names of Buddha (Buddhist names) seen in the benedictory
verses and the Buddhist terms present in the text. This can be
accepted for an argument. Still it is wrong to conclude, based on
this rather weak support, that Buddha is the founder of Advaitism.
The leaders of S.N.D.P moment, now-a-days, stick upon the idiom
of be proud of telling caste. How one can consider Sri
Naryanaguru as the creator of caste pride? The same is applicable
to the view of Balaramapanikkar that it should be neglected.
While studying Buddha and analyzing his philosophical
system, a researcher should consider the fact that Buddha had not
written down any of his philosophical ideas. The disciples of
Buddha codified those teachings that are attributed to him several
years after his demise. It is a limitation. The followers of Buddha
first split into Hinayana and Mahayana and again into several
other groups. All of these groups, which explain mutually
contradictory ideas, loudly proclaim that they are the actual
followers of Buddha.
One of the most effective methods that the dominant systems
had adopted to uproot the ideas and movements, which were
158 Kiraval
Debate
Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
formed against the established social conditions and popular

among people due to the pressure of circumstances, is to infiltrate
into those movements. It is a historical fact. Not only the history
of Bhakti movement, Congress and S.N.D.P movements, but the
history of Poland and Soviet Union are also best examples of this
infiltration. The decline of Buddhism and its extinction in India
are the initial steps of this historical reality. Later, the Buddhist
philosophy, which is praised by a group, became influenced by
the ideas drawn out from the Uapnishadic stake by the spokesmen
of the priesthood like Nagarjuna. Moreover, based on these ideas,
there was a tendency- which became firmly rooted in India- to
claim that the Buddhist Philosophy is Upanisadic itself. Therefore
Buddhism is part of Hinduism and Buddha is one among the ten
incarnations of Vishnu. This forms another point of discussion.
Yet it is not considered here. But a simple question should be
answered. If Gaudapadakarika is a Buddhist text itself, then how
can Buddha be the creator of the ideas in it? The author of
Gaudapadakarika is Gaudapada. Hence Gaudapada himself is
responsible for each and every line of it. Gaudapada has not quoted
even a single line or concept of Buddha in the entire text saying
as the words of Buddha. So a conclusion can be arrived at is that
Gaudapada is the founder of Advaita doctrine. Instead,
Balaramappanikkar ascribes the Advaitisam to Buddha. It is also
notable that he takes Madhva and Ramanuja as his companions
for this purpose.
Madhva and Ramanuja characterised Sri Sankara as disguised
Buddha to make his contributions to Advaita Vedanta a big zero.
Without considering the fact behind this decision that Sankara
philosophy took its form from the energy of the later Buddhist
Brahmins like Nagarjuna, Prof Balaramappanikkar makes Buddha
the first Advaitin by taking the word Buddha from disguised
Buddha and concluded it as the real Buddha.
Debate
Kiraval 159
Thus he satisfies himself by making Buddha as a preceptor of

Advaita, calling Buddhadvaita as Dharmikadvaita, Sankaradvaita
as Vaijnanikadvaita and Sri Narayanadvaita as Prayogikadvaita.
Further he discovers that Advaita is a concept, which consists in
Vedas and particularly in Upanisads, and is originated by Buddha,
developed by Sankara and completed by Sri Narayana.
Before entering into a discussion how Buddhism- an atheist
philosophy- and the philosophies of Sankara and Sri Narayana,
which are theistic in nature were united together; the subjective
and sentimental approaches of the scholars of previous generation
that drove to a conclusion that is far away from truth, need to be
discussed. The old erudition has no hesitation to repeat again and
again the ideas that were existing through generations and the
views of Balaramappanikkar are not free from it. For instance let
us quote a subject that he often repeats in his work
sdramakarasayukta drata parivarjayet (A learned Surda
should be casted off). This line is praised as the stand in state dais
of Indian caste system. Traditionally Manu is considered as the
author of this line. No one has questioned this conclusion, as the
hate of Manu towards Sudras is popular. Several scholars of
previous generation have quoted this saying of Manu in their
articles. Without having a bit of thought Balaramappanikkar also
repeats this sdramakarasayukta .as this verse is actually
found in Manusmrti. It means that the Sudra who is educated
should be expelled. Not only Balaramappanikkar, but also scholars
like Vidyavacaspati V Panoli has mentioned this. Present scholar
being interested in this matter has examined each and every line
of Manusmrti. But this line hasnt found anywhere there in. This
argument may be based on the simple assumption that Manu, the
force behind Cturvarya which took Strong stand towards Sudras,
must have written this verse. Without having proper notice some
scholars referred this in their works as quoted from Manusmrti.
Others do this harmless mission in their works as being trusted
by this opinion. No one tried to find out whether it is true or not.
160 Kiraval
Debate
Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
One who tries to find out reality can conclude it as a false

statement.
One who closely studies the Buddhist philosophy and Sankara
philosophy can understand that the above-mentioned conclusions
of Balaramappanikkar are repetitions of the traditional views.
The comparison of philosophies should not be done following
the footprints of the similarity of the words used by Philosophers.
But the historical necessities that lead to the formation of these
systems and the effects of these on society on time being should
be considered and analyzed. It is a fact that same word represents
different thoughts in different philosophies at different times. Each
thought and philosophy takes its form according to their social
conditions. The Philosophy of Vedic texts are not the philosophy
of Brahmanic texts. The Upanisadic philosophy again differs form
both these. The Philosophical tendency in Itihasas, Puranas and
Smrti texts differ from each other. The reason behind this diversity
is that all these were written in different periods of time at different
historical situations and with difference in realizing their
objectives. The appearance and expressions of each historical
crisis, which existed in each situation, are different. On each
situation new ideas and Philosophies took origin with
distinguishing properties to overcome these crises. Continuous
re-reading and re-evaluation of history affirms this.
The Rig.Vedic age represents simple social - economical unity.
It can be said that at the end of Rgvedic age there originated subdivisions based on caste. When this society developed in the ages
of Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, the solidarity of a class-which
was not separated- wrecked and castism took over it. This process
is reflected clearly in the Brahmanas. And in Upanisads the
superior-inferior separation is clearer between manual labour and
mental labour. And at the time of Puranas, Itihasas and Smrti
texts the four class system or Indian Feudalism reached its
Debate
Kiraval 161
perfection and the ripples of dominant culture of the Brahmins

and priests has been stamped all over.
The age of Buddha was a period in which the federal tribal
communities were disintegrated due to the communal conditions
and marked the beginning of castism. Buddha and his philosophy
emerged with the flags of nonviolence, fellow feeling and charity
as a remedy for the uncertainty, mental agitation and trembling
aroused in society at the juncture of a social change when a
communal condition disappeared and new capital condition
replaced its place. Buddha at the same time gave strength to the
new social condition and became reliever of those who are
afflicted. That is why he gained wide popularity among people.
The age of Sankaracarya is a period in which the Indian Feudal
system changed its structure from centralized to the sovereignty
of small native states and villages. The moral indebtedness to
assure the support of the people for the new rulers is done by
Sankaradarsana. Sankaras analysis of illusory-existing-spiritual
areas and the philosophical views based on these gave support
without reservation to the rulers to chain the working class into
cultural silences and to impose sovereignty over them. Thus he
succeeded in achieving the support of the ruling class speedily.
Sri Narayana philosophy originated at a historical point when
the feudal system and its morel fervour declined and new capitalist
system and its morel fervour has emerged. Narayanaguru leads
the attempt to place the renaissance thought of the fresh capital
system, which is based on the principles of equality, independence
and brotherhood by throwing away the tattered feudal values.
From this it is clear that the age, social situations and historical
relevance of Sri Buddha, Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana are
different. While the social values changed rapidly, Buddha taught
people to change the law of nature and the only thing in this world
which does not change is change itself. He also taught people
162 Kiraval
Debate
Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
that life is full of miseries, and it has a cause and it can be

overcome. The Foundation stones of the philosophical thought
of Buddha are the three streams. These are called the theories of
Anitya, Anatma and Duhkha.
As pointed out, during the age of Sri Sankara, small native
states arouse instead of centralized kingdoms. It can be considered
as another age of Indian feudalism after the Gupta age. The
philosophy of Sankara succeeded in undertaking the two missions
viz. maintaining the continuity of feudal values based on the four
class system and attaining the support of the people towards the
feudal lordship as the symbol of power. Sankara who proclaimed
Paramarthika (Divine or eternal truth) as the only truth and the
existence of Pratibhasika and Vyavaharika as comparative, put
forward a social philosophy which accepts the difference in the
Vyavaharika, caste-creed sovereignty and their customs and
observance. It can be said that Sankara Philosophy accept Advaita
at theoretical level and plurality at practical level.
The philosophy of Sri Narayana is based on Advaita not only
at theoretical but also in practical level. The philosophy of Sri
Narayana can be said as the philosophy dually influenced by the
Saivadvaita and Tamil Saivism originated after Sri Sankara. Sri
Narayanas position is against the well known attitude of sankara
that Sudra is a moving funeral pyre and has no right to education
and power. Guru taught that every one has equal right to educate
and education opens the road towards power and independence.
Buddhism is atheistic. Buddha, who proclaimed that all are
transient, sorrow and materialistic, denied the existence of atma.
They deny the all-controlling god also. Buddha has not brought
god while dealing with the destiny of mankind. He has neither
written any devotional lyric nor implemented any type law of
adoration to console people who lived in an age of misery and
adversity. His proclamation was to remove the miseries driven
Debate
Kiraval 163
by the worldly desire. Debi Prasad Chatopadhyaya, the famous

philosopher is quoted here
It is noteworthy that at the time the formation of most
important reality by finding out the reason for the miseries and
suggesting its remedy, Buddha has no intention to point out the
existence of god as the supreme power without whose consent
even a blade of grass cannot move as indicated by others. How
can one explain the complete indifference of Buddha towards
god at the decisive context of thinking about the important problem
about the fate of Human beings? It has only one answer. Buddha
has complete conviction that god is unreal. (Indan
Nirisvaravadam, Chinta Publishers, Thiruvananthapuram, 1st
edition, page 128)
Buddha had corrected the view that to conquer the body and
mind of the people belief in god is necessary. The eloquence,
which forced to consider materialists as barbarians, savages,
cheaters and gluttons, are being cut out here. Buddha taught the
world through his life that one could become the messenger of
world love and world humanism without the god, which is crutch.
Buddha believed that the lifestyle based on god would change
people into lazy, irresponsible and weak. Virtue evolves from
virtue and immortality from immortality. Nothing is god oriented.
Hence Buddha establishes the doctrine that it is meaningless to
worship gods and performing rites for any results. Hence he made
no devotional lyrics.
Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana follow theist philosophy in Indian
thought. Though there is difference in their views both accept the
immortality of the supreme soul. While ankara proclaims
Brahaman is real and the perceiving world is unreal Guru
proclaims everything real. While Guru announces that the
creation, creator, created things and elements for creation are god
itself, Sankara announces that all these are the play of
Sagunabrama, which remains in the existing part and is false. Sri
164 Kiraval
Debate
Dr. Dharmaraj Adat
Sankara has written several devotional lyrics and introduced

religious rites to uplift the ordinary people towards salvation by
tempting them. Though he proclaims that there is no god,
Sagunabrahma and world is in the eternal part. Guru has also
written several devotional lyrics. He conducted several
installations of temples also. But the aim of conducting these rites
is to bring up physical and mental purity of the common men.
His expulsion of the toddy, chicken, and several other barbaric
rituals along with evil spirits is not for any other aim. His
installations that begin from stone up to the mirror stressed on
the correction of the feudal believes and rites. (Blame on us, as
now it is not like what he imagined). It also remember the saying
of Guru that now the need of the society is schools and factories
not temples. (It is also to be pointed out that sanskritisation have
made marks on the deeds and writings of Guru. It does not matter
here.)
From this point it is crystal clear that the philosophies of
Buddha, Sankara and Narayana accepted different standpoints in
historical occasions, Philosophical aspects and social views. It is
not wrong to infer that the practical side of Buddhism has
influenced Sri Sankara and Sri Narayana philosophies. Buddha
is the first teacher in the field of widening the religion. He sent
his disciples to each and every corner of the world to popularise
his thoughts. It is well known that other prophets also to popularise
their religion have used this trick. While Sri Sankara spread his
ideas through debate and establishing monasteries, Sri Narayana
popularised his views by encouraging Sri Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Sanghas. By viewing the present status of Sankara
Muths and S. N. D. P. movement, it will not be fault to conclude
that they too will have the same fate as that of the Buddhist groups
in impending future.
Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta

Dr.G.Narayanan
No Philosophy can exist without society. When the current
systems of thought fails to satisfy the moral and spiritual ambitions
of a society a new system arises. Hence no system can stay out of
the society that parented it. More over, philosophy is a cultural
product.
Among Indian philosophical systems, the two mmmsasprvammmsa and uttarammmsa represent Brahmanism. Both
are direct outcome of brahmanic religious speculation. The ancient
Vedic literature has four branches viz. Samhita, Brahmana,
Aranyaka and Upanishad. The samhita contains hymns. These
were chanted in yagas. The yagas and related rituals form the
subject matter of Brahmanas. Aranyakas deals with the rituals of
vanaprastha Asrama. The subject matter of Upanishads is
predominantly the knowledge of atman and its results. The
Brahmanic ritualistic religion that dominated the society in early
times received severe attack from Buddhism, Jainism and
Materialism. This logical and philosophical attacks forced
Brahmins to fortify their there religious order and methodology.
The result of this effort is prvammmsa and uttarammmsa.
Since 5 th C B.C, Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed royal
patronage. Emperor Asoka had extended all support to Buddhists
and sent missionaries to abroad to propagate Buddhism. On the
other side, Chandragupta mourya sought Jainism and joined
Monastic order. The revival of Brahmanism commenced with
the establishment of Sunga dynasty. It received further support
and patronage from Guptas. Almost all the important literature
166 Kiraval
Debate
Dr. G.Narayanan
of Indian orthodox philosophy and religion were written between

B.C. 2nd and A.D. 4th centuries. Along with this the law books of
Yjavalkya and Manu became dominant.
On philosophical side, Jaimini wrote prvammmsa sutras and
Badarayana Brahmasutras. Both these works attacked Buddhist
theories. ankarchryas advaitavedanta vehemently attacked the
positions of Buddhists, Jains, Samkhyas, charvakas and minor
religious cults. At the same time ankarchrya was not ready to
accept the prvammmsa theories as it is. Thus he left an option
before hindus either to follow the way of Karma that lead to
suffering or the way of knowledge that lead to ultimate liberation
from the cycle of brith and death. In his commentary on BhagavadGita he pointed out that the path of karma fetches prosperity. But
the path of knowledge will free one from the cycle of births and
deaths by bringing him moka. Hence the path of knowledge is
superior to karma1. This position helped him to attack ritualist
religion of prvammmsakas and counter the arguments of
Buddhists and jains.
The philosophy of ankarchrya lives some confusion here.
While commenting on the first aphorism of brahmasutra he said
that any person who processes four essential requisites is eligible
to study advaitavedanta2. This criterion permits even an outcast
who possess these essential requisites can learn advaitavedanta.
But later commenting on apadrdhikaraa, he declared, following
Manu, that a jtidra is not eligible for Vedanta3. At the same
time some scriptures suggest a reading that dra too have right
for brahmavidya. Two narratives in chandogyopanishad that dealt
with this issue are the narrative of Satyakmajbla and the
narrative of Raikva. Satyakma, son of Jbla-a housemaid, while
seeking higher studies was asked about his father. He enquired it
to his mother but in vain. Hearing his answer that he doesnt know
Social philosophy
Debate
Kiraval 167
who his father is, the teacher solved the issue ruling that only a
Brahmin could keep the vow of truth and taught him4. The
narrative of Raikva is more interesting one. Raikva, a man who
had realised Brahman called Jnaruti, the king who approached
him to learn Brahmavidya, dra. After obtaining immense riches
and the daughter of Jnaruti, Raikva imparted him Brahmavidya5.
ankarchryas struggle to establish that the term dra in
Upanishad is used not in the sense of jtisdra should be noted6.
The narratives given above were quoted by certain section of
scholars to show the liberal view of Upanishads on caste and
rights. But the first narrative reflects the opposite sense than the
one intended. It assures that only Brahmins can keep the wow of
truth. This view is not liberal at all, but sectarian. In the second
episode, ankarchrya tries to prove the ineligibility of dra.
ankarchryas bias toward Brahmanism is evident in all his
writings. Further the manpacaka of ankarchrya and the
legend connected with it remained us the illogical position of
advaitavedanta on equality and rights.
The logic of advaitavedanta envisages an egalitarian society.
But, whether it was practiced or not, is a question. Internal
evidences from ankarchryas works reply in negative. But
modern reformers used the logic of advaitavedanta to rejuvenate
Hinduism. Yet, many scholars who accepted and followed the
philosophy of ankarchrya criticised him for his bias.

1. Vide. Sambandha bhya on Bhagavad Gta by ankarchrya
2. karabhya on Brahmastra I.i.1
3. Ibid I-iii-34-38
4. Chndogyopaniad IV-iv-(1-5)
5. Ibid IV-ii-(1-5)
6. Vide Skarabhya on Brahmastra I-iii-(34-38) and
Chndogyopaniad IV-ii-(1-5)
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Kiraval 169
lJl i* x ui&* il i ER& Eh`lx%{

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Eix RE{k&*
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170 Kiraval
b.+.VE
Mk \Rhx +xxE xi* S ni lxn +{iMx

xElx uiil& <i ii\S*
t{ +n +xni%z |{ uiil +R{i xii&
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172 Kiraval
b.Bx.xn
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Kiraval 173
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174 Kiraval
b.Bx.xn
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jh vV Exi vxi* ioRx{ Sii
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it | {Oi&*
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Kiraval 175
Vi% t nxii
S xI{{i**
Enx Mx lix iix izS {EIi
={Mi& +SUj xE{ +i- ---Exi i Si
i...M%i BSS(Ii { pxn&) i |iI
.... MSU Q <i* Eln ?
xix x{i
MxP{i SE&*
& E%{ Eixvv&
iuS iSjE&**
176 Kiraval
Review
Debates In Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial and
Contemporary.A.Raghuramaraju.Oxford university
Press,New Delhi,2006.ISBN 0-19-567151-1 /978-0-19567151-3
Dr K Muthulakshmy
To quote the words of A.Raghuramaraju, the author of the book
Debates in Indian Philosophy: Classical, colonial and
Contemporary, the task of philosophy is not only to work with
readymade problems as available in philosophical
systems.Equally important task of philosophy is to formulate
new discourses, systematize loose arguments, and explicate in
logical terms the scattered insights. This is true of this book
also. This book tries to bring out the debates in contemporary
Indian philosophy. At the same time it also acknowledges its
continuities and discontinuities from classical and colonial
streams of Indian philosophy.
The fundamental argument the author puts forward is that
debates and differences were the nerve centre of classical Indian
Philosophy. But during the colonial period ,a tendency to patch
up the differences and project a monolithic and homogenous
philosophical face of India emerged. And so, the earlier nature of
debates has to be regained today to bring out the complex nature
of contemporary Indian philosophy.
In this context, he presents three important debates pertaining
to contemporary Indian Philosophy. The first one is between
Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi.(Swami and Mahatma
paradigms; state and civil society).The second one is between
Savarkar and Gandhi (From politicizing religion to spiritualizing
Kiraval 177
politics.) And the third is between Sri Aurobindo and
Krishnachandra Bhattacharya (Relation between science and
spiritualism) The prominence the Advaita Vedanta gained and
the ways even Advaita was modified during Nationalist period
are explained by the author.
These debates do not adhere to the tools and methods of
classical Indian philosophical tradition only. Nor do they blindly
subscribe to the path laid out by western philosophy. More
importantly, they are sensitive to contemporary issues like
colonialism, nationalism, modernity, tradition etc.
This book is certainly one of the important works on
contemporary Indian philosophy. And very relevantly, all the three
terms employed here, ie, contemporary, Indian and philosophy
are subjected to thorough analysis by the author.
178 Kiraval
Annual Index of Articles published

in Kiraval Vol-1;Books- 1&2
Dr.P.Chithambaran- Influence of Sankara on later Philosophers;
KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.91-101
Dr.Dharmaraj Adat-Buddha Sankara Narayana Philosophies and
the Advaita tradition of india; KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.153-161
Dr.Geethamony Amma-Prakti and Purua in Classical
Skhya, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.126-136
Dr.N.Kalpana-Position And Status of Women In Yajnavalkya
smti, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P.144-152
Dr..M. Manimohanan - The Sphota theory of meaning with special reference to the Vakyapadiya of Bhartrhari, KV.Vol-1, Book1,P.7-40
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi-Sanskrit,English and Malayalam: Some
trajectries of Admixure,KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.41-48
-------------------------(Review article) Debate in Indian Philosophy:
Classical,Colonial and contemporary, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.176-177
Dr.G.Narayanan-Nirvikalpakapratyaksha in Advaitavedanta,
KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.57-69
.................................Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta,
KV.Vol-1,Book-2,P. 165-167
Dr.Reeja.B.Kavanal-Influence of Natyasastra In the Dramas of
Kalidasa, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P. 137-143
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar-Karnabhara: Atrue Tragic play in Sanskrit Literature, KV.Vol-1,Book-1,P.49-56
Dr.S.Sivakumar- Abhava in Navya Nyaya: Definition and Application-70-78
Kiraval 179
Dr.S.Sobhana-The Concept of Aumkra
Mdkyopaniad, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.118-125
in
the
Dr.S.Suresh Kumar-Dialectic of Vidy and Avidy in Indian

Philosophy: A General Survey, KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.102-117
Dr.N.SundaramP.171-175
{hbiOh& B. BS j, KV.Vol-1,Book-2,
Dr.R.Vijayakumar- Dr.N.Gopala Panicker: A scholar par Excellence,

KV.Vol-1,Book-1, P.79-81
------------------------------------------------ ................i|ix h jJx*,
KV.Vol-1,Book-2, P.168-170
180 Kiraval
Submission & Subscription

Kiraval, the journal of Sanskrit Research foundation is
published with the intention to keep up the rich academic
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182 Kiraval
News
Kiraval Released
Dr.S.Rajasekharan,
Pro-Vice Chancellor of
Sree Sankaracharya
University of Sanskrit,
Kalady, had Released the
Research Journal of
Sanskrit
Reseach
Foundation, Kiraval
in a function organised
at the S.S.U.S. Regional centre , Thiruvananthapuram on
1.10.2009 by giving the copy to
Dr .K.E.N Kunjahammad,
noted critic, activist and academician.
Obituary
Dr.R.Karunakaran (1927-2009)
We deeply regret to report the demise of Dr. R. Karunakaran,
Rtd. Professor of Sanskrit, on 13th october 2009. Born in 1927
at Edakkadam,Kollam, he had his higher stud ies on sanskrit at
Madrass. He passed Advaitavedanta Siromoni from University
of Mardras, M.A and Ph.D from the University of Kerala. His first
appointment was at the department of Malayalam Lexicon,
University of Kerala, in June 1955. In 1959 he joined
Govt.Sanskrit college as lecturer in Vedanta. He became the
professor of Vedanta and the acting Principal of Govt.Sansktit
college, Thiruvananthapuram. Later he served as the Principal
of Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetham under the ministry of
Education, Govt.of Ind ia. He was the Principal of Tirupati and
Puri vidyapeethas. In 1978 he joined the Department of Sanskrit,
Kiraval 183
University of Kerala as Reader. He was the d irector of Center
for Vedanta stud ies attached to the department of Sanskrit for
a long period. He has undertaken a project, financed by U.G.C,
on Vedantamahakosa.
The concept of Sat in advaitavedanta is his magnum opus,
in which he successfully explained the advaita notion of Sat in
the background of ind ian philosophy. During his tenure at
Kendriya Sanskrit vidyapitha he was the general Ed itor of
Agamakosa. He critically ed ited and published Darsanamala
of Sri Narayana Guru and Vedantadarsana. He worked in
Thailand for two years as visiting Professor. He was the patron
of Sree Sankara Vidyapeetha at Edakkadam.
184 Kiraval
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ISSN 0975-4067

The New Trivandrum Sanskrit Series

SANSKRIT RESEARCH FOUNDATION

Editorial Advisory Board

Dialectic of Vidy and Avidy in Indian Philosophy:a General Survey

The Concept of Aumkra in the mdkyopaniad

Prakti and Purua in Classical SkhyaDr.S.Geethamony Amma

Influence of Natyasastra In The Dramas of Kalidasa

Position And Status of Women In Yajnavalkyasmti

Social philosophy of Advaitavedanta-Dr.G.Narayanan

Debates In Indian Philosophy:Classical,Colonial and

Influence Of Sankara On Later Philosophers

Advaitavednta is the most profound and the most acclaimed

and absolute. It is called paramapururtha, the highest of the ends

sdhanaakasampatti and mumukutva.

Sankaras reasoning, by propounding the visions of Viidvaita

Neo-Vednta is the traditional Vednta interpreted in terms of

Neo-Vedntas approach is the harmony between the individual

Rajaram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)

Hindu canon. The all embracing humanist message that lay

Svami Dayananda Sarasvati (1825-1883)

of God, the performance of time-honoured ritual deeds and the

Sri Chattambi Svamikal (1853-1924)

Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928)

incomparable status. He developed his visions and thoughts about

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

intellectual and tries to approach existence from the point of a

Vivekananda was a firm Advaitist but preached the need of

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

reality as one unending experiment with truth. According to him,

Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)

In different periods of time many masters re-interpreted the

Notes and References

Munshi. K. M., Cultural Heritage of India (compiled edition),

Dialectic of Vidy and Avidy in

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

Thus it is clear that the dialectic of Vidy and Avidy is common

Avidy or ajna is the common defect, the basic fault, that

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

Specifically, it consists in the imagination of the perceived and

The Skhya conception of Avidy is substantially the same as

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

its own, inalienable spiritual nature, it leads to final release

by the fear of deathand this means the perpetuation of the

Nyyastra presents a five-fold chain of causal conditions

Avidy or mithyjna is not equivalent to negation of

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

Moka is absolute and eternal quiescence when one comes to rest

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

Gauapda , the grand teacher of akarcrya , in the

Vidy is the knowledge of the Absolute Brahman. It is not

said to be known by the unborn.55In this state of Moka the mind

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

Avidy is the ignorance of ones true nature and relationship with

salvation of the soul. It is realized when the soul entirely

Avidy generally means Ignorance or wrong cognition of truth.

Vidy presupposes unity or oneness of thought and being, a

Notes and References

Vidy and avidy in Indian philosophy

6. i +i li{Yx hni|ExSSxi i&

11. +xnEE xh{x x{SkSiE xhxi

12. Y Sih ..... Y B {i{ii +i&* BCAP., p.

19. vh Mxv Mxvin ivh*

44, (ed.) Ramesh Chandra, Calcutta Sanskrit Series, No. 25,