Chapter 4 A

CHAPTER
Construction Planning, Equipment,

and Methods
Sixth Edition
GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS,
COMPACTION, AND STABILIZATION
A. J. Clark School of Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
4a
By
Dr. Ibrahim Assakkaf
ENCE 420 Construction Equipment and Methods
Spring 2003
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
Slide No. 1
CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
HANDLING OF MATERIALS
The actual construction
process of any project is really
a material-handling problem.
On heavy construction
projects the major portion of
the work consists of handling
and processing bulk materials.
Slide No. 2
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Therefore need:
Knowledge about the
physical properties of the
material being handled and
of the material the machine
is operating upon.
Slide No. 3
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Materials are used only temporarily

in support of the construction
activities
9usable forms, scaffolding, shoring,
and some access roads.
Materials such as water for haul

roads and fuel will be consumed.
Slide No. 4
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Other materials will be permanently

incorporated into the structure:
9steel, timber, concrete, asphalt, rock,
and soils.
The contractor must select the

proper equipment to locate and/or
process materials economically.
Slide No. 5
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The decision process for

matching the best possible
machine to the project task
requires that the contractor takes
into account the following items:
1. Properties of the material to be handled.
2. Mechanical capabilities of the machine.
MAKING EQUIPMENT
CHOICES
Slide No. 6
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Two primary material

considerations:
9Total Quantity
9Size of Individual Pieces
MAKING EQUIPMENT
CHOICES
Slide No. 7
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The quantity of material to be

handled and the time constraints
resulting from the contract or
weather influence the selection of
equipment as to the
9type, size, and number of machines.
MAKING EQUIPMENT
CHOICES
Slide No. 8
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Larger units generally have lower

unit-production cost, but there is a
trade-off in higher mobilization and
fixed costs.
The size of the individual material
pieces will affect the choice of the
machine size.
MAKING EQUIPMENT
CHOICES
Slide No. 9
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Example:
A loader used in quarry to move
shot rock must be able to
handle the largest rock sizes
produced
Slide No. 10
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A loader used in quarry to move shot rock must

be able to handle the largest rock sizes produced
EXCAVATION
Slide No. 11
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Common Excavation refers to ordinary

earth excavation.
Rock Excavation cannot be done by
ordinary earth handling equipment.
9Rock materials must be removed by
drilling and blasting or by some other
methods.
9This normally results in a considerably
greater expense than earth excavation.
EXCAVATION
Slide No. 12
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Muck Excavation includes materials

that will decay or produce subsidence
in embankments.
9 It is usually a soft organic material having
a high water content.
9Typically, it would include such things as
decaying stumps, roots, logs, and humus.
9These materials are hard to handle and
can present special construction problems
both at their point of excavation, and in
transportation and disposal.
EXCAVATION
Slide No. 13
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Unclassified Excavation refers to

the materials that cannot be
defined as soil or rock.
9The removal of common excavation
will not require the use of explosives,
although tractors equipped with
rippers may be used to loosen
consolidated formations.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 14
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The following glossary is

used to define important
terms that are used in
discussing geotechnical
materials, compaction, and
stabilization:
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 15
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Aggregate, course: Crushed rock

or gravel, generally greater than
1/4 in. in size.
Aggregate, fine: The sand or
fine-crushed stone used for
filling voids in coarse aggregate,
Generally it is less than 1/4 in,
and greater than a No. 200 sieve
in size.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 16
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ASTM: American Society for

Testing and Materials.
Backfill: Material used in refilling
a cut or other excavation.
Bank measure: A measure of the
volume of earth in its natural
position before it is excavated.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 17
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Binder: Fine aggregate or other

materials that fill voids and hold
coarse aggregate together.
Borrow pit: A pit from which fill
material is mined.
Cohesion: The quality of some soil
particles to be attracted to like
particles, manifested in a tendency to
stick together, as in clay.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 18
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Cohesive materials: A soil having

properties of cohesion.
Compacted volume: A measurement
of the volume of a soil after it has
been subjected to compaction.
Grain-size curve: A graph showing
the percentage by weight of soil
sizes contained in a sample.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 19
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Granular material: A soil, such as

sand, whose particle sizes and
shapes are such that they do not
stick together.
Impervious: A material that
resists the flow of water through
it is termed impervious.
10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 20
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In situ: Soil in its original or

undisturbed position.
Lift: A layer of soil placed on top of
previously placed embankment
material. The term can be used in
reference to material as spread or
as compacted.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 21
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Optimum moisture content: The

water content, for a given
compactive effort, at which the
greatest density of a soil can be
obtained.
Pass: A working passage (trip) of
an excavating, grading, or
compaction machine.
11
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 22
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Plasticity: The capability of being

molded.
Rock: The hard, mineral matter of
the earth's crust, occurring in
masses and often requiring blasting
to cause breakage before
excavation can be accomplished.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Slide No. 23
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Shrinkage. A soil volume reduction

usually occurring in fine-grained soils
when they are subjected to moisture.
Soil. The loose surface material of the
earth's crust, created naturally from the
disintegration of rocks or decay of
vegetation, that can be excavated easily
using power equipment in the field.
12
Slide No. 24
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PROPERTIES OF
GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS
In analyzing problems involving earth

and rock handling techniques, it is
necessary to become familiar with
some of the physical properties of soils
and aggregates.
The properties affect materials
handling, equipment selections, and
equipment production rates.
Slide No. 25
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TYPES OF GEOTECHNICAL
MATERIALS
Homogeneous material such as
steel and concrete are easy to
predict their behavior.
Heterogeneous material such as
earths are hard to predict their
behavior and properties because
they are rarely uniform.
13
Slide No. 26
MATERIALS
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In order to establish properties to

geotechnical materials, it is
necessary to classify these
materials.
Soils can be classified according to
the sizes of their particles, physical
properties, and their behavior.
Slide No. 27
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14
Slide No. 28
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MATERIALS
SOILS
Slide No. 29
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Soils are the principal component

of many construction projects.
Soils are used to support:
9structures - static load
9pavements for highways and airport
runways - dynamic loads.
9dams and levees, as impoundment - to
resist the passage of water.
15
SOILS
Slide No. 30
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Some soils may be suitable for use

in their natural state, whereas
other, must be excavated,
processed, and compacted in order
to serve their purposes.
SOILS
Slide No. 31
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Knowledge of the properties,

characteristics, and behavior of
different soil types is important to
those persons who are associated
with the design or construction of
projects involving the use of soils.
16
PROPERTIES OF SOILS
Slide No. 32
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Soil properties have a

direct effect on
9the ease or difficulty of handling
the material.
9 the selection of equipment.
9 production rates.
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 33
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Soils may be classified

according to:
9The sizes of the particles of which
they are composed,
9By their physical properties, or
9By their behavior when file moisture
content varies.
17
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 34
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
A constructor is concerned primarily

with five types of soils:
9Gravel,
9Sand,
9Silt,
9Clay,
9Organic matter,and
9Combinations of these types.
Rocks
TYPES OF SOIL
Slide No. 35
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Gravel
pass 3-in, retained on No. 10
No. 10
0.074mm
Sand
from lower limit gravel to No. 200
Silt, noncohesive
smaller than 0.074 mm but
larger than 0.005 mm
Clay, cohesive
18
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 36
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The following size limits

represent those set forth by
the American Society for
Testing and Materials
(ASTM):
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 37
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Gravel: is rounded or
semiround particles of rock that
will pass a 3-in. and be retained
on a 2.0-mm No. 10 sieve.
Sizes larger than 10 in. are
usually called boulders.
19
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 38
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Sand: is disintegrated rock whose

particles vary in size from the lower
limit of gravel 2.0 mm down to
0.074 mm (No. 200 sieve). It may
be classified as coarse or line sand,
depending on the sizes of the
grains. Sand is a granular
noncohesive material.
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 39
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Silt: is a material finer than

sand and thus its particles are
smaller than 0.074 mm but
larger than 0.005 mm. It is a
noncohesive material that has
little or no strength. It compacts
very poorly.
20
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 40
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Clay: is a cohesive material whose

particles are less than 0.005 mm.
The cohesion between the particles
gives a clay high strength when airdried. Clay can be subject to
considerable changes in volume
with variations in moisture content.
They will exhibit plasticity within a
range of "water contents."
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 41
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Organic matter: is a partly

decomposed vegetable matter.
It has a spongy unstable
structure that will continue to
decompose and is chemically
reactive.
21
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 42
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Soils existing under natural

conditions may not contain the
relative amounts of desired types
to produce the properties required
for construction purposes.
It may be necessary to obtain soils
from several sources and then to
blend them to use in a fill.
TYPES OF SOILS
Slide No. 43
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
If the material in a borrow pit

consists of layers of different types
of soils the specifications for the
project may require the use of
excavating equipment that will dig
vertically through the layers in
order to mix the soil.
22
Slide No. 44
TYPES OF SOILS
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Rock can be formed by one of

the three different means:
9Igneous rocks solidifies from molten
masses
9Sedimentary rocks formed in layers
settling out of water solutions.
9Metamorphic rocks are transformed
from material of the first two by heat
and pressure.
Slide No. 45
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Volume
air
Va
Weight
air = 0
AIR
Volume
voids
Vv
Total
volume
V
Volume
water
Vw
Volume
soil solids
Vs
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Weight
water = Ww
Total
weight W
Water
Weight
soil solids
Ws
Soil
23
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 46
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Which material has the

greatest unit weight?
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 47
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
UNIT WEIGHT
Unit weight () =
total weight of soil
total soil volume
24
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 48
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Total volume includes

Air
Water
Solids
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 49
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Air, Water
and Solids.
Thats what
it looks like
under the
microscope.
25
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 50
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
drive off the water d
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 51
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Water Content:
Water content =
Wet weight Dry weight
Dry weight
26
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 52
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Same weight but different

volume.
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 53
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Definitions:
Unit Weight ( ) =
total weight of soil W

=
total soil volume
V
weight of soil solids Ws
=
total soil volume
V
(2)
weight of water in soil Ww

=
weight of soil solids
Ws
(3)
Dry Unit Weight ( d ) =
Water Content ( ) =
(1)
27
Slide No. 54
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Void Ratio (e) =
Porosity (n) =
V
volume of voids
= v
volume of soil solids Vs
(4)
volume of voids Vv
=
total soil volume V
Specific Gravity (Gs ) =
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
(5)
Ws 1
1
weight of soil solids
=
volume of solids unit weight of water Vs w
Degree of Saturation ( S ) =
volume of water in voids Vw

=
volume of voids
Vv
(6)
(7)
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Slide No. 55
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Other useful relationships can be derived:
Vv

Vv
Vv
n
V
Void Ratio (e) = =
= =
Vs V Vv
V 1 n
1 v
V
Porosity (n) =
e
1+ e
(8)
(9)
Total Volume (V ) = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs
(10)
28
Slide No. 56
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
W
Ws 1 + w
Ws Ws (1 + )
W Ws + Ww
=
=
=
Moist Unit Weight ( ) =
V
V
V
V
(11)
Ws
(12)
V
From the above two equations :
d =
d =
(13)
1+
W
Ws =
1+
(14)
Slide No. 57
SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Volume
air
Va
Weight
air = 0
AIR
Volume
voids
Vv
Total
volume
V
Volume
water
Vw
Volume
soil solids
Vs
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Weight
water = Ww
Total
weight W
Water
Weight
soil solids
Ws
Soil
29
Slide No. 58
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
OTHER USEFUL
RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships Between Unit Weight, Void Ratio,

Moisture Content,and Specific Gravity
=
Ws + Ww Gs w + Gs w Gs w (1 + )
=
=
1+ e
1+ e
V
d =
S=
Ws Gs w
=
1+ e
V
(15)
(16)
(17)
G s
e
at (saturated unit weigth of soil) =
w (Gs + e )
(18)
1+ e
Slide No. 59
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
OTHER USEFUL
RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships Between Unit Weight, Porosity,

and Moisture Content
=
Ws + Ww
= Gs w (1 n )(1 + )
V
Ws
= Gs w (1 n )
V
(20)
sat = [Gs (1 n ) + n] w
(21)
d =
n
(1 n )Gs
(19)
(22)
30
Slide No. 60
Example 1
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.33 ft3

and weighs 39.93 lb. The oven dry weight of the soil is
34.54 lb. If Gs = 2.71, calculate the moisture content,
moist unit weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity,and
degree of saturation.
Ww W Ws 39.93 34.54
= 0.156 = 15.6%
=
=
34.54
Ws
Ws
W 39.93
=
= 121.0 lb/ft 3
0.33
V
Example 1 (continued)
d =
e=
n=
S=
Slide No. 61
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Ws 34.54
=
= 104.67 lb/ft 3
V
0.33
Gs w
1 =
2.71(62.4)
1 = 0.62
104.67
e
0.62
=
= 0.38
1 + e 1 + 0.62
Gs
e
0.156(2.71)
= 0.682 = 68.2%
0.62
31
Slide No. 62
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Example 2
For a saturated soil, given = 40%, Gs = 2.71,
determine the saturated and dry unit weights.
Gs
(0.4)(2.71)
= 1.084
1
S
Note : S = 1(100% saturation )
e=
sat =
d =
(Gs + e) ws = (2.7 + 1.084)62.4 = 113.6

1+ e
1 + 1.084
lb/ft 3
Gs w (2.71)(62.4)
=
= 81.2 lb/ft 3
1+ e
1 + 1.084
Slide No. 63
SOIL CONSISTENCY LIMITS
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Certain limits of soil consistency

were developed to differentiate
between highly plastic, slightly
plastic, and nonplastic materials:
9Liquid Limit (LL)
9Plastic Limit (PL)
9Plasticity Index (PI)
32
Slide No. 64
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Liquid limit (LL): The water

content at which a soil passes from
the plastic to the liquid states. High
LL values are associated with soils
of high compressibility. Typically,
clays have high LL values; sandy
soils have low LL value.
Slide No. 65
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Plastic limit (LL): The water

content at which a soil passes from
the plastic to the semisolid state.
The lowest water content at which
a soil can be rolled into 1/8-in. (3.2mm) diameter thread without
crumbling.
33
Slide No. 66
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Plasticity index (PI): The

numerical difference between a soils
liquid limit and its plastic limit is the
plasticity index. Soils with high PI
values are quite compressible and
have high cohesion.
PI = LL PL
(23)
Slide No. 67
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
1.0 CUBIC YARDS

NATURAL
CONDITIONS
(IN(IN-PLACE)
1.25 CUBIC
YARDS
AFTER DIGGING
(LOOSE YARDS)
0.90 CUBIC YARDS

AFTER
COMPACTION
(COMPACTED
YARDS)
34
Slide No. 68
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
For bulk materials volumetric

measure varies with the material's
position in the construction
process.
The same weight of a material will
occupy different volumes as the
material is handled on the project.
Slide No. 69
VOLUMETRIC MEASURES
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Soil volume is measured in one of three states:

Bank Cubic Yard (bcy):
1 cu yd of material as it
lies in the natural state
Loose Cubic Yard (lcy):
1 cu yd of material after
it has been disturbed
by a loading process
Compacted Cubic Yard (ccy):
1 cu yd of material in
the compacted state,
also referred to as a
net inin-place cubic yard
35
Slide No. 70
SHRINKAGE AND SWELL

FACTORS
Shrinkage Factor =
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Compacted Dry Unit Weight Cd

=
Bank Dry Unit Weight
Bd
(24)
Shrinkage % =
Compacted Unit Weight - Bank Unit Weight

X 100
Compacted Unit Weight
Swell Factor =
Loose Dry Unit Weight Ld

=
Bank Dry Unit Weight Bd
(25)
(26)
Bank Unit Weight

Swell % =
1 X 100
Loose
Unit
Weig
ht
(27)
Slide No. 71
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
SWELL VALUES FOR DIFFERENT

CLASSES OF EARTH
Bank
weight
Loose
weight
Table 2
Material
lb/cu yd
kg/m3
lb/cu yd
kg/m3
Percent
swell
Swell
factor
Clay,dry
Clay, wet
Earth, dry
Earth, wet
Earth and gravel
Gravel, dry
Gravel, wet
Limestone
Rock, well blasted
Sand, dry
Sand, wet
Shale
2,700
3,000
2,800
3,200
3,200
2,800
3,400
4,400
4,200
2,600
2,700
3,500
1,600
1,780
1,660
1,895
1,895
1,660
2,020
2,610
2,490
1,542
1,600
2,075
2,000
2,200
2,240
2,580
2,600
2,490
2,980
2,750
2,640
2,260
2,360
2,480
1,185
1,305
1,325
1,528
1,575
1,475
1,765
1,630
1,565
1,340
1,400
1,470
35
35
25
25
20
12
14
60
60
15
15
40
0.74
0.74
0.80
0.80
0.83
0.89
0.88
0.63
0.63
0.87
0.87
0.71
36
Slide No. 72
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Example 3
An earth fill, when completed, will occupy a net volume of

187,000 cu yd. The borrow material which will be used to
construct this fill is a stiff clay. In its "bank" condition, the
the
borrow material has a wet unit weight of 129 lb per cu ft (), a
moisture content () of 16.5 %, and an inin-place void ratio (e
(e)
of 0.620. The fill will be constructed in layers of 88-in. depth,
loose measure, and compacted to a dry unit weight (d) of
114 lb. per cu ft at a moisture content of 18.3%.
Compute the required volume of the borrow pit excavation.
excavation.
Borrow :
d =
1+
129
= 111 lb/ft 3
1 + 0.165
Fill (given) : d = 114 lb/ft 3
Slide No. 73
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Fill:
27 ft 3
= 5,049,000 ft 3
Volume of Fill (VF ) = 187,000 yard3
3
1
yard
114 lb
= 575,586,000 lb
Weight of Fill (WF ) = 5,049,000 ft 3
3
1 ft
Borrow:
111 lb
Weight of Borrow = VB 3
ft
37
Slide No. 74
ENCE 420 Assakkaf
Note: Weight of Fill = Weight of Borrow
Hence:
111 lb
575,586,000 lb = VB 3
ft
575,586,000 lb 3
Volume of Borrow (VB ) =
ft = 5,185,460 ft 3
111 lb
= 192,054 cu yd
Alternatively (Simpler Approach):
Shrinkage Factor =
Compacted Dry Unit Weight 114

=
= 1.03
Bank Dry Unit Weight
111
Volume of Borrow (VB ) = (Shrinkage Factor )(Volume of Fill) =
114
187,000 yard3 = 192,054 cu yd
111
38

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CHAPTER

Construction Planning, Equipment,

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

Materials are used only temporarily

Materials such as water for haul

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

Other materials will be permanently

The contractor must select the

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

The decision process for

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Two primary material

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

The quantity of material to be

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Larger units generally have lower

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

A loader used in quarry to move shot rock must

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Common Excavation refers to ordinary

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Muck Excavation includes materials

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Unclassified Excavation refers to

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

The following glossary is

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Aggregate, course: Crushed rock

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ASTM: American Society for

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Binder: Fine aggregate or other

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Cohesive materials: A soil having

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Granular material: A soil, such as

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

In situ: Soil in its original or

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Optimum moisture content: The

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Plasticity: The capability of being

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Shrinkage. A soil volume reduction

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

In analyzing problems involving earth

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

ENCE 420 Assakkaf

In order to establish properties to

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION

Soils are the principal component

CHAPTER 4a. GEOTECHNICAL MATERIALS & COMPACTION