Chapter 11: Managing Individual

Differences & Behavior

There are five personality dimensions and five personality traits that managers
need to be aware of to understand workplace behavior.
Leading, is defined as motivating, directing, and otherwise influencing people to
work hard to achieve the organization's goals.
Personality consists of the stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes
that give a person his or her identity.

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

1.

Extroversion.
a. How outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive a person is.

2.

Agreeableness.

a. How trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one Is.

3.

Conscientiousness.
a. How dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent
one is.

4.

Emotional stability.

a. How relaxed, secure, and unworried one is.

5.

Openness to experience.
a. How intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broadminded one is.

Extroversion
-the outgoing personality.
Extroversion has been associated
with success for managers and
salespeople.
Stronger predictor of job
performance than agreeableness,
across all professions.
o It appears that being
courteous, trusting,
straightforward, and softhearted [that is,
agreeableness] has a smaller
impact on job performance
than being talkative, active,
and assertive [that is,
extroversion].

Conscientiousness
-the dependable personality.
Conscientiousness (strong work
ethic) has been found to have
the strongest positive
correlation with job
performance and training
performance.
Individuals who exhibit traits
associated with a strong sense
of purpose, obligation, and
persistence generally perform
better than those who do not.

The proactive personality is someone who is more apt to take initiative and
persevere to influence the environment.
People of this sort identify opportunities and act on them, which makes them
associated not only with success-individual, team, and organizational-but also
with entrepreneurship.

Five Traits Important in Organizations

o

Locus of Control indicates how much people believe they

control their fate through their own efforts
Internal locus of control you believe you control your
own destiny
External locus of control you believe external forces
control you
Expect different degrees of structure an compliance for each
type
Employ different reward systems for each type
Self-Efficacy belief in ones personal ability to do a task
Low self-efficacy associated with learned helplessness
debilitating lack of faith in ones ability to control
ones environment
Implications for managers?
Assign jobs accordingly
Develop Self-efficacy
Self-esteem the extent to which people like/dislike
themselves, their overall self-evaluation
People with high self-esteem
More apt to handle failure better + emphasize the
positive
Take more risk + choose unconventional jobs
Might be too egotistical and boastful
People with low self-esteem
Focus more on weakness during failure
More dependent on others and are more influenced by
them
Some ways managers can build employee self-esteem:
Reinforce employees positive attributes and skills
Provide positive feedback whenever possible
Break larger projects into smaller tasks and projects
Express confidence in employees abilities
Provide coaching whenever employees are seen to be
struggling to complete tasks
Self-monitoring extent to which people are able to observe
their own behavior and adapt it to external situations
Low self-monitors criticized for being insensitive to their
surroundings
High self-monitors enjoy more internal and external
promotions and are more political savvy
Emotional Intelligence ability to cope, to empathize with
others and be self-motivated.

Higher EI brings along:

Better social relations for child and adult
Better family and intimate relationships
Being perceived more positively by others
Better academic achievement
Higher task performance
Better psychological well-being
EI comprised of 4 key components
Self-Awareness ability to read your own emotions so
as to know how you are affecting others
Self-management ability to control your own
emotions and act with honesty and integrity
Social awareness includes empathy, allowing you to
show others you care
Relationship management ability to communicate
clearly and convincingly, disarm conflicts
How to raise your EI?
Develop awareness of your EI level
Learn about areas needing improvement

Values, Attitudes and Behavior

Organizational Behavior dedicated to better understanding and

management of people at work
o Tries to help managers not only explain workplace behavior but to
also predict it so that they can lead and motivate their employees
o Individual Behavior
o Group Behavior
Values abstract ideals that guide ones thinking an behavior
across all situations
o Concepts, principles, things, people or activities for which a person
is willing to work hard for.
o Compensation, recognition and status are common values in the
workplace
Attitudes learned predisposition toward a given object
o Unlike values, they are directed toward specific objects, people or
events
Three Components of Attitudes
o Affective component consists of the feelings/emotions of a
situation (I feel)
o Cognitive component beliefs and knowledge of a situation
(I believe)
o Behavioral component intentional component refers to
how one intends/expects to behave toward a situation (I
intend)
o When attitudes and reality collide?
Cognitive dissonance psychological discomfort a
person experiences between his/her cognitive attitude
and incompatible behavior (Leon Festinger)
Leon Foster: how people deal with discomfort of
inconsistency:

Importance (ex. Law abiding citizen that speeds on the

road)
Control (ex. Juror may not like the idea of death
sentence but may administer it for he/she has no
choice)
Rewards (ex. Police working on a case for a long time
and does not want to find contradictory evidence)
Main ways to reduce cognitive dissonance
Change your attitude/behavior
Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior
Find consonant elements that out-weight the dissonant
ones
Behavior actions and judgments (through a persons value and
attitudes)

Work-Related Attitudes and Behaviors Managers Need

To Deal With

Job Involvement extent to which an individual is immersed in his

or her present job
Work Related Attitudes
o Attempts at raising overall employee morale by thinking of work as
a calling and not just a job. Three types of attitude managers are
particularly interested in:
o Employee Engagement individuals involvement,
satisfaction and enthusiasm for work
o Job Satisfaction extent to which you feel positive/negative
about various aspects of your work
Determined by their work, pay, promotions, co-workers and
supervision
Job satisfaction brings stronger motivation and less tardiness
and perceived stress
o Organizational Commitment extent to which an employee
identified with an organization and is committed to its goals
Important Workplace Behaviors
o Performance and Productivity
Evaluating behavior when employees are working, and must
match the job being performed
o Evaluating behavior when employees are not working
Absenteeism when an employee does not show up
for work.
Might be related to job dissatisfaction
Turnover when employees leave their jobs
Cost of turnover is high with around 30% of the annual
salary of an hourly employee but 150% of a
professional employee
o Evaluating behavior that exceeds work roles
Organizational Citizenship behavior employee
behaviors that are not directly part of employees job
descriptions (exceeds work-role requirements)

Example: Constructive statements of the department

and expression of personal interest in the work of
others
Evaluating behavior that harms the organization
Counterproductive work behaviors types of
behaviors that harm employees and the organization
as a whole
Absenteeism, drugs, alcohol, abuseetc and must be
addressed by the company usually by the interview
stage

Perception and Individual Behavior

Four steps in the perceptual process

o Perception process of interpreting and understanding
ones environment
o Process involves four steps
Selective attention Did I notice something?
Interpretation and evaluation What was it I noticed? What
does it mean?
Storing in memory Remember it as an event, concept,
person?
Retrieving from memory to make judgments and decisions
What do I recall about that?
Four distortion in perception
o The Recency Effect the most recent impressions are the
ones that count
The tendency to remember recent information better than
earlier information.
o Stereotyping tendency to attribute to an individual the
characteristics one believes are typical of the group to
which that individual belongs
Sex-role stereotype differing traits an abilities make males
and females particularly well suited to different roles (ex.
Male as preferred leaders over females)
Age stereotype depict older workers as less involved in
work and less efficient
Race/ethnicity stereotypes
o Halo Effect we form an impression of an individual based
on a single trait
One trait tells me all I need to know!
Single positive trait = array of positive traits and single
negative traits = generalized negative image
o Casual Attributions activity of inferring causes for
observed behavior
Fundamental Attribution Bias people attribute
another persons behavior to his/her personal
characteristics rather than to situational force

Self-serving bias people tend to take more personal

responsibility for success than failure
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (Pygmalion effect) phenomenon where
peoples expectations of themselves/others lead them to behave
in ways that make those expectations come true
o Example waiter sees poorly dressed customers as not being able
to give large tips hence gives them poor service and gets the
expected results a lower tip
o For a manager? If you expect employees to perform badly, most
likely they will

Understanding Stress and Individual Behavior

Stress tension people feel when they are facing/enduring

extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities and are
uncertain about how to handle them effectively
Stressor source of stress
Toll of workplace stress
o Cost economy huge sums on health care, missed work, and stress
reduction treatment
o Workplace stress is negatively related to job satisfaction, positive
emotions and job performance
o Positively related to alcohol, drugs, and overeating
How does stress work?
o Stress defined as the perception that events/circumstances have
challenged or exceeded a persons ability to cope
o Stressors can be hassles or simple irritants or crises
The Sources of Job-Related Stress
o Demands created by individual differences (by genetic or
personality characteristics)
Type A Behavior Pattern involved in a chronic,
determined struggle to accomplish more in less time.
Often times includes increased work performance but
greater cardiovascular activity
o Individual task demands (stress created by the job itself)
o Individual role demands (stress created by others expectations)
Roles sets of behaviors that people expect of
occupants of a position
Role overload others expectations exceeds ones
abilities
Role conflict one feels torn by the different
expectations of important people in ones life
Role ambiguity others expectations are unknown
o Group Demands (stress created by co-workers and managers)
o Organizational demands (stress created by the environment and
culture)
Physical environment of the job? Poultry processing and coal
mining
White collared environment stressors by poor lighting and no
privacy

Non-work demands (stress created by forces outside the

organization)
Money problems, divorce and family problems etc
The Consequences of Stress
o Symptoms
Physiological signs sweaty palms, heat attacks,
hypertension etc
Psychological signs boredom, irritability, depression etc
Behavioral signs sleeplessness, changes in eating habits etc
o Burnout state of emotional, mental, and even physical
exhaustion (listlessness, indifference, or frustration)
Brings upon reduced productivity
o Alcohol and other drug abuse
Reducing Stressors in the Organization
o Buffers administrative changes that managers can make to
reduce the stressors that lead to employee burnout
Employee assistance programs host of programs
aimed at helping employees cope with stress and
problems
Holistic wellness program self-responsibility,
nutritional awareness and environmental awareness
Create a supportive environment
Make jobs interesting
Make career counseling available
o

Personality
At the centre of the diversity wheel is personality. It is at the centre because
personality is defined as the stable physical and mental characteristics
responsible for a person's identity.

Internal Dimensions
Internal dimensions of diversity are those human differences that exert a
powerful, sustained effect throughout every stage of our lives: gender,
age, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, physical abilities.
These are referred to as the primary dimensions of diversity because they are
not within our control for the most part.
Yet they strongly influence our attitudes and expectations and
assumptions about other people, which in turn influence our own behaviour.

External Dimensions
External dimensions of diversity include an element of choice; they consist of
the personal characteristics that people acquire, discard, or modify

throughout their lives: educational background, marital status, parental

status, religion, income, geographic location, work experience, recreational
habits, appearance, personal habits.
They are referred to as the secondary dimensions of diversity because we have a
greater ability to influence or control them than we do internal dimensions.
These external dimensions exert a significant influence on our perceptions,
behaviour, and attitudes.

Organizational Dimensions
Organizational dimensions include management status, union affiliation, work
location, seniority, work content, and division or department.

Trends in Workforce Diversity

Age: More older people in the workforce

o Number and proportion of younger people is rapidly shrinking. Those
shrinking numbers of younger people will have to both drive their
economies and help support much larger numbers of older people

Gender: More women working

o glass ceiling-the metaphor for an invisible barrier preventing women and
minorities from being promoted to top executive jobs.
o Women slowly making up an increasing percentage of the workforce

Race & Ethnicity: More People of Colour in the Workforce

o more minorities hitting the glass celling

Sexual Orientation: Gays & Lesbians Become More Visible

o harassed, pressured to quit, or denied a promotion because of their
sexual orientation.
o if managers are concerned about hiring and keeping workplace talent,
they shouldn't ignore the motivation and productivity of 6% of the
workforce

People with Differing Physical & Mental Abilities

o People with disabilities have difficulty finding work

Educational Levels: Mismatches between Education & Workforce Needs

o College graduates may be in jobs for which they are overqualified.
some are underemployed working at jobs that require less
education than they have such as tending bar, managing video
stores, or other jobs that someone with less education could do.
o High-school dropouts and others may not have the literacy skills needed

for many jobs.

Barriers to Diversity
Resistance to change in general is an attitude that all managers come up against
from time to time, and resistance to diversity is simply one variation.
1. Stereotypes & Prejudices
a. Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's native country,
culture, language, abilities, or behaviour is superior to that
of another culture.
b. When differences are viewed as being weaknesses, this may
be expressed as a concern that diversity hiring will lead to a
sacrifice in competence and quality.
2. Fear of Reverse Discrimination
a. Some employees are afraid that attempts to achieve greater
diversity in their organization will result in reverse
discrimination.
3. Resistance to Diversity Program Priorities
a. Some companies, such as 3M, offer special classes teaching
tolerance for diversity, seminars in how to get along.
i. Some employees may see diversity programs as
distracting them from the organization's "real work."
1. In addition, they may be resentful of diversity
promoting policies that are reinforced through
special criteria in the organization's performance
appraisals and reward systems.
4. Unsupportive Social Atmosphere
a. Diverse employees may be excluded from office camaraderie
and social events.
5. Lack of Support for Family Demands
a. more and more women are moving back and forth between
being at-home mothers and in the workforce, as economic
circumstances dictate
i. Yet in a great many households, it is still women who
primarily take care of children, as well as other
domestic chores.
b. When organizations aren't supportive in offering flexibility
in hours and job responsibilities, these women may find it
difficult to work evenings and weekends or to take
overnight business trips.
6. Lack of Support for Career-Building Steps
a. Organizations may not
i. provide diverse employees with the types of work
assignments that will help qualify them for positions
in senior management.
ii. provide the kind of informal training or mentoring that
will help them learn the political savvy to do

networking and other activities required to get ahead.