Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
cn
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Abstract
Based on Candaus denition of radiative exergy, the exergy of the extraterrestrial and the terrestrial solar radiation are computed and
compared by using the solar spectral radiation databank developed by Gueymard. The results show that within the spectrum region from
0.28 to 4.0 lm, the total energy quality factor (i.e., the exergy-to-energy ratio) of extraterrestrial solar radiation is about 0.9292, and that
of the global terrestrial solar radiation is about 0.9171 under US standard atmosphere condition and zero solar zenith angle. The terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux is large in the near ultraviolet and the visible light region. The reference radiation exergy spectra are obtained under atmospheric conditions consistent with ASTM standard G173-03. The eect of tilt angle on the terrestrial solar
radiative exergy for inclined surface, and the eect of air mass on total energy quality factor of the terrestrial solar radiation for horizontal surface are analyzed. With the increase of tilt angle, the terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux initially increases and then
decreases, the total energy quality factor of the diuse part decreases monotonically, while that of the direct part is invariant. The total
energy quality factor of the direct, the diuse and the global terrestrial solar radiation all decrease with the increase of air mass.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solar radiation; Exergy; Energy quality factor
1. Introduction
Exergy analysis is a very eective method to analyze the
process of heat transfer and it provides a new insight that
cannot be obtained from energy analysis. The best utilization of solar energy is evaluated by the maximum workproducing potential (exergy) or the maximum conversion
eciency that is associated with thermal radiation. The
maximum conversion eciency of direct solar radiation
was studied by many researchers, such as Petela (1964,
2003), Spanner (1964), Press (1976), Landsberg and Tonge
(1979), Parrot (1978, 1979), Jeter (1981), Kabelac (1991),
Millan et al. (1996), and so on.
Petela (1964, 2003) investigated the exergy of thermal
radiation and proposed a ratio of the relative potential of
the maximum energy available from radiation. For undi*
0038-092X/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2009.03.011
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
1391
Nomenclature
c0
Eb;k
Ebt;k
Eb
Ebt
Ed;k
Edt;k
Ed
Edt
Eg;k
Ert;k
Es;dt;k
EETS
k
h
Ik
I 0;k
I b;k
I bt;k
I d;k
I dt;k
I ETS
k
kb
Lk
L0;k
m
PD
r
rs
Rb
Rd
Rr
T
T0
Ts
Tk
geometry factor
factor of sky diuse terrestrial solar radiation
factor of diuse terrestrial solar radiation reected by the foreground
temperature (K)
temperature of the environment (K)
solar radiative temperature (K)
spectral radiation temperature (K)
Greek Symbols
d
the half angle of the cone subtended by the suns
disc (deg)
solar azimuth angle (deg)
us
surface azimuth angle (deg)
ut
the limiting eciency of undiluted solar radiagP
tion proposed by Petela
the maximum theoretical conversion eciency of
gPa
solar energy derived by Parrot
the maximum eciency of direct solar radiation
gS
proposed by Spanner
spectral energy quality factor of the extraterresgETS
k
trial solar radiation
spectral energy quality factor of the direct terresgTS
b;k
trial solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the direct terrestrial
gTS
b
solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the direct terrestrial
gTS
bt
solar radiation for inclined surface
spectral energy quality factor of the diuse tergTS
d;k
restrial solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the diuse terresgTS
d
trial solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the diuse terresgTS
dt
trial solar radiation for inclined surface
spectral energy quality factor of the global tergTS
g;k
restrial solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the global terresgTS
g
trial solar radiation for horizontal surface
total energy quality factor of the global terresgTS
gt
trial solar radiation for inclined surface
total energy quality factor of the extraterrestrial
gETS
solar radiation
k
wavelength (lm)
h
angle between radiation beam and normal direction of the surface (deg)
the angle of incidence on the inclined surface
hd
(deg)
solar zenith angle (deg)
hs
tilt angle for the inclined surface (deg)
ht
spectral reectance
qk
wk
spectral radiative exergy intensity (W m2 lm1
sr1)
DX
solid angle of the suns disc (sr)
1392
X
W
WETS
k
WTS
b;k
WTS
b
WTS
bt;k
WTS
bt
WTS
d;k
WTS
d
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
WTS
dt;k
WTS
dt
WTS
g;k
WTS
gt;k
WETS
Abbreviations
ETS
extraterrestrial solar
TS
terrestrial solar
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
2hc20 k5
exphc0 =k b kT 1
Tk
hc0
1
kk b ln 2hc20 k5 =I k 1
W
2. Radiative exergy
1393
wk cos hdkdX
fI k I 0;k T 0 fLk I k L0;k I 0;k T 0 gg cos hdkdX
5
Here h is the angle between radiation beam and normal
direction of the surface.
1394
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
WETS
EETS dk
k k
gETS R
I ETS
k
EETS
k
DX cos hs
gETS
k
WETS
k
EETS
k
10
11
Eb;k
DXcoshs
12
In this paper, the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiative intensity is derived by assuming the isotropic hemispheric distribution,
I d;k
Ed;k
p
13
The direct and the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux incident on the horizontal surface are
given respectively as
WTS
b;k DX cos hs fI b;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I b;k
L0;k I 0;k T 0 gg
14
WTS
d;k pfI d;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I d;k L0;k I 0;k T 0 gg
15
Table 1
Conditions considered in four dierent cases.
Conditions
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Solar zenith
angle (deg)
Air mass
Extraterrestrial
spectrum
Solar constant
(W/m2)
Surface
48.236
48.236
1.0
Gueymard (2004)
1.5
Gueymard (2004)
Gueymard (2004)
1366.1
1.5
Synthetic spectrum revised from the previous
SMARTS 2.8 spectrum, Gueymard
1367.0
1366.1
1366.1
Horizontal surface
Horizontal surface
Ground albedo
Albedo.dat, Lambertian
reectance
Version of
SMARTS
SMARTS 2.9.5
SMARTS 2.9.2
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
the diuse and the global terrestrial solar radiation for horizontal surface are dened respectively, as
gTS
b;k
WTS
b;k
;
Eb;k
gTS
d;k
WTS
d;k
;
Ed;k
gTS
g;k
TS
WTS
b;k Wd;k
Eb;k Ed;k
gTS
b
WTS
g;k
16
Eg;k
PD
0:28
WTS
d
;
Ed
gTS
g
18
The direct terrestrial solar radiative energy ux Eb and
the diuse terrestrial solar radiative energy ux Ed can be
derived by integrating Eb;k and Ed;k over wavelength range
from 0.28 to 4.0 lm as
Z 4
Z 4
Eb;k dk; Ed
Ed;k dk
19
Eb
0:28
WETS
WTS
k
g;k
WETS
k
100%
20
21
Ebt;k Rb Eb;k
22a
Es;dt;k Rd Ed;k
22b
Ert;k qk Rr Eg;k
22c
2000
1600
TS
WTS
b Wd
E b Ed
0:28
gTS
d
17
L0;k I 0;k T 0 ggdk
Z 4
p
fI d;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I d;k L0;k I 0;k T 0 ggdk
0:28
WTS
b
;
Eb
DX
cos
h
fI b;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I b;k
WTS
s
b
WTS
d
1395
(a)
s = 0o
1200
TS
g ,
800
400
ETS
0
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
(m)
1200
(b)
1000
TS
g ,
800
ETS
600
400
s = 0o
200
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
(m)
Fig. 1. Spectral radiation exergy ux of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation, (a) ultraviolet and visible region and (b) near infrared
region from 0.76 to 4.0 lm.
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
1396
2000
(a)
s = 0o
1600
1200
Eg ,
800
400
EETS
0
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
(m)
1200
(b)
1000
Eg ,
800
600
EETS
400
s = 0o
200
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
(m)
3.5
4.0
Fig. 2. Spectral irradiance of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation, (a) ultraviolet and visible region and (b) near infrared region
from 0.76 to 4.0 lm.
where
Rb Maxfcos hd = cos hs ; 0g
23a
23b
Rr 1 cos ht =2
23c
Ebt;k
DX cos hd
p
p
24
By using Eqs. (4), (24), and (25), the direct and the diffuse terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy uxes incident on the inclined surface can be expressed respectively
as
WTS
bt;k DX cos hd fI bt;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I bt;k
L0;k I 0;k T 0 gg
WTS
dt;k pfI dt;k I 0;k T 0 fLk I dt;k L0;k I 0;k T 0 gg
26
27
28
25
29
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
1397
100
(a)
% Difference between spectral radiation exergy flux
of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation
PD (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0.30
0.35
120
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
(m)
0.60
0.65
0.70
100
0.75
(b)
PD (%)
80
60
40
20
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
(m)
Fig. 3. Percent dierence between spectral radiation exergy ux of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation, (a) ultraviolet and visible
region and (b) near infrared region from 0.76 to 4.0 lm.
0:28
WTS
bt
;
Ebt
gTS
dt
WTS
dt
;
Edt
gTS
gt
TS
WTS
bt Wdt
Ebt Edt
31
http://www.paper.edu.cn
1398
0.95
0.90
0.85
gTS,
0.80
ETS
0.75
(a)
0.70
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
(m)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
gTS,
0.3
0.2
ETS
0.1
(b)
0.0
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
(m)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
gTS,
0.4
0.3
ETS
0.2
0.1
0.0
(c)
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
(m)
Fig. 4. Spectral energy quality factor of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation, (a) 0.280.759 lm; (b) 0.762.56 lm; (c) 2.814.0 lm.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
bTS,
0.5
0.4
dTS,
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
(m)
3.0
3.5
4.0
Fig. 5. Spectral energy quality factor of the direct and the diuse
terrestrial solar radiation.
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
1399
1600
Reference radiation exergy spectra of TS
under atmospheric conditions consistent with ASTM standard G173-03
1400
1200
TS
gt ,
1000
800
TS
bt ,
600
400
200
0
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
(m)
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
Fig. 6. Comparison of the direct and the global reference radiation exergy spectra under atmospheric conditions consistent with ASTM standard G173-03.
Within the spectrum region from 0.28 to 4.0 lm, the total
energy quality factor of extraterrestrial solar radiation is
0.9292 and that of the global terrestrial solar radiation is
0.9171. The total energy quality factor of the diuse terrestrial solar radiation is 0.7937 and that of the direct terrestrial solar radiation is 0.9307 for the atmosphere condition
under consideration. The entropy accompanying the diuse
terrestrial solar radiation is larger than that accompanying
the direct terrestrial solar radiation (Kabelac and Drake,
1992), explaining why the total energy quality factor of
the diuse terrestrial solar radiation is less than that of
the direct terrestrial solar radiation. And it implies that
30
20
t = 7o
t = 37o
10
t = 67o
t = 87o
t = 48.236o
0
-10
-20
-30
(a)
-40
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
(m)
30
20
10
t = 7o
t = 37o
t = 67o
t = 87o
t = 48.236o
0
-10
-20
-30
(b)
-40
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
(m)
Fig. 7. Comparison of terrestrial solar radiation exergy uxes at dierent tilt angle under atmospheric conditions dened in Case 3 and reference radiation
exergy spectra, (a) global and (b) direct.
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
for systems utilizing solar radiation, such as, the PV systems, can be more ecient with the direct than the diuse
terrestrial solar radiation.
The spectral radiation exergy uxes of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar radiation are proled
in Fig. 1. The spectral irradiances of the extraterrestrial
and the global terrestrial solar radiation are given in
Fig. 2. It can be clearly seen that the trend of spectral radiation exergy ux distribution is similar with that of the
spectral irradiance distribution for extraterrestrial and the
global terrestrial solar radiation, respectively. However,
the spectral radiation exergy ux is less than the spectral
irradiance for extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial
solar radiation, respectively.
As could be expected, the spectral radiation exergy ux
of the global terrestrial solar radiation (WTS
g;k ) is less than
that of the extraterrestrial solar radiation (WETS
k ). The trend
of the spectral radiation exergy ux (WTS
g;k ) distribution is
similar with that of the spectral radiation exergy ux
(WETS
k ) in the near ultraviolet and visible light region. The
distribution of spectral radiation exergy ux (WETS
k ) is quite
smooth in the near infrared region; however, the uctuation of the spectral radiation exergy ux (WTS
g;k ) is large in
the near infrared region because of the presence of strong
absorption bands. The spectral radiation exergy ux
(WTS
g;k ) is quite small in the far ultraviolet region. The specTS
tral radiation exergy ux (WETS
k ) and (Wg;k ) in visible light
are larger than those in infrared region. The maximum
value of the spectral radiation exergy ux (WETS
k ) and
2
1
)
are
2082.73
W
m
lm
and
1828.40
Wm2
(WTS
g;k
1
lm , respectively, and the wavelength corresponding to
these maximum values are all 0.451 lm.
The dierence between the spectral radiation exergy
uxes of the extraterrestrial and the global terrestrial solar
radiation is shown in Fig. 3. The reason for this dierence
is that the solar radiation is attenuated by atmosphere on
its path. It can be clearly seen from Fig. 3 that the dierences in the ultraviolet region below about 0.32 lm and
in the near infrared region (particularly in the 1.353
1.401 lm, 1.8301.915 lm, and 2.5252.860 lm bands),
are nearly 100%. In the near ultraviolet (above 0.33 lm)
1000
Ebt
800
600
400
Edt
200
0
10
20
30
40
50
t (deg)
60
70
80
90
0.96
1400
btTS
0.92
gtTS
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
dtTS
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
t (deg)
Fig. 9. Distribution of total energy quality factor of terrestrial solar
radiation for inclined surface.
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
and so on. Within these wavelength range, the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiative intensity is far less than
the spectral radiative intensity emitted by environment at
T 0 , thus is negligible. In this case, it is better to dene the
eciency relative to the energy lost by the environment.
The focus of present paper is mainly on the exergy of terrestrial solar radiation. Therefore, when the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiative intensity is less than the
spectral radiative intensity emitted by environment at T 0 ,
the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux
(WTS
d;k ) is considered to be zero. Similar to the diuse terrestrial solar spectral radiative intensity, the direct terrestrial
solar spectral radiative intensity within the spectrum region
from 2.565 to 2.805 lm is also far less than the spectral
radiative intensity emitted by environment at T 0 , thus is
negligible. As a whole, the spectral radiation exergy ux
(WTS
g;k ) is zero in the near infrared region from 2.565 to
2.805 lm, which can also be observed from Fig. 1. Therefore, the spectral energy quality factor (gTS
g;k ) within the
spectrum region from 2.565 to 2.805 lm is not shown in
Fig. 4.
The spectral energy quality factor of the direct and the
diuse terrestrial solar radiation are proled in Fig. 5. It
can be seen clearly that the spectral energy quality factor
of direct terrestrial solar radiation (gTS
b;k ) is larger than 0.9
in the near ultraviolet, the visible light region and infrared
region (0.761.116 lm, 1.1481.343 lm, 1.4881.79 lm and
2.0252.38 lm). However, the diuse terrestrial solar spectral energy quality factor (gTS
d;k ) within the whole spectrum
region is less than 0.9, and the maximum value of which
is only 0.8656 at 0.326 lm. Because the spectral irradiance
(Ed;k ) and its fraction in the spectral irradiance (Eg;k ) are
relatively large at short wavelength, the spectral energy
quality factor (gTS
d;k ) is relatively large in the near ultraviolet.
From the analysis above, for practical application, the
global terrestrial solar radiation in the near ultraviolet,
the visible light region and the infrared region (1.151
1.343 lm, 1.4891.78 lm and 2.0252.375 lm) should be
taken into account. The direct part in the near ultraviolet,
the visible light region and the infrared region (0.761.116
lm, 1.1481.343 lm, 1.4881.79 lm and 2.0252.38 lm)
0.96
bTS
0.92
gTS
0.88
0.84
0.80
dTS
0.76
1
m
Fig. 10. Eect of air mass on total energy quality factor of terrestrial solar
radiation for horizontal surface.
1401
can be best utilized, while the diuse part can only be best
utilized in the near ultraviolet.
5.2. Terrestrial solar reference radiation exergy spectra and
comparisons
The reference spectra (ASTM standard G173-03) are
reproduced here under the exact same atmospheric conditions it species by adopting version 2.9.2 of the SMARTS
code. This is what was labeled Case 2 above. The reference radiation exergy spectra are obtained from the reference spectra mentioned above. Fig. 6 proles the
reference radiation exergy spectra within the wavelength
range from 0.3 to 1.9 lm. For the sun-facing surface tilted
at 37 and atmospheric conditions under consideration, the
reference radiation exergy spectra of the direct TS is now
substantially closer to that of the global TS. However,
the wavelength corresponding to the maximum value of
the direct terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux
(WTS
bt;k ) is 0.531 lm, and that corresponding to the maximum value of the global terrestrial solar spectral radiation
exergy (WTS
gt;k ) is 0.495 lm. That is to say the direct radiation
exergy spectrum is slightly red-shifted compared to the global radiation exergy spectrum. The reason for this phenomenon is that the scattering eect induced by molecules and
aerosols is the maximum at shorter wavelengths, which is
involved in the global terrestrial solar radiation. Therefore,
similar to the reference spectra ASTM standard G173-03,
these two reference radiation exergy spectra are not interchangeable, particularly in the case of highly spectrally
selective devices.
The terrestrial solar spectral radiation exergy ux at different tilt angle is calculated under atmospheric conditions
dened in Case 3. Similar to the percent dierence dened
in Eq. (21), the percent dierence between terrestrial solar
spectral radiation exergy uxes at dierent tilt angle and
reference radiation exergy spectra obtained above is proled in Fig. 7. With the increase of tilt angle, this percent
dierence rst decreases and then increases. And it could
be clearly seen that the eect of tilt angle on spectral radiation exergy ux (WTS
bt;k ) is larger than that of tilt angle on
spectral radiation exergy ux (WTS
gt;k ) at the smaller tilt angle
and the larger tilt angle.
For the inclined surface with tilt angle of 37, the specTS
tral radiation exergy ux (WTS
bt;k ) and (Wgt;k ) under atmospheric conditions dened in Case 3 are dierent from
those obtained under atmospheric conditions consistent
with ASTM standard G173-03. The reasons for this dierence are the discrepancy of the extraterrestrial solar spectrum and the version of the SMARTS code. The spectral
TS
radiation exergy ux (WTS
bt;k ) and (Wgt;k ) under atmospheric
conditions dened in Case 3 at tilt angle 48.236 and 67
are close to those obtained under atmospheric conditions
consistent with ASTM standard G173-03, respectively.
However, the utilization of solar energy cannot be well
evaluated only from comparison between terrestrial solar
spectral radiation exergy uxes and reference radiation
1402
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404
1403
References
ASTM, 2003. Standard Tables for Reference Solar Spectral Irradiances:
Direct Normal and Hemispherical on 37 Tilted Surface. Standard
G17303, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, Available from: <http://www.astm.org/Standards/
G173.htm>.
Badescu, V., Landsberg, P.T., 1995. Statistical thermodynamic foundation
for photovoltaic and photothermal conversion. II. Application to
photovoltaic conversion. Journal of Applied Physics 78 (4), 27932802.
Baruch, P., De Vos, A., Landsberg, P.T., Parrott, J.E., 1995. On some
thermodynamic aspects of photovoltaic solar energy conversion. Solar
Energy Materials and Solar Cells 36 (2), 201222.
Berk, A. et al., 1999. MODTRAN4 Users Manual. Air Force Research
Lab, Hanscomb, MA.
Braun, J.M., 2002. Astrophysical Data; Available from: <http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/ jbraun/w3_apd.html>.
Candau, Y., 2003. On the exergy of radiation. Solar Energy 75 (3), 241
247.
Coutts, T.J., 1999. A review of progress in thermophotovoltaic generation
of electricity. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3 (23), 77
184.
Darula, S., Kittler, R., Gueymard, C.A., 2005. Reference luminous solar
constant and solar luminance for illuminance calculations. Solar
Energy 79 (5), 559565.
De Vos, A., 1992. Endoreversible Thermodynamics of Solar Energy
Conversion. Oxford University Press.
Gueymard, C., 1987. An anisotropic solar irradiance model for tilted
surfaces and its comparison with selected engineering algorithms. Solar
Energy 38 (5), 367386.
Gueymard, C., 1995. SMARTS2, Simple Model of the Atmospheric
Radiative Transfer of Sunshine: Algorithms and Performance Assessment. Report FSEC-PF-27095. Florida Solar Energy Center, Cocoa,
FL.
Gueymard, C.A., 2001. Parameterized transmittance model for direct
beam and circumsolar spectral irradiance. Solar Energy 71 (5), 325
346.
Gueymard, C.A., Myers, D., Emery, K., 2002. Proposed reference
irradiance spectra for solar energy systems testing. Solar energy 73
(6), 443467.
Gueymard, C.A., 2003. Direct solar transmittance and irradiance predictions with broadband models. Part I: detailed theoretical performance
assessment. Solar Energy 74 (5), 355379.
Gueymard, C.A., 2004. The suns total and spectral irradiance for solar
energy applications and solar radiation models. Solar energy 76 (4),
423453.
Gueymard, C.A., 2005. Interdisciplinary applications of a versatile
spectral solar irradiance model: a review. Energy 30 (9), 15511576.
Gueymard, C.A., 2006. Users Manual of SMARTS Code, version 2.9.5,
Revised August.
Gueymard, C.A., 2008. Prediction and validation of cloudless shortwave
solar spectra incident on horizontal, tilted, or tracking surfaces. Solar
Energy 82 (3), 260271.
Jeter, S.M., 1981. Maximum conversion eciency for the utilization of
direct solar radiation. Solar Energy 26 (3), 231236.
Kabelac, S., 1991. A new look at the maximum conversion eciency of
blackbody radiation. Solar Energy 46 (4), 231236.
Kabelac, S., Drake, F.D., 1992. The entropy of terrestrial solar radiation.
Solar Energy 48 (2), 239248.
Labuhn, D., Kabelac, S., 2001. The spectral directional emissivity of
photovoltaic surfaces. International Journal of Thermophysics 22 (5),
15771592.
Landsberg, P.T., Tonge, G., 1979. Thermodynamics of the conversion of
diluted radiation. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General 12
(4), 551562.
Liu, L.H., Chu, S.X., 2007. Radiative exergy transfer equation. Journal of
Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 21 (4), 819822.
1404
http://www.paper.edu.cn
S.X. Chu, L.H. Liu / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 13901404