Modulation

Basic to the field of communications is the concept of modulation. Modulation

is the process of putting information onto a high-frequency carrier for
transmission. In essence, then, the transmission takes place at the high
frequency (the carrier) which has -been modified to "carry" the lower-frequency
information. The low-frequency information is often 'called the intelligence
signal or, simply, the intelligence. It follows that once this information is received,
the intelligence must be removed from the high-frequency carrier-a process
known as demodulation. At this point you may be thinking, why bother to go
through this modulation process? Why not just transmit the information directly?
The problem is that the frequency of the human voice ranges from about 20 to
3000Hz. If everyone transmitted those frequencies directly as radio waves,
interference would cause them all to be ineffective.

Modulation is process of putting information onto a high frequency carrier for

transmission

Intelligence Signal is the low frequency information that modulates the

carrier

Intelligence is low-frequency information modulated onto a high frequency

carrier in a transmitter

Demodulation is process of removing intelligence from the high frequency

carrier in a receiver

The solution is modulation, which allows propagation of the low-frequency

intelligence with a high-frequency carrier. The high-frequency carriers are
chosen such that only one transmitter in an area operates at the same
frequency to minimize interference,. and that frequency is high enough so that
efficient antenna sizes are manageable.

Communication Systems
Communications systems are often categorized by the frequency of the carrier.
Table l-1 provides the names for various frequency ranges in the radio spectrum.
The extra-high-frequency range begins at the starting point of infrared
frequencies, but the infrareds extend considerably beyond 300 GHz (300 X 109
Hz). After the infrareds in the electromagnetic spectrum (of which the radio
waves are a very small portion) come light waves, ultraviolet rays, X rays,
gamma rays, and cosmic rays.

Figure 1: A communication system block diagram

Table 1-1.Radio-Frequency Spectrum

FREQUENCY

DESCRIPTION

30 GHZ - 300 GHZ

extremely high frequency

3 GHZ - 30 GHZ

Super high frequency

300 MHZ - 3 GHZ

ultrahigh frequency

30 MHZ - 300 MHZ

very high frequency

3 MHZ - 30 MHZ

high frequency

radio astronomy, highfrequency microwave

radio relay, microwave
remote sensing, amateur
radio, directed-energy
weapon, millimeter wave
scanner
Radio astronomy,
microwave
devices/communications,
wireless LAN, most modern
radars, communications
satellites, satellite television
broadcasting, DBS,
amateur radio
Television broadcasts,
microwave ovens,
microwave
devices/communications,
radio astronomy, mobile
phones, wireless LAN,
Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS
and two-way radios such
as Land Mobile, FRS and
GMRS radios, amateur
radio
FM, television broadcasts
and line-of-sight groundto-aircraft and aircraft-toaircraft communications.
Land Mobile and Maritime
Mobile communications,
amateur radio, weather
radio
Shortwave broadcasts,
citizens' band radio,
amateur radio and overthe-horizon aviation
communications, RFID,
Over-the-horizon radar,
Automatic link
establishment (ALE) / Near
Vertical Incidence

300 KHZ - 3 MHZ

medium frequency

30 KHZ - 300 KHZ

low frequency

3 KHZ - 30 KHZ

very low frequency

300 HZ - 3 KHZ

voice frequency

Up to 300 HZ

extremely low frequency

Skywave (NVIS) radio

communications, Marine
and mobile radio
telephony
AM (medium-wave)
broadcasts, amateur
radio, avalanche beacons
Navigation, time signals,
AM longwave
broadcasting (Europe and
parts of Asia), RFID,
amateur radio
Navigation, time signals,
submarine
communication, wireless
heart rate monitors,
geophysics
Submarine
communication,
Communication within
mines
Communication with
submarines

Table 1-1 represents a simple communication system in block diagram form.

Notice that the modulated stage accepts two inputs, the carrier and the
information (intelligence) signal. It produces the modulated signal, which is
subsequently amplified before transmission. Transmission of the modulated signal
can take place by any one of four means: antennas, waveguides, optical fibers,
or transmission lines.
Many of the performance measurements in communication systems are
specified in dB (decibels). The two basic limitations on the performance of a
communications system. (1) Electrical noise and (2) the bandwidth of
frequencies allocated for the transmitted signal.
Decibels (dBs) are used to specify measured and calculated values in noise
analysis, audio systems, and microwave system gain calculations, satellite

system link-budget analysis, antenna power gain, light-budget calculations, and

many other communications system measurements.
The dB value is calculated by taking the log of the ratio of the measured or
calculated power (P2) with respect to a reference power (P1) level. This result is
then multiplied by 10 to obtain the value in dB.

Decibel formula for power comparisons

The most basic form for decibel calculations is a comparison of power levels.
The decibel formula or equation for power is given below:

Where:

Ndb is the ratio of the two power expressed in decibels

P2 is the output power level
P1 is the input power level

If the value of P2 is greater than P1, then the result is given as a gain, and
expressed as a positive value, e.g. +10dB. Where there is a loss, the decibel
equation will return a negative value, e.g. -15dB.

Decibel equations for voltage and current

Although the decibel is used primarily as comparison of power levels, decibel
current equations or decibel voltage equations may also be used provided that
the impedance levels are the same. In this way the voltage or current ratio can
be related to the power level ratio.
In the first instance for voltage because power = voltage squared upon the
resistance:

Where:

Ndb is the ratio of the two power expressed in decibels

V2 is the output voltage level
V1 is the input voltage level

Similarly because power = current squared upon the resistance, the decibel
current equation becomes:

Where:

Ndb is the ratio of the two power expressed in decibels

I2 is the output current level
I1 is the input current level

NOISE
Electrical noise may be defined as any undesired voltages or currents that
ultimately end up appearing in the receiver output. To the listener this electrical
noise often manifests itself as static. .Noise signals at their point of origin are

generally very small, for example, at the microvolt level. You may be wondering,
therefore, why they create so much trouble. Well, a communications receiver is
a very sensitive instrument that is given a very small signal at its input that must
be greatly amplified before it can possibly drive a speaker.
The noise present in a received radio signal that has been introduced in the
transmitting medium is termed external noise. The noise introduced by the
receiver is termed internal noise. The important implications of noise
considerations

in

the

study

of

communications

systems

cannot

be

overemphasized.
External Noise
Human--Made Noise. The most troublesome form of external noise is usually the
human-made variety. It is often produced by spark-producing mechanisms such
as engine ignition systems, fluorescent lights, and commutators in electric
motors. This noise is actually "radiated" or transmitted from its generating sources
through the atmosphere in the same fashion that a transmitting antenna
radiates desirable electrical signals to a receiving antenna.
Atmospheric Noise Atmospheric noise is caused by naturally occurring
disturbances in the earth's atmosphere, with lightning discharges being the most
prominent contributors. The frequency content is spread over the entire radio
spectrum, but its intensity is inversely related to frequency. It is therefore most
troublesome at the lower frequencies. It manifests itself in the static noise that
you hear on standard AM radio receivers. Its amplitude is greatest from a storm
near the receiver, but the additive effect of distant disturbances is also a factor.

Space Noise The other form of external noise arrives from outer space and is
called space noise. It is pretty evenly divided in origin between the sun and all

the other stars. That originating from our star (the sun) is termed solar noise. Solar
noise is cyclical and reaches very annoying peaks about every eleven years.
Internal Noise

Thermal Noise: Noise caused by thermal interaction between free

electrons and vibrating ions in a conductor.

Shot Noise: Noise introduced by carriers in the pn junctions of

semiconductors

Excess Noise: Noise occurring at frequencies below 1khz, varying in

amplitude inversely proportional to the frequence

Transit-Time Noise: Noise produced in semiconductors when the transit

time of the carriers crossing a junction is close to the signals period.

Signal-To-Noise Ratio

Signal-To-Noise Ratio: Relative measure of desired signal power to noise

power

Noise Figure (NF): A figure describing how noisy a device is in decibels

Noise ratio (NR): A figure describing how noisy a device is as a ratio

having no units

The most fundamental relationship used is known as the signal-to-noise ratio

(S/N ratio), which is a relative measure of the desired signal power to the
noise power. The SIN ratio is often designated simply as S/N and can be
expressed mathematically as

at any particular point in an amplifier. It is often expressed in decibel form as

Example:
A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 10 at its input and 5 at its
output.
(a) Calculate the NR.
(b) Calculate the NF
(c) Using the results of part (a), verify that S/N
mathematically as

Equation

can be rewritten

Their difference (10 dB - 7 dB) is equal to the result of 3 dB determined in part (b)
Information and Bandwidth
By now you should have a good grasp on the noise limitation. Quite simply, if the
noise level becomes too high, the information is lost. The other limitation is the
bandwidth utilized by the communications system. Stated simply once again,
the greater the bandwidth, the greater the information that can be transferred
from source to destination. The study of information in communications systems is
a science in itself (given the title information theory) that uses a highly
theoretical method of analysis. Information theory is the study of information to
provide for the most efficient use of a band of frequencies (a channel) for
electrical communications.

Information Theory is concerned with optimization of

transmitted

information.

Channel is a band of frequencies

You might ask: Why is efficient channel utilization so important? The band of
usable frequencies is limited, and we are living in a world increasingly
dependent on electrical communications.
Regulatory agencies (TCRA] in Tanzania) allocate the channel that may be
used for a given application in a given area. This is done to minimize
interference possibilities that will exist with two different signals working at the
same frequency. The information explosion of recent years has taxed the total
available frequency spectrum to the point where getting the most information
from the smallest range of frequencies is in fact quite important.
A formal relationship between bandwidth and information was developed by R.
Hartley of Bell Laboratories in 1928 and is called Hartley's law. It states that the
information that can be transmitted is proportional to the product of the

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bandwidth utilized times the time of transmission. In simpler terms it means the
greater the bandwidth, the more information that can be transmitted.
Exercises
1. Define modulation.
2. What is carrier frequency?
3. Describe the two reasons that modulation is used for communications
transmissions.
4. List the three parameters of a high-frequency carrier that may be varied
by a low-frequency intelligence signal.
5. What are the frequency ranges included in the following frequency
subdivisions: MF (medium frequency), HF (high frequency), VHF (very high
frequency), UHF (ultra high frequency), and SHF (super high frequency)?
6. Define electrical noise, and explain why it is so troublesome to a
communications receiver.
7. Explain the difference between external and internal noise.
8. List and briefly explain the various types of external noise.
9. Calculate the S/N ratio for a receiver output of 4 V signal and 0.48 V noise
both as a ratio and in decibel form.
10. Define information theory.
11. What is Hartley's law? Explain its significance.

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