Transmission Wireless

Mobile Communications
Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

Frequencies
Signals
Antenna
Signal propagation
Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert
Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
Cellular systems
MC-I SS07
2.1
Frequencies for communication

twisted
pair
coax cable
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
VLF
LF
optical transmission
100 m
3 MHz
MF
HF
1m
300 MHz
VHF
UHF
10 mm
30 GHz
SHF
VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency
100 m
3 THz
EHF
infrared
1 m
300 THz
visible light UV
UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light
Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f
MC-I SS07
2.2
Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite

communication
small antenna, beam forming
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall

etc.
MC-I SS07
2.3
Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands
worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Cellular
Phones
Cordless
Phones
Wireless
LANs
Others
Europe
USA
Japan
GSM 450-457, 479486/460-467,489496, 890-915/935960,

1710-1785/18051880
UMTS (FDD) 19201980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 19001920, 2020-2025
CT1+ 885-887, 930932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 54705725
RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433,
868
AMPS, TDMA, CDMA

824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990
PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513
PACS 1850-1910, 19301990

PACS-UB 1910-1930
PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380
902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825
IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250
RF-Control
315, 915
RF-Control
426, 868
MC-I SS07
2.4
Signals I
physical representation of data
function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification

continuous time/discrete time

continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:

period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)
MC-I SS07
2.5
Fourier representation of periodic signals

1
g (t ) = c + an sin(2nft ) + bn cos(2nft )
2
n =1
n =1
0
t
ideal periodic signal
real composition
(based on harmonics)
MC-I SS07
2.6
Signals II
Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)

frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)
Q = M sin
A [V]
A [V]
t[s]

I= M cos
f [Hz]
Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
Digital signals need

infinite frequencies for perfect transmission

modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
MC-I SS07
2.7
Antennas: isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of
wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
z
y
x
MC-I SS07
ideal
isotropic
radiator
2.8
Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4
/2
Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y
x
side view (xy-plane)
z
side view (yz-plane)
simple
dipole
top view (xz-plane)
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
MC-I SS07
2.9
Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
y
side view (xy-plane)
side view (yz-plane)
top view (xz-plane)

z
top view, 3 sector
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
top view, 6 sector
MC-I SS07
2.10
Antennas: diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas

multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity

receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/2
/4
/2
/4
/2
/2
ground plane
MC-I SS07
2.11
Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range

communication possible
low error rate
Detection range

detection of the signal

possible
no communication
possible
sender
Interference range

transmission
signal may not be

detected
signal adds to the
background noise
distance
detection
interference
MC-I SS07
2.12
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d_ in vacuum much more in real environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
shadowing
reflection
refraction
MC-I SS07
scattering
diffraction
2.13
Real world example
MC-I SS07
2.14
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
pulses become wider, Delay Spread
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
MC-I SS07
2.15
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location

signal paths change

different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
Additional changes in

power
distance to sender
obstacles further away
long term
fading
slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)

short term fading
MC-I SS07
2.16
Multiplexing
channels ki
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions

space (si)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
c
Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium
s1
t
s3
MC-I SS07
Important: guard spaces needed!
s2
2.17
Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
works also for analog signals
k6
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
t
MC-I SS07
2.18
Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
MC-I SS07
2.19
Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:

better protection against

tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
higher data rates compared to
code multiplex
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
but: precise coordination

required
t
MC-I SS07
2.20
Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:

k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping
Disadvantages:

lower user data rates

more complex signal regeneration
Implemented using spread spectrum

technology
MC-I SS07
2.21
Modulation
Digital modulation

digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)

ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing

medium characteristics
Basic schemes

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
MC-I SS07
2.22
Modulation and demodulation
digital
data
101101001
digital
modulation
analog
baseband
signal
analog
modulation
radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
demodulation
analog
baseband
signal
synchronization
decision
digital
data
101101001
radio receiver
radio
carrier
MC-I SS07
2.23
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
1
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

needs larger bandwidth

t
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

more complex
robust against interference
MC-I SS07
2.24
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between

the carrier frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
Equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass
filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
MC-I SS07
2.25
Example of MSK
1
0
bit
data
even
0101
even bits
odd
0011
odd bits
signal
value
hnnh
- - ++
low
frequency
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!
MC-I SS07
2.26
Advanced Phase Shift Keying

Q
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

bit value 0: sine wave

bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
10
11
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

2 bits coded as one symbol

symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to
BPSK
more complex
Often also transmission of relative, not

absolute phase shift: DQPSK Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
MC-I SS07
00
01
t
11
10
00
01
2.27
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and
phase modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes
Q
0010
0011
0001
0000
_
a
I
1000
Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)

Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase _,
but different amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have
different phase, but same amplitude.
used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
MC-I SS07
2.28
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM

good reception: resolve the entire

64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
10
I
00
000010
MC-I SS07
010101
2.29
Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out
narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code
protection against narrow band interference
power
interference
spread
signal
power
signal
detection at
receiver
protection againstf narrowband interference
spread
interference
f
Side effects:

coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination

tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

MC-I SS07
2.30
Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df
dP/df
i)
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
ii)
f
sender
dP/df
dP/df
dP/df
iii)
iv)
f
v)
f
receiver
MC-I SS07
2.31
Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality
narrowband channels
4
frequency
narrow band
signal
guard space
channel
quality
spread
spectrum
spread spectrum channels
frequency
MC-I SS07
2.32
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages

reduces frequency selective

fading
in cellular networks
base stations can use the
same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover
tb
user data
0
1
tc
chipping
sequence
01101010110101
Disadvantages
precise power control necessary
XOR
=
resulting
signal
01101011001010
tb: bit period

tc: chip period
MC-I SS07
2.33
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum
signal
user data
X
chipping
sequence
modulator
transmit
signal
radio
carrier
transmitter
correlator
received
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier
lowpass
filtered
signal
sampled
sums
products
X
integrator
data
decision
chipping
sequence
receiver
MC-I SS07
2.34
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency
sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number

sequence
Two versions

Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages

frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period

simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages

not as robust as DSSS

simpler to detect
MC-I SS07
2.35
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb
user data
0
td
f3
slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f2
f1
f
td
f3
fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f2
f1
t
tb: bit period

td: dwell time

MC-I SS07
2.36
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband
signal
user data
modulator
modulator
frequency
synthesizer
transmitter
received
signal
hopping
sequence
spread
transmit
signal
narrowband
signal
demodulator
hopping
sequence
data
demodulator
frequency
synthesizer
MC-I SS07
receiver
2.37
Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain
transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:

higher capacity, higher number of users

less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
Problems:

fixed network needed for the base stations

handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells
Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side
(GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
MC-I SS07
2.38
Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base
stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f4
f3
f5
f1
f2
f3
f6
f7
f2
f4
f5
f1
Fixed frequency assignment:

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell

problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment:

base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies

already used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements
MC-I SS07
2.39
Frequency planning II
f3
f1
f2
f3
f2
f3
f1
f3
f1
f2
f3
f2
f3
f1
f3
f1
f2
3 cell cluster
f3
f2
f4
f3
f6
f5
f1
f2
f3
f6
f7
f5
f2
f4
f3
f7
f5
f1
f2
7 cell cluster
f2
f2
f2
f1 f
f1 f
f1 f
h
h
3
3
3
h 2
h 2
g2 1 h3 g2 1 h3
g2
g1
g1
g1
g3
g3
g3
3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas
MC-I SS07
2.40
Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load
Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells
MC-I SS07
2.41
Andreas Willig
Overview
The Cellular Concept

System Capacity
Channel Allocation
Handover
Paging / Location Update
Cellular System Fundamentals, slide 2
Andreas Willig
The cellular concept
cellular systems evolved from the first systems supporting wireless and
mobile telephony
initially their design was focused towards telephony services, data services
were added later on
Andreas Willig
Some important milestones
1946: the very first analog systems for public mobile telephony are
introduced in some cities of the US
1983: the analog AMPS system for wireless telephony is introduced
1987-1991: development phase of GSM [9], a digital cellular network
2001: GPRS becomes publicly available (packet-switching over GSM)
1993: IS-95 [5] is the first commercial cellular CDMA system
Andreas Willig
Some important milestones II
1989-today: development, deployment and operation of UMTS:

UMTS = Universal Mobile Telecommunications System [8]
third-generation digital cellular CDMA system supporting data and
voice services
since 1999 the UMTS specification is controlled by the 3GPP (3rd
Generation Partnership Project) all UMTS specifications are publicly
available under
www.3gpp.org
Andreas Willig
Design Assumptions and Requirements
the available amount of spectrum is limited

a large number of users in a large geographical area must be supported,
otherwise the system is not accepted
business people term this networking effect: it becomes more and more attractive for an individual to
subscribe to cellular services the more people he/she can reach this way
Andreas Willig
Design Assumptions and Requirements II
the area is subdivided into cells:

each cell has at its center a base station (BS)
each cell contains a number of mobile stations (MS)
all communication from/to an MS is relayed through a BS, there is no
peer-to-peer communication
the BSs are interconnected and connected to fixed networks / other
cellular networks through a backbone or core network and gateways
two important notions indicate the direction of communication in a cell:
downlink: from the BS to a MS
uplink: from the MS to a BS

2 BS 1

Backbone
Andreas Willig
Design Assumptions and Requirements III
2
1
BS 2
Interworking Function /
Gateway
Other
Networks
Andreas Willig
Cell Sizes and Frequency Reuse
in systems like GSM a number of channels or frequency bands is allocated

to each BS
the cell size is determined from the transmit power of the BS and the
receive threshold of the MS:
as long as an MS can decode the signal of the BS, it is inside the cell
but even outside the cell the BS signal may cause interference
the stronger the BSs tx power the larger the cell / interference area
the reuse distance of a frequency f used by a BS A is the geographical
distance where As signal only causes negligible interference, and f
may be re-used by another BS B
Andreas Willig
Cell Sizes and Frequency Reuse II

choosing a small transmit power in BSs thus:
=
reduces cell sizes and reuse distances
increases the number of users which may use the same

frequency in a given area (at places separated by at least
reuse distance), and thus increases the system capacity
the larger the system capacity the more revenue is possible
increases the number of base stations and thus the

system costs
Andreas Willig
Cell Sizes and Frequency Reuse III
typically network operators choose different cell sizes:

large cells (macrocells) in sparsely populated rural areas
small cells (microcells or picocells) in densely populated urban areas
large cells overlaying small cells (umbrella cells) to support highly
mobile users
network operators have to do proper cell planning [3] to:
achieve full coverage of a given area

accommodate the expected number of users / user densities
minimize the number of base stations needed
cell planning results in locations of base stations and their cell size
Andreas Willig
Mobility and Handover
mobile users reach the boundary of a cell and move into the next cell
from time to time
ongoing calls should be maintained when crossing cell boundaries, the
call should be handed over from the old cell to the new cell
a handover procedure involves exchange of signalling messages between:
MS
old BS and new BS
some further network elements in the backbone, e.g. the gateway to
the fixed network
Andreas Willig
Mobility and Handover II
Gateway to PSTN
Andreas Willig
Mobility and Handover III
the smaller the cell sizes the more handover events!
increased signalling traffic
since handovers take some minimum time, a too high

handover rate can lead to loss of connection
there is a tradeoff between cell sizes and supported

mobile speeds
Andreas Willig
Overview

System Capacity
Channel Allocation
Handover
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
System Capacity
in certain cellular systems the allocated spectrum is subdivided into a

number N of equal-sized frequency channels or channels
these have to be allocated to the BS such that:
co-channel interference is minimized
adjacent channel interference is minimized
reuse distance is properly considered
a channel (or portions of it) is assigned to a MS for the duration of a call

a connected set of M base stations / cells in which each of the N
frequencies is assigned exactly once, is called a cluster
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Visualization and Modeling of Cells
case a) omnidirectional antenna
case b) sectorized antenna
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Visualization and Modeling of Cells A Clustering

Example
G
F
B
A
E
G
F
C
D
B
A
G
F
C
D
B
A
C
D
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Visualization and Modeling of Cells II
in reality:
cells have no regular shape
two cells typically overlap by 10% to 15% to enable handover
a MS in the overlap region of two cells belongs to either cell with
some probability (soft cell boundaries)
for the hexangular cell layout only certain cluster sizes M are feasible
(i.e. can create a plane tiling) these satisfy the relation:
M = i2 + i j + j 2
i, j N0
solutions are M = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, . . .

Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity
let us make the following assumptions:

we adopt the hexagonal cell model
the overall number of available channels is N
each cluster consists of M cells, to each cell of a cluster k frequencies
are assigned (k M = N )
each cell has radius R
be D the distance between two BS using the same frequency (reuse
distance)
we consider only downlink direction, co-channel interference at a MS
has its source in transmissions of other BS than the current one
the path loss exponent is n, valid for the whole system area
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity II
the ratio
D
R
gives the normalized reuse distance, Q is also denoted as co-channel
reuse ratio
Q=
for the hexagonal cell layout one can show that:
Q= 3M
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity III
if Q is large, we have:
less interference
= smaller bit-/symbol error rates
= better speech quality
less channels per cell
= decreased capacity
conversely, a small Q leads to higher interference and higher capacity
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity IV
let us fix one interior cell and look at its signal-to-interference ratio (SIR)
as experienced by a MS at the fringe of the cell:
where:
S
Pr (R)
P
=
I
iI Pr (Di)
I is the set of all interferers, i.e. the set of all BS using the same
frequency
Di is the distance between the MS and the i-th interferer
for maintaining a good speech quality a SIR of 18 dB should be used
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity V
if we take into account that:

Pr (d) Pr (d0)
d
d0
n
and assume d0 = 1 (in appropriate units), we have:

S
Rn
=P
n
I
D
i
iI
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Estimation of System Capacity VI
if we take only the closest I0 interferers into consideration and assume

that they all have the same distance D we have
n
S
R
=
I
I0 D n
=
n
D
1
=
=
R
I0
3M
I0
n
for larger n (e.g. in urban areas) and for fixing a minimal

SIR (e.g. of 18 dB) we can decrease M (increase number
k of frequencies per cell) and thus make smaller clusters,
thus increasing capacity
Andreas Willig
System Capacity
Overview

System Capacity
Channel Allocation
Handover
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Channel Allocation
in practice the allocation of channels to cells depends on:

the expected traffic load per cell / per area unit
example: urban vs. rural areas
certain performance measures
=
often different cells have different numbers of channels

assigned, to accommodate differences in traffic load
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Call Blocking and Call Dropping
each cell i in a cellular system has a finite number ki of channels

if a MS requests a new call in a full cell, the call is blocked
if a MS moves from a neighbored cell into a full cell, the call is dropped
there are two important performance measures for a cellular system:
call blocking probability
call dropping probability
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Call Blocking and Call Dropping II
the call blocking probability :

should be low (typical target: < 1%), blocked customers are unhappy
can be computed under specific assumptions (Poisson arrivals,
exponential call holding times) from simple queueing theory results
(Erlang loss formulas)
the call dropping probability :
should be even lower, call dropping makes customers even more angry
=
proper channel allocation strategies are needed to fulfill

these requirements for a given traffic load
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)

channels are assigned to cells / BS on a permanent basis and the BS
assigns them to the MS for the duration of a call
=
FCA is susceptible to call blocking / call dropping
the following constraints have to be considered in the assignment:

number of available frequencies
avoiding adjacent-channel interference:
do not assign neighbored frequencies to a single cell
do not assign neighbored frequencies to neighbored cells
avoid co-channel interference: keep a minimum distance between two
cells using the same frequency
accommodate expected traffic load
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) II

a number of heuristic techniques have been developed to solve FCA
problems [6]
an assignment is only valid as long as the traffic load distribution does
not change (much) otherwise the call dropping/blocking rate increases
and the allocation must be re-computed
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
FCA with Borrowing
if a new call or handover call arrives to a crowded cell, the BS might ask
its neighbor BS to borrow a channel for the call duration:
if successful, the channel is temporarily used by the accepting BS
it is not used by the donating BS for the duration of the call
after the call finishes the accepting BS returns the channel
still the interference constraints have to be obeyed
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Dynamic Channel Allocation

several cells are grouped into a cluster
a cluster possesses a clusterhead (CH)
channel allocation is done dynamically by the CH:
if a new or handover call arrives to a BS, the BS requests a channel

from the CH and issues this to the MS
after the call finished, the channel is returned to the CH
this approach allows to explore statistical multiplexing gains!!

a CH can coordinate with neighbored CHs to minimize co-channel
interference
Andreas Willig
Channel Allocation
Overview

System Capacity
Channel Allocation
Handover
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover
a handover becomes necessary if a MS with an ongoing call:

is about to leave its current cell, and
is about to enter a neighbored cell
possible causes for handovers:
mobility of the MS
signal degradation to current BS due to moving obstacles
types of handovers (w.r.t. data, not to signalling connections!):
hard handover : MS has a data connection to at most one BS
soft handover : MS can communicate with several BS simultaneously
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover II
Gateway to PSTN
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover III
necessary actions in a hard handover:
the new BS must allocate a channel and assign it to the MS

the old BS must deallocate the channel
if the call is going through a PSTN gateway the connection between
the gateway and the old BS must be re-routed to the new BS
important requirements:
no noticeable degradation of speech quality during handover

no actions required from the user
important questions:
when is a handover initiated?

who initiates the handover?
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover Initiation
let us assume that:

the BS/MS need a minimum signal power Pmin to maintain a call at
an acceptable level of speech quality
if signal power drops below this level (the MS moves out of the range
of the BS) the call is canceled
no handoff is initiated as long as the signal level is above
Pmin +
with the safety margin > 0
a handover process takes some minimum time tmin
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover Initiation II
if is too large the handover is initiated early and unnecessarily

=
increased signalling traffic
if is too small:
if the mobiles speed v is so large that it moves out of the cell before
the handover is completed (tmin) the old connection drops and there
is no chance to set up the connection to the new BS
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover Initiation III

to determine the signal strength, measurements must be taken over a
timespan sufficiently long to average over fast fading
the measurements can either be done by the BS or by the MS
in mobile-assisted handover (MAHO):
the MS measures the signal strength of surrounding BS (e.g. by
evaluating signal strength of specific beacon packets)
the MS reports the measurement values to its current BS or other
stations in the network
handover if another BS is significantly stronger than the current BS
such a behavior is called hysterese: choosing the BS such that at any time the MS is connected to
the best one would likely produce many handovers
Andreas Willig
Handover
Handover Initiation IV
MAHO is used both in GSM and UMTS

GSM:
hard handover
execution of a handover after making the decision takes one to two
seconds
UMTS:
soft handover and softer handover
Andreas Willig
Handover
Mechanisms for Call Dropping Avoidance
to avoid dropping of handover calls, the BS treats channel allocation for

new calls and handover calls differently
the guard channel concept:
the BS puts aside some channels and allocates these exclusively to
handover calls
= reduced capacity
= can be effectively combined with DCA, to avoid
allocating guard channels in all cells of a cluster
Andreas Willig
Handover
Mechanisms for Call Dropping Avoidance II
queueing of handover requests:

the BS or CH puts handover requests into a queue
as soon as an ongoing call ends or roams away, the corresponding
channel is assigned to a handover request from the queue
in this case tmin can be large, depending on the number of mobiles
Andreas Willig
Handover
Umbrella Cells
if the mobiles have vastly different speeds there is no best choice of :
for small speeds the cells can be small while maintaining a small
handover rate
for high speeds small cells would lead to a very high handover rate
solution: put slow mobiles into small cells and fast mobiles into large
umbrella cells (with higher antennas and larger tx powers)
=
the cells overlap spatially, but use different channels
the decision can be made by CH from observing a MSs handover rate

Andreas Willig
References
[1] Manuel Duque-Anton. Mobilfunknetze Grundlagen, Dienste und Protokolle. Verlag Vieweg,
Braunschweig / Wiesbaden, Germany, 2002.
[2] Jose M. Hernando and F. Perez-Fontan. Introduction to Mobile Communications Engineering. Artech
House, Boston, 1999.
[3] Ajay R. Mishra. Fundamentals of Cellular Network Planning and Optimisation: 2G/2.5G/3G... Evolution
to 4G. John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
[4] Theodore S. Rappaport. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2002.
[5] Arthur H. M. Ross and Klein S. Gilhausen. Cdma technology and the is-95 north american standard.
In Jerry D. Gibson, editor, The Communications Handbook, pages 199212. CRC Press / IEEE Press,
Boca Raton, Florida, 1996.
[6] Harilaos G. Sandalidis and Peter Stavroulakis. Heuristics for solving fixed-channel assignment problems.
In Ivan Stojmenovic, editor, Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing, pages 5170. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 2002.
[7] Mischa Schwartz. Mobile Wireless Communications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, GB, 2005.
Andreas Willig
[8] B. Walke, P. Seidenberg, and M. P. Althoff. UMTS The Fundamentals. John Wiley and Sons,
Chichester, UK, 2003.
[9] Bernhard Walke. Mobile Radio Networks Networking, Protocols and Traffic Performance. John Wiley
and Sons, Chichester, 2002.

Transmission Wireless

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Mobile Communications

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Frequencies for communication

VLF = Very Low Frequency

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:

Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Frequencies and regulations

GSM 450-457, 479486/460-467,489496, 890-915/935960,

AMPS, TDMA, CDMA

PACS 1850-1910, 19301990

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

continuous time/discrete time

signal parameters of periodic signals:

sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Fourier representation of periodic signals

ideal periodic signal

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

infinite frequencies for perfect transmission

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Antennas: isotropic radiator

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Antennas: simple dipoles

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

top view (xz-plane)

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Antennas: directed and sectorized

side view (xy-plane)

side view (yz-plane)

top view (xz-plane)

top view, 3 sector

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

top view, 6 sector

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

multi-element antenna arrays

switched diversity, selection diversity

receiver chooses antenna with largest output

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Signal propagation ranges

detection of the signal

signal may not be

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Real world example

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert

signal paths change

quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

Dr.-Ing. Jean-Pierre Ebert