DEVELOPMENT OF A DISTANCE EDUCATION

MODEL FOR ENHANCEMENT OF LITERACY IN

PAKISTAN

KHALID SALEEM
ROLL NO. L-891284

Department of Distance, Non-Formal and Continuing Education

Faculty of Education
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

November 2009

DEVELOPMENT OF A DISTANCE EDUCATION

MODEL FOR ENHANCEMENT OF LITERACY IN
PAKISTAN

KHALID SALEEM
ROLL NO. L-891284

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in Education (Specialization in Distance and Non-Formal Education)
Department of Distance, Non-Formal and Continuing Education
Faculty of Education
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis entitled Development of a Distance Education Model for
Enhancement of Literacy in Pakistan is here by accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education (Specialization in
Distance and Non-Formal Education) by Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad.

------------------------------------Prof. Dr. Muhammad Rashid

Advisor

------------------------------External Examiner

------------------------------Chairman DNFE

--------------------------------Dean Faculty of Education

Date --------------------------

II

DECLARATION
1.

The author has not been registered to any other institution during the
period this study for achieving any other academic award or qualification.

2.

The material included in this thesis has not been submitted wholly or in
part earlier in my academic carrier or other than that for which it is now
being submitted.

3.

Except where otherwise acknowledged in the text, this thesis represents

the original research of the author.

Khalid Saleem

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all with the feelings of humility and submissiveness I bow my head
before Allah Almighty who blessed me and enabled me to complete this study.
Without HIS blessings and consecrate it was never possible to accomplish such a
laborious work. With a deep sense of gratitude and thankfulness I pay my heartily
thanks to Prof. Dr. Muhammad Rashid, former Dean Faculty of Education Allama
Iqbal Open University Islamabad, a well versed and learned personality without
whose help I might not have done this. No doubt his unparallel, unprecedented and
unrivaled personality has been embodiment of the light of knowledge for me. It will
be unjust if I do not mention the name of Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur, Dean Faculty of
Education Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, for his guidance and thought
provoking suggestions. The help and guidance rendered by Dr. Muhammad Javed
Iqbal, Chairman and Assistant Professor Department of DNFE is no doubt much
commendable because of its preciousness and suitability. I shall never ignore
appreciative role of Mr. Mumtaz Ahmad lecturer in Education in my research work. I
am also thankful to the E. D. Os literacy, literacy instructors, AIOU personnel, EFA
officials and those respectable persons who helped me in the process of data
collection. It is the truth that without their cooperation it was difficult to complete this
research work.
Special and heartily thanks to Ms Rubina Nazir Chohan, editor district news
The Nation, for her rigorous editing of the thesis. Without her kind help it was
difficult to make the thesis free of structural and grammatical errors.
My special thanks to the members of my family, especially my father Prof.
Bashir Ahmad Talib and my mother, who had continuously been praying for my

IV

success. In the same way my brothers Shahid Saleem, Zahid Saleem, Tahir Saleem
and Abid Saleem deserve special thanks for their valuable moral and physical support.
Finally I pay special thanks to my wife Mrs. Uzma Khalid whose sincerity and
cooperation was enforcing me throughout this research task. She has been a constant
source of help and encouragement to me. This research has little to claim and all
suggestions to improve and enrich it would be greatly accepted and thankfully
acknowledgment. My friends and colleagues also deserve for my gratitude.

K. S.

ABSTRACT
Title

Development of a Distance Education Model for

Enhancement of Literacy in Pakistan

Pages

399

Researcher

Khalid Saleem

Supervisor

Dr. Muhammad Rashid

University

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

Year

2009

Subject Area

Distance and Non-formal Education

Degree

PhD
The present research entitled Development of a Distance Education Model

for Enhancement of Literacy in Pakistan was conducted in view of the poor literacy
condition in Pakistan. They main objectives of the study included to analyze the past
literacy programmes in Pakistan and to develop a distance education literacy model
for Pakistan. To conduct the study population consisted of literacy instructors
working in different districts of Punjab province of Pakistan, Executive District
Officers literacy, personnel from the Department of Distance and Non-formal
Education and Institute of Mass Education of Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad and EFA Wing Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan and adult
illiterates living in the rural areas of Punjab province. For the selection of sample
whole population of literacy instructors, Executive District Officers literacy,
personnel from the Department of Distance and Non-formal Education and Institute
of Mass Education of Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad and EFA Wing
Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan was selected. Whereas 514 literacy

VI

instructors and 630 adult illiterates were selected adopting the techniques of
proportionate stratified sampling and convenient sampling respectively.
For the purpose of data collection questionnaires and the structured interview
schedule were used. Questionnaires developed on five point rating scale were
delivered to literacy instructors, Executive District Officers literacy and personnel of
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad. But, personnel of EFA Wing and adult
illiterates were interviewed. Moreover, two focused group discussion sessions were
also arranged with the personnel from EFA wing and DNFE department of AIOU
The study revealed that in the past literacy programme had been suffering
because of financial problems, defective administration, inconsistency and misuse of
the available resources. The adult learners were not properly motivated for literacy.
There was no use of broadcast media or the motivational techniques to attract the
illiterate people to the literacy centers. Above all there was no consistency in the
literacy programmes because with the change in government these programmes were
either abandoned or replaced. Due to centrally organized programmes these were
poorly evaluated and did not meet the needs of the local community. As a result the
literacy rate in Pakistan could no be raised to the desired level. Therefore, distance
education is a useful alternative through which improvement in literacy situation in
Pakistan can be brought about.
It was recommended that adequate funding should be provided for literacy
programmes along with making the administration effective. Moreover, some modern
way for imparting literacy should be used rather than following the conventional
methods. For this purpose the distance education mode was recommended by the
researcher and a distance education model for enhancing literacy was proposed to be
used in Pakistan.

VII

CONTENTS

Chapter
1

Topics

Page

INTRODUCTION

1.1

The concept of literacy

1.2

Literacy campaign through distance education

10

1.3

Statement of the problem

17

1.4

Objectives of the study

17

1.5

Significance of the study

18

1.6

Delimitations of the study

19

1.7

Assumptions

21

1.8

Procedure of the study

21

1.8.1

Review of related literature

21

1.8.2

Population

21

1.8.3

Sample

22

1.8.4

Development of instrument

23

1.8.5

Collection of the data

23

1.8.6

Data analysis

23

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

25

2.1

Significance of literacy

25

2.1.1

Human benefits of literacy

25

2.1.2

Economic benefits of literacy

27

2.1.3

Social benefits of literacy

30

2.1.4

Cultural benefits of literacy

33

VIII

2.1.5
2.2

Political benefits of literacy

Literacy efforts in Pakistan

36

2.2.1

Literacy programmes in Pakistan

37

2.2.2

Issues and problem in literacy promotion in

Pakistan

2.3

35

70

Role of distance education system in literacy enhancement

2.3.1

105

Global view of employing distance education for 108

literacy

2.3.2

Pakistani perspectives

2.3.3

Effectiveness of distance education for the literacy

work

117

119

2.4

Researches on literacy through distance education

124

2.5

Components of adult literacy

128

2.5.1

Teaching reading

129

2.5.2

Teaching writing

132

2.5.3

Functional numeracy

133

2.5.4

Occupational skills

134

2.6

2.7

Personnel of adult literacy programme

136

2.6.1

Managers/Administrators

136

2.6.2

Instructors

137

2.6.3

Supervisors

140

2.6.4

Writers

142

2.6.5

Evaluators

144

Concept of literacy model

IX

147

2.8

Types of literacy models

148

2.9

Analysis of the existing literacy models

165

2.10

Literacy and technology

166

2.10.1 Radio

168

2.10.2 Television

170

2.10.3 Computer

172

2.10.4 Benefits of the use of technology for adult literacy

173

2.11

Characteristics of adult learners

175

2.12

Discussion on chapter ii

179

PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

181

3.1

Design of the study

181

3.2

Population

182

3.3

Sampling

183

3.4

Research instruments and their development

186

3.5

Validation of research instruments

187

3.6

Administration of research tools

188

3.7

Statistical analysis

190

3.7.1

191

Rational for the use of t Test

194

ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1

Analyses of the data collected through questionnaire for

literacy instructors
4.1.1

194

Discussion on analyses of the data collected through

questionnaire for literacy instructors

4.2

Analyses of the data collected through the questionnaire for

215

E. D. Os literacy
4.2.1

215

Discussion on analyses of the data collected through

the questionnaire for E. D. Os literacy

4.3

Analyses of the data collected through questionnaire for the

236
236

personnel of AIOU
4.3.1

Discussion on analyses of the data collected through

questionnaire for the personnel of AIOU

4.4

250

Analysis of the data gathered through the interviews of

personnel of EFA Wing ministry of education
4.4.1

251

Discussion on analysis of the data gathered through

the interviews of personnel of EFA Wing ministry
of education

4.5

254

Analysis of the data gathered through the interviews of adult

illiterates
4.5.1

255

Discussion on analysis of the data gathered through

the interviews of adult illiterates

4.6

Analysis of the discussions sessions

4.6.1

269

Analysis of the discussions session organized with

the EFA officials

4.7

Analysis of the achievements of objectives

4.7.1

269

Analysis of the discussions session organized with

AIOU staff

4.6.2

268

271
273

Assessment of the need of literacy among Pakistan

illiterates

274

XI

4.7.2

Evaluation of the literacy provision by the

government of Pakistan

4.7.3

Document analysis for literacy provisions of

government of Pakistan

4.7.4

307

Specification of the role of distance education for

the provision of literacy in Pakistan

4.8
5

279

Identification of problems in literacy programmes

of Pakistan

4.7.5

276

Over all discussion on data analysis

313
316

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

318

5.1

Summary

318

5.2

Findings

319

5.2.1 Findings regarding the assessment of literacy needs

319

5.2.2 Findings regarding the literacy provisions of government of

Pakistan

320

5.2.3 Findings regarding the problems of literacy programmes in

Pakistan

321

5.2.4 Findings about the role of distance education for provision

of literacy

325

5.3

Conclusions

327

5.4

Discussion on the conclusions of the study

331

5.5

Recommendations

332

5.6

Proposed distance education model for enhancement of

XII

literacy in Pakistan

335

5.6.1 Learners facilitation process in the proposed

distance education model for enhancement of
literacy in Pakistan
5.7

5.8

339

Validation of the proposed distance education model for

enhancement of literacy in Pakistan

342

Features of the proposed distance education model for

344

enhancement of literacy in Pakistan

6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

347

APPENDICES

376

XIII

ABBREVATIONS
ABES

Adult Basic Education Society

AE

Adult Education

AEO

Assistant Education Officer

AEPAM

Academy of Educational Planning and Management

AIOU

Allama Iqbal Open University

ILS

Individualized Learning System

APWA

All Pakistan Women Association

BBC

British Broadcasting Corporation

BE

Basic Education

CAI

Computer Assisted Instruction

CBE

Computer Based Education

CBOs

Community Based Organizations.

CNN

Cable News Network

CVCs

Community Viewing Centers

DCO

District Coordination Officer

DDEO

Deputy District Education Officer

DE

Distance Education

DEO

District Education Officer

DNFE

Distance and Non-formal Education

ECE

Early Childhood Education

EDO

Executive District Officer

EFA

Education for All

EPPIERD

Experimental Pilot Project Integrating Education and Rural

Development

XIV

ESR

Education Sector Reforms

ETV

Education Television

FANA

Federally Administered Northern Area

FATA

Federally Administered Tribal Area

FBS

Federal Bureau of Statistics

FEPRA

Functional Education Project for Rural Areas

GCE

Global Campaign for Education

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GER

Gross enrolment ratio

GIR

Gross intake rate

GNP

Gross National Product

GOs

Government Organizations

HEC

Higher Education Commission

ICT

Islamabad Capital Territory

ICTs

Information and Communication Technologies

IEA

International

Association

for

the

Evaluation

Achievement
IEC

International Education Council

IGNO

Indira Gandhi National Open University

ILI

International Literacy Institute

IME

Institute of Mass Education

INGOs

International Non Government Organizations

LAMEC

Literacy and Mass Education Commission

LC

Learning Coordinator

LG&RD

Local Government and Rural Development

XV

of

Educational

NALA

National Adult Literacy Agency

MoE

Ministry of Education

MNA

Member of National Assembly

MPA

Member of Provincial Assembly

NAACE

National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education

NBFE

Non Formal Basic Education

NCHD

National Commission for Human Development

NEC

National Economic Council

NEF

National Education Foundation

NEP

National Education Plan

NETCOM

National Education and Training Commission

NFBE

Non-Formal Basic Education

NFE

Non Formal Education

NGOs

Non Government Organizations

NLP

National Literacy Plan

NPA

National Plan of Action

NRSP

Nai Roshni Schools Project

OFSTED

Office for Standards in Education, UK

NWFP

North West Frontier Province

PBC

Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation

PGGA

Pakistan Girls Guide Association

PMLC

Prime Ministers Literacy Commission

PTAs

Parent Teacher Association

PTV

Pakistan Television

PWP

Peoples Works Programme

XVI

SAP

Social Action Programme

SBT

Salaam Balaak Trust

SMCs

School Management Committees

TLC

Television Literacy Centers

UGC

University Grants Commission

UK

United Kingdom

UNESCO

United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF

United Nations Children Fund

UNO

United Nation Organization

UPE

Universal Primary Education

USA

United States of America

XVII

LIST OF TABLES
S. No.
2.1

List of Tables
Summary of the trained personnel of Peoples Works
Programme

2.2

Page No.

41

Summary of the achievements of Presidents Ten Point

programme

53

2.3

Salient features of Iqra Pilot Project 1987-88

74

2.4

Performance of NGOs participating in Islamabad Literacy

Project

2.5

60

Province/Region-wise details of NGOs, schools and enrolment

in Non-Formal Basic Education Community Schools Project

2.6

61

Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education 72

in Pakistan

2.7

Allocation for adult education and literacy in National Plan of 74

Action on Education For All

2.8

Comparison of male and female literacy rates in Pakistan

76

2.9

Comparison of total number of formal institutions for male 77

and female

2.10

Plan-wise targets and achievements of participation Rates

79

2.11

Definitions and status of literacy in different censes years of 100

Pakistan

2.12

Targets and gains of literacy rate in the Five Year

Development Plans of Pakistan

2.13

Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education

XVIII

102

in Pakistan
3.1

103

Total population and sample size of the E D Os literacy,

personnel of DNFE, IME and EFA Wing

183

3.2

Total population and sample size of the literacy instructors

185

3.3

Total population and sample size of adult illiterates

186

3.4

District-wise number and percentage of the responses of

literacy instructors

3.5

188

Number and percentage of the responses of E D Os literacy,

personnel of DNFE, IME and the personnel of EFA Wing

189

4.1.1

Description of the responses of literacy instructors

194

4.1.2

Literacy instructors' opinion about the punctuality of adult

learners

4.1.3

195

Attitude of literacy instructors about adult learners interest in

the literacy activities

4.1.4

195

Literacy instructors' views about presence of adult learners at

literacy center

4.1.5

196

Opinion of literacy instructors adult learners rate of

completing the duration of literacy programme

4.1.6

Literacy instructors' observation regarding the hesitation

among adult learners in join literacy programme

4.1.7

197

Literacy instructors' views about interest of adult learners in

literacy class

4.1.8

196

197

Literacy instructors' attitude about the satisfaction of adult

learners regarding the facilities at literacy center

XIX

198

4.1.9

Literacy instructors' views about the easiness of literacy

material

4.1.10

198

Literacy instructors' opinion about the relationship of literacy

material to the every day life of adults

4.1.11

Literacy instructors' opinion about the element of interest in

literacy material

4.1.12

199

Literacy instructors views about teaching functional literacy

in literacy programme

4.1.13

200

Opinion of literacy instructors about broadcast media support

during literacy programme

4.1.14

200

Literacy instructors' views about the use of tape recorder at

literacy center

4.1.15

201

Literacy instructors' views about the use Of VCP/VCR at

literacy center

4.1.16

201

Literacy instructors' opinion about the use of chart/flash cards

at literacy center

4.1.17

199

202

Opinion of literacy instructors about the use of computer for

teaching adults

202

4.1.18

Attitude of literacy instructors about motivation for peer study

203

4.1.19

Literacy instructors opinion regarding the provision of

telephonic guidance to the adult illiterates by them

4.1.20

Views of literacy instructors' about their training for teaching

adults.

4.1.21

203

204

Opinion of literacy instructors about their difficulties in

XX

handling adult learners.

4.1.23

204

Literacy instructors' judgment about relating the literacy work

to the every day life of adult learners

4.1.24

205

Literacy instructors' views regarding the appointment of

instructors from the local community

4.1.25

205

Literacy instructors' judgment for being familiar with the

needs of adult learners

4.1.26

206

Literacy instructors' opinion about the evaluation of literacy

programme.

4.1.27

206

Attitude of literacy instructors' about facilitation in teaching

and learning process by the administrators.

4.1.28

Literacy

instructors'

opinion

regarding

207
visit

of

the

administrators to literacy center.

4.1.29

Views

of

literacy

instructors'

207
about

the

attitude

of

administrators towards the teacher.

4.1.30

Attitude of literacy instructors' towards administrators role in

solving the problems of teachers.

4.1.31

209

Literacy instructors views about the availability of furniture at

literacy centers.

4.1.33

209

Significant problems while teaching adults as viewed by adult

instructors.

4.1.34

208

Views of literacy instructors about the access to literacy

center.

4.1.32

208

210

Suggestions of literacy instructors for improving literacy

XXI

programmes in Pakistan.
4.1.35

211

Application of one-sample t est on the questionnaire for

instructors

212

4.2.1

Percentage of E. D. Os literacy responses

215

4.2.2

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about the need assessment

surveys

4.2.3

216

Views of E. D. Os literacy regarding the approach to literacy

centers for adult illiterates

4.2.4

216

E. D. Os literacy views about the availability of furniture at

literacy centers

4.2.5

217

E. D. Os literacy opinion regarding the instructors attitude

towards adult illiterates.

4.2.6

217

Views of E. D. Os literacy about reporting instructors

performance to higher authorities.

4.2.7

E. D. Os literacy judgment of the instructors ability to build

up teamwork environment

4.2.8

218

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about instructors training to teach

adult illiterate

4.2.9

219

E. D. Os literacy instructors opinion about capability of

creating pleasant teaching learning environment

4.2.10

219

Views of E. D. Os literacy about the evaluation of adult

learners progress.

4.2.11

218

220

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about the use of tape recorder at

literacy center.

220

XXII

4.2.12

E. D. Os literacy views about the provision of VCP/VCR for

teaching adult learners at literacy center.

221

4.3.13

Views of E. D. Os literacy regarding facilitation by supervisor

221

4.2.14

E. D. Os literacy opinion about the consistency of literacy

programmes

4.2.15

222

Judgment of E. D. Os literacy about instructors role in

highlighting the importance of literacy in the society

4.2.16

E. D. Os literacy attitude towards the punctuality of

instructors.

4.2.17

223

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy regarding instructors need

training in how to deal with the illiterates.

4.2.18

225

E. D. Os literacy opinion about instructors role for motivation

of people

4.2.22

225

Views of E. D. Os literacy about the support of broadcast

media in literacy programmes

4.2.23

226

E. D. Os literacy opinion regarding the availability of audiovisual material at literacy centers

4.2.24

224

E. D. Os Literacy Views about the Appointment of Instructors

from Local Community

4.2.21

224

E. D. Os literacy views about the cooperation of local

community with the personnel literacy programme.

4.2.20

223

E. D. Os literacy attitude towards the cost of learning material

provided to the adult learners

4.2.19

222

Views of E. D. Os literacy about relevance of literacy learning

XXIII

226

materials to the every day life of adults

4.2.25

E. D. Os literacy observation regarding the sufficiency of

funds provision by the government for literacy programmes.

4.2.26

229

E. D. Os literacy opinion about the element of interest in

literacy material

4.2.30

229

E. D. Os literacy views about the sufficiency of supervisory

staff

4.2.31

230

E. D. Os literacy opinion about the attitude of adult learners

regarding the use of AV aids at literacy center

4.2.32

231

Suggestions from E. D. Os literacy for the improvement of

literacy in Pakistan

4.2.34

230

Problems of literacy programme as viewed by E. D. Os

literacy

4.2.33

228

E. D. Os literacy opinion about the difficulty level of literacy

material

4.2.29

228

E. D. Os literacy views about the cooperation of political

leadership in the literacy programme

4.2.28

227

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about community attitude

towards the literacy programmes.

4.2.27

227

232

Application of one-sample t test on the questionnaire for

Executive District Officers Literacy

233

4.3.1

Department-wise distribution of the personnel of AIOU

236

4.3.2

Views of AIOU personnel about the knowledge level of

literacy instructors

237

XXIV

4.3.3

Opinion of AIOU personnel about feedback in literacy

programmes

237

4.3.4

AIOU Personnels views about literacy materials

238

4.3.5

Opinion of AIOU personnel about evaluation of literacy

programmes

4.3.6

238

Views of AIOU personnel regarding feedback for the adult

learners

4.3.7

239

AIOU personnels views about potential of IME for

supervising literacy programme

4.3.8

Opinion of AIOU personnel about telephonic feedback for

literacy programme

4.3.9

240

Remarks of AIOU personnel about cooperation between IME

and NGOs

4.3.10

240

views of AIOU personnel about the utilization of early

experiences of adult learners

4.3.11

241

AIOU personnels views about launching of literacy

programme through distance education.

4.3.12

242

Opinion of AIOU personnel about television assistance for

teaching reading

4.3.14

242

AIOU Personnels opinion about mutual cooperation of adult

learners

4.3.15

241

Opinion of AIOU personnel about television assistance for

teaching writing

4.3.13

239

243

Opinion of AIOU personnel regarding the role of distance

XXV

education in reducing the administrative problems of literacy

programme
4.3.16

243

Views of AIOU personnel about economy of distance

education literacy programme

4.3.17

AIOU Personnels opinion about the success of distance

education literacy programme in Pakistan

4.3.18

244

244

Opinion of AIOU personnel about the role of causal meetings

between instructors and adult learners for the solution of
literacy problems

4.3.19

245

Views of AIOU personnel about the role of mass media in

literacy programme

4.3.20

245

Opinion of AIOU personnel about role of radio for creating

awareness about literacy

4.3.21

246

AIOU personnels views about the use of computer for

teaching literacy

4.3.22

4.3.23

246

Suggestions of the academicians of AIOU for employing

distance education to promote literacy in Pakistan

247

Application of one-sample t test on the questionnaire for

248

AIOU personnel
4.4.1

Analysis of interviews of personnel from EFA Wing Ministry

of Education

4.4.2

4.4.3

251

Major Problems of literacy programmes as viewed By EFA

personnel

253

Suggestions of EFA personnel to improve literacy situation

254

XXVI

4.5.1

Opinion of adult illiterates about attending the school

254

4.5.2

Reason of leaving the school after joining it

255

4.5.3

Illiterates views about becoming literate

256

4.5.4

Illiterates opinion about getting permission from employer/

family to attend the literacy center

257

4.5.5

Opinion of Illiterates about the timing of literacy center

257

4.5.6

Illiterates attitude towards literacy class as compared to the

daily business

258

4.5.7

Illiterates propensity of watching literacy programme on TV

258

4.5.8

Illiterates attitude towards liking the literacy programme

258

4.5.9

Cause of abandoning the literacy programme

259

4.5.10

Cause of leaving the literacy programme incomplete

260

4.5.11

Illiterates views about the place of literacy class

260

4.5.12

Illiterates views about approach to the literacy center

261

4.5.13

Illiterates views about the availability of proper furniture at

the literacy center

261

4.5.14

Illiterates opinion about staying at literacy center

262

4.5.15

Illiterates views about the kind of skill to be learnt at literacy

center

4.5.16

Illiterates

262
opinion

about

information

about

literacy

programme

263

4.5.17

Illiterates opinion about Quranic literacy

263

4.5.18

Opinion of illiterates about feeling hesitation

263

4.5.19

Illiterates views about sending their children to school

264

XXVII

4.5.20

Illiterates views about cooperation with fellow learners

264

4.5.21

Opinion of illiterates about the teaching source

265

4.5.22

Opinion of illiterates about the type of learning material

266

4.5.23

Illiterates opinion about the language of teaching and learning

process

266

4.5.24

Illiterates response about purchasing the support material

267

4.5.25

Views of illiterates about the way of approaching their

teacher for guidance

267

4.5.26

Illiterates responses about getting help in their studies

268

4.6.1

Views of E. D. Os literacy about literacy need among

Pakistani illiterates

4.6.2

274

Literacy instructors views about need of literacy among

illiterates

275

4.6.3

E. D. Os views about literacy provisions

276

4.6.4

Literacy instructors views about provision of literacy

277

4.6.5

Views of AIOU personnel about literacy provisions

278

4.6.6

Number of schools with proposed capacity

285

4.6.7

Year-wise summary of the establishment of Mosque schools

288

4.6.8

Year-wise summary of the establishment of Mohallah schools

289

4.6.9

Year-wise summary of the establishment of village workshop

schools

290

4.6.10

Targets and budget for ESR

295

4.6.11

Phases of the National Plan of Action on Education for All

2001-15

299

XXVIII

4.6.12

Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education

304

4.6.13

Proposed and obtained literacy rates in the five year plans

304

4.6.14

Summary of literacy provisions in the five year development

plans

4.6.15

306

E. D. Os Literacy views about problems in the planning of

literacy programme

4.6.16

307

Literacy instructors views about the problems in the planning

of literacy programme

4.6.17

308

E. D. Os views about problems in the implementation of

literacy programme

4.6.18

Literacy

instructors

309
views

about

problems

in

the

implementation of literacy programmes

4.6.19

E. D. Os views about problems in the evaluation of literacy

Programme

4.6.20

311

Literacy instructors views about problems in the evaluation of

literacy programmes

4.6.21

312

E. D. Os views about role of distance education in provision of

literacy

4.6.22

313

Views of literacy instructors about role of distance education

in provision of literacy

4.6.23

310

314

Views of AIOU personnel about role of distance education in

literacy provision

315

XXIX

LIST OF FIGURES
Sr. No
2.1

List of Figures

Page No.

The hierarchical structure of the National Literacy Plan (198393).

51

2.2

The hierarchical structure of the Television Literacy Centers.

52

2.3

Comparison of Retention Rates of Five SAARC Countries

79

2.4

Components of literacy

129

2.5

Role of the supervisor in a literacy programme

141

2.6

Literacy personnel in action

146

2.7

Multi-literacy curriculum model

150

2.8

Balance literacy model

151

2.9

Evaluation model

152

2.10

Precision teaching and competent learning model

153

2.11

Organization of literacy committees in Burma

155

2.12

Literacy model of Benin

157

2.13

Structure of literacy operations in Mali

159

2.14

Structure of the national literacy campaign of Ethiopia

161

2.15

National adult education programme of India

163

2.16

VEC/AE literacy model

164

4.1

Views of E. D. Os literacy about literacy need in among

Pakistani illiterates

4.2

4.3

274

Literacy instructors views about need of literacy among

illiterates

275

E. D. Os literacy views about literacy provisions

276

XXX

4.4

Literacy instructors views about provision of literacy

277

4.5

Views of AIOU personnel about literacy provisions

278

4.6

E. D .Os literacy views about problems in the development of

literacy programmes

4.7

307

Literacy instructors views about problems in the development

of literacy programme

4.8

308

E. D. Os views about problems in the 0mplementation of

literacy programme

4.9

Literacy

instructors

309
views

about

problems

in

the

implementation of literacy programmes

4.10

E. D. Os views about problems in the evaluation of literacy

Programme

4.11

311

Literacy instructors views about problems in the evaluation of

literacy programmes

4.12

312

E. D. Os views about role of distance education in provision of

literacy.

4.13

313

Literacy instructors views about role of distance education in

provision of literacy

4.14

310

314

Views of AIOU personnel about role of distance education in

literacy provision

315

XXXI

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Throughout human history, education, in one form or another, has served as
the main instrument for disseminating various accomplishments of human
civilization. Its crucial role in producing and transferring knowledge and skills in
society is well recognized. Past research and experience have amply demonstrated
how education, especially basic education, contributes to economic growth, the
reduction of poverty, and the growth of general awareness in various developing
societies. (Govinda, 1997, p. 1) In fact, education is considered "essential for civic
order and citizenship and for sustained economic growth and the reduction of
poverty" (World Bank, 1995, p. xi).
In the same way, education has been playing a vital role in the development of
the societies of the world since long. At present, education is not only a social and
moral imperative; it is also an economic necessity. Moreover, education, health and
shelter are considered to be the basic human needs. Health as will as shelter, in one
way or the other depends upon education. Therefore, in the modern age according to
Hayes (1987, p. 1) education ranks at or near the top in the social priorities of all
countries. Education is also important for the social development and it contributes
significantly to a countrys economic growth as it raises the productivity and
efficiency of the individual and provides skilled manpower (Govt. of Pakistan, 19992000, p. 139).
Likewise, the advantages of education in the social context according to
Government of Pakistan (1998, p. iv) are:

Education is now universally recognized to be the prime key to moral,

cultural, political and socio-economic development of a nation. Nations
taking bold initiatives in this regard have performed miracles during the last
two decades.
Pakistan, according to Bhatti (1986, p. l), was established as an ideological
state and the Muslims have been exhorted to seek the knowledge from the cradle to
grave; therefore, education was assigned top priority by the Father of the Nation.
Hence, just few months after the inception of Pakistan, All Pakistan Educational
Conference was held at Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947. In his
message to this conference (Govt. of Pakistan, 1947, p. l) Quaid-e-Azam stressed
upon the importance of education in the following words:
You know that the importance of education and the right type of education
cannot be over emphasized. We are to make real, speedy and substantial
progress, we must earnestly tackle this question and bring our educational
policies and programmes on the lines suited to the genius of our people,
consonant with our history and culture and having regard to the modern
conditions and vast developments that have taken place all over the world.
Therefore, both quality as well as quantity of education is overwhelming
factor for the development of the nation. Keeping in view these early guidelines
efforts had continuously been made to improve the quantity and quality of education
in the country. The Constitution of Pakistan 1973 in its Article 37 (B) states the state
shall endeavour to remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary
education within the minimum required period.
All the educational policies and economic development plans had also
stressed upon the need of universalisation of primary education and eradication of

illiteracy. Various measures were taken in this regard as government of Pakistan

(1972, p. 21) states:
To achieve this objective of eradicating illiteracy, a massive literacy
programme will be undertaken in every town and village. Literacy centres
will be established all over the country in schools, factories, farms, union
council halls and other community places.
Similarly, Education Policy 1979 (Govt. of Pakistan, 1979, p. 26) adopted
following measures to remove illiteracy from the country:
i.

Establishment of 10,000 adult literacy centres.

ii.

Use of radio and television.

iii.

Mobilization of community resources for literacy programme.

In the same way, it was recommended in Education Policy 1998 (Govt. of

Pakistan, 1998, p. 20) that:
Non-Formal Basic Education Programme on war footing will be launched to
provide access economically and expeditiously to all the 5.5 million primary
school age (5-9 years) children who are at present out-of-school. The 10-14
years old adolescents and youth who have missed primary education will be
given a second chance through a crash condensed course to enable them to
complete primary education cycle within 2-3 years time.
So far as the government is concerned, it initiated a number of projects to
improve the prevailing condition of literacy in the country. A number of government
organizations like Literacy and Mass Education Commission (LAMEC), National
Education & Training Commission (NETCOM) and Prime Minister Literacy
Commission (PMLC) launched various literacy programmes. Following projects of
literacy and non-formal education were launched by LAMEC during 1984-1989.

i.

100% Literate Islamabad Project (1983-84)

ii.

The National Literacy Plan (1983-88)

iii.

Television Literacy Centres (TLC) 1983-84

iv.

President Ten (10) Points (PTP) 1984-85

v.

Iqra Pilot Project (IPP), 1987-88

vi.

Nai Roshni Schools Project (NRSP) (1987-89)

vii.

Experimental Literacy Project (1989)

LAMEC was renamed as National Education & Training Commission

(NETCOM) in 1989 (PLC1, 1998). Following projects were developed and launched
by NETCOM.
i.

Training of Unemployed Educated Youth Project (1990-91).

ii.

Quanic Literacy Project.

iii.

Eradication of Illiteracy Project (EIP) 1992-93.

iv.

Islamabad Literacy Project (ILP) 1992-95

Prime Minister Literacy Commission (PMLC) also played an important role

for the improvement of literacy rate in Pakistan. The commission was dissolved in
February 2000. At the time of its dissolution it was running a project named NonFormal Basic Education Community Schools Project.
Likewise, there are many other governmental organizations that are working
for the eradication of illiteracy. Some of the prominent organizations are:
i.

EFA Wing, Ministry of Education.

ii.

Curriculum Wing, Ministry of Education.

iii.

Allama Iqbal Open University.

iv.

Provincial Departments of Education.

v.

Punjab Commission for Literacy and NFE.

vi.

Balochistan Directorate of Literacy and NFE.

vii.

Jamshoro Bureau of Curriculum.

viii.

Higher Education Commission.

ix.

Human Resource Development Commission.

x.

National Commission for Human Development

Along with the contributions of the above mentioned governmental

organizations the private sector has also actively participated in the efforts for the
improvement of literacy in Pakistan. Despite number of problems and hardships
following NGOs has made remarkable contributions in the field of literacy and adult
education (UNDP, 2003 and NGORC, 2003).
i.

The Adult Basic Education Society (ABES).

ii.

Malik Maula Bukhsh Memorial Trust.

iii.

Sindh Graduates Association.

iv.

Aga Khan Rural Support Programmeme.

v.

All Pakistan Women's Association.

vi.

Bunyad Literacy Community Council.

vii.

Society for Advancement of Education.

viii.

Sahara.

ix.

Taaleem for All.

x.

Taaleem Foundation.

Despite all these plans and provisions, and efforts made by the governmental
agencies and contributions of the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Pakistan
is lagging far behind in the field of education. Since 1947 the literacy rate of Pakistan
had gradually increased by half a percent per year (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. ix). So
far as the situation of literacy is concerned, National Education Policy 1998 states:

Pakistan ranks at 142nd position among 160 countries and among SAARC
countries its position is 6th. Our literacy rate is approximately 39%. About
25% of our children are not enrolled in primary schools and 50% of the
enrolled, dropout before completing primary schools (p. ix). Pakistan ranks at
number 31 out of 35 Muslim countries (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 117).
Successive educational plans and policies had failed to increase the literacy
rate in the country. There are many reasons for it. One of those is the financial
constraints. As an example, in first nine 5-years plans total amount of 299624.17
million rupees were allocated for education. But, only 85487.99 million (28.53%)
rupees had actually been utilized. Similarly, lack of trained teachers, deficiency of
proper teaching materials, poor infrastructure of primary schools and above all rapid
growth in population are other important reasons for low literacy rate in Pakistan as
viewed by Economic survey of Pakistan 1999-2000 (p. 139).
Despite these reasons, there are number of other causes for low literacy rate
among the womenfolk in Pakistan. These reasons are summed up on
www.pakistanlink.com (2001) as under.
..there are many factors that contribute to the persistent low enrollment of
girls in primary schools. Poverty and illiteracy of parents generate a negative
attitude towards girls education. The demand for separate facilities for
females prevents many regions from having schools available for girls. Along
with that is a lack of qualified female teachers to staff girls schools. There are
also problems with the curriculum and method of teaching a multigrade class
by a single teacher in village settings particularly. In those areas where
schools do exist, lack of essential facilities like drinking water, mats or
benches, and bathroom facilities inhibit attendance. In many large families,

the older girls are expected to help with raising their sibling and doing the household
work, which prevents attendance at school.
Thus in Pakistan, owing to the above or other reasons, since 1947 efforts and
desires had remained unfruitful to achieve the cherished goal of 100% literacy. The
literacy rate at present according to Economic Survey of Pakistan 2005-2006 (p.150)
is about 54 percent. Hence, there is a need to enhance efforts for promoting the
literacy and adult education situation. Therefore, for the enhancement of literacy work
and up-gradation of the existing situation an effective model is necessary which may
help the nation to reinforce and gear up its campaign against illiteracy.

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF LITERACY

As far as the concept of literacy is concerned, it has been dealt differently by
different people and organizations at different times. It has been defined from
reading the word to reading the world (Bataille, 1976, p. 04).
Like other concepts of the social sciences literacy is also hard to define in a
systematic and concise way. Moreover, according to Alamni (2007), the definition of
literacy is context specific. The parameters of literacy may vary from one geographical region
to another and from one era to another. That is why Herman (1987) metaphorically states

that efforts of defining literacy as walking to the horizon that steadily recede.
In Pakistan, literacy had differently been defined in different census reports. In
census 1951 ability to read any clear print in any language was regarded as literacy.
In census 1961 it was redefined as ability to read with understanding in any
language. It was improved in census 1972 as ability to read and write with
understanding in any language. It was further improved in census 1981 as ability to
read newspaper and to write a simple letter in any language (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 14

and Siddiqui, 1997, p. 147). In the same way in 1998 census, literacy was defined as
a person of 10 plus age is literate if he/she can read a newspaper and write a simple
letter in any language.
With the passage of time the concept of literacy has undergone many changes
throughout the world. In an effort to illustrate the concept of literacy Charu (2002, p.
1) quotes the definitions of a number of experts in the following way:
One of the earliest definitions of literacy was the "ability to read and write"
(Oxenham, 1980, pp. 15). However, this definition has evolved to more
complex statements. For instance, Chew (1984) defines it as "competence in
language arts: listening, speaking, reading and writing." Ellsworth (1994)
adds that literacy also involves critical and creative thinking. Browse (1992)
views literacy as a way of learning which "helps the individual to enhance the
understanding of self and the world" (pp. 164). Similarly, Graff (1987)
argues that literacy is a set of techniques of communication that are intended
to decode and reproduce written or printed messages. From a developingworld perspective Freire (1986) views literacy as a tool that helps individuals
to become conscious of the world around them.
From the above-mentioned statements it becomes clear that in the modern
times literacy does not mean only mastering the skills of reading and writing. Hence
there have been several important efforts in defining literacy and creating an
acceptable operational definition of literacy that may meet the requirements of the
prevailing situation. Taylor (1989, p. 1) made an extensive review of definitions. In
the process, Taylor identified various terms used in literacy. These include literacy,
functional literacy, and functional competency. Literacy is an evolving concept and
hence difficult to arrive at a stable definition.

Similarly, according to UNESCO (2000):

Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate
and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying
contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to
achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and
to participate fully in the wider society.
Furthermore, UNESCO (2003) views the concept of literacy beyond the
acquisition of conventional reading and writing abilities. The parameters of literacy as
proposed by UNESCO states that literacy is about more than reading and writing. It is
about how we communicate in society. It is about social practices and relationships,
about knowledge, language and culture. Literacy as the use of written communication
finds its place in our lives alongside other ways of communicating. Indeed, literacy
itself takes many forms: on paper, on the computer screen, on TV, on posters and
signs. Those who use literacy takes it for granted, but those who cannot use it are
excluded from much communication in todays world. Going one step farther in
defining literacy, Thomas (1989) identified a few general principles of literacy.
Mukhopadhyay (2003, p. 3) has quoted these principles in the following way:
(i) Grade level completion measures as inadequate for definitional purposes,
(ii) literacy as a continuum ranging from the mechanism of learning how to
decode and encode to the mature utilization of literacy skills and processes
for informed action and aesthetic appreciation, (iii) literacy as the ability of
the individual to function within a specific social, economic and cultural
context, and (iv) literacy thresholds to be in continuous flux due to
increasingly technological and changing nature of societies

An on line (http://www.nald.ca/rcln/litdef.htm) definition of literacy also

suggests that literacy is something more than mere reading and writing. This
definition is as under,
Literacy is no longer a question of whether someone can read or write, but a
question of how well a person can read, write and use numbers in most
everyday situations be it at home, at work or in the community. It affects our
ability to participate and make decisions in society.
In short, it can be said that literacy is a skill to acquire or transmit knowledge
to others. In fact, it is the art of learning to live in a globalized world with effective
participation. Thus it is a mean not an end itself (Ghafoor and Khan, 1994, p.1).

1.2

LITERACY CAMPAIGN THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATION

The concept of distance education has evolved as an alternative to the formal

system of education after an increasing realization that it is not perfectly coping with
the educational needs and demands of the rapidly growing population. To cope with
the increasing demand of education there was need of finding such a way that may
help the people in fulfilling their educational thrust which was discovered in the form
of distance education. According to Ansari (1992, pp. 25-26);
As it was conceived that the formal system of education was not sufficient to
meet the increasing demands for education, this led to the search of a via-media
which could be alternatively used to expand and fulfil educational needs of all.
Instead of bringing students to the seats of learning, it was proposed to take
schools to the students and hence this concept of distance education came into
existence.

10

In addition to the failure of formal system of education to fulfill educational

needs of the people, there are many other causes for the emergence and growth of
distance education. These are according to Perraton (1991, p. 1) as under:
First, to cope with the rapidly increasing educational demands of masses.
Second, to provide mass education at very low costs. Third, to enable people
to acquire education at any stage of their life. Forth, to uplift the professional
qualifications of on-the-job people.
As far as the concept of distance education is concerned, it refers to that method
of instruction in which the teacher and the learner remain apart from each other during
the process of teaching and learning. Experts have presented various definitions of
distance education. The simplest definition provided by Verduin and Thomas (1991, p.
8) is:
Any formal approach to learning in which a majority of instruction occurs
while educator and learner are at a distance from one another is called
distance education.
Likewise Holmberg (1977, p. 9) defines the term distance education in the
following way:
The term distance education covers the various forms of study at all levels
which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present
with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises, but which
nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorial
organization
In short, Debra (2000, p.1) sums up the concept of distance education as
under:

11

The term distance education has many meanings to many people. Distance
education may refer to a correspondence course; a teleconference; a series of
videotapes with corresponding workbooks; an online course where students
never actually see their instructor, or each other, face to face; a series of
television broadcasts, etc. Distance education, in one form or another, has
been around for many years.
Various efforts were previously made to overcome the problem of illiteracy
throughout the world, especially in the developing countries. But, none of these had
effective results. Therefore, in most of the developing countries authorities are
concerned about handling the literacy problem effectively. They are in search of new
methods and techniques of imparting literacy to the widely scattered adult illiterates.
The emergence of distance education has provided them an alternative that may prove
useful in this regard. Hence, according to Wardani (2001, p. 1):
The department of education in each developing country is challenged to find
out ways of eliminating illiteracy and increasing the quality of human
resources. One way that needs to be explored is distance education that
sounds promising.
According to Fleischman (1998, p. 81), "Very little is known about what
works and what doesnt when using distance education with Adult Basic Education
(ABE) learners". This is probably due to the fact that literacy programmes have
historically been the last to access new technology, primarily due to the lack of
funding to the literacy field (Turner, 1998, p. 68).
Despite the novelty of this method and shortage of research materials on the
use of distance education for the promotion of literacy, it is believed that distance
education can reach all illiterate people, even though they reside in very remote areas.

12

Literacy programmes can be developed in the form of printed learning materials, or

audio and videocassette, at the national level or at the regional level. To increase the
effectiveness of the distance education programme, informal groups can be created,
based on interest, residency, and the need of each group member. The printed
materials and other learning materials are sent to each informal group. Tutors for
these groups can be recruited from those who reside close to the group. In addition,
the use of advance technology in distance education may increase the effectiveness of
this programme (Wardani, 2001, p. 2). Similarly, Holmberg (1995, p. 14) has
favoured the use of distance education for the literacy purposes in the following
words;
Distance education has been implemented in many countries for many years
in many different subject areas. Although it is assumed that distance
education is exclusively for subjects that mainly relying on printed study
materials because it is mainly cognitive learning, but through the use of audio
and video recording, telephone contacts, laboratory kits, computer
programme, etc, a great number of other subjects can be learned through
distance education
Moreover, the application of distance education for the provision of literacy is
useful for adult learners. The reason is that distance education provides them with a
route out of the educational mainstream. James and Gardner (1995, p. 15) discussed
some other causes due to which adult illiterates may prefer distance education;
Learners who have had negative experiences in more traditional face-to-face
instruction may prefer the relative anonymity of distance education. Adult
learners often cite convenience or flexibility as reasons for enrolling in
distance education courses. Distance education is a viable alternative for

13

learners with other obligations, such as family and work demands, or lack of
transportation or childcare, which prevents them from attending traditional
classes and failures of conventional classrooms will not benefit students.
Distance education provides distance learners an opportunity to learn at their
own pace and at the time of their own will. It also, according to Sharon (1999, p. 1),
provides learners with the opportunity to learn anytime, anyplace, at any pace. It
allows learners to overcome time and space issues that may impede them from
attending traditional classes.
Another cause, much important and encouraging for the developing countries
to apply distance education for the literacy improvement, of using distance education
for the enhancement of literacy is that it is much cheaper as compared to the formal
approach. Over three decades ago, Coombs and Ahmed (1974) commented that the
heavy reliance on face-to-face oral instruction has absorbed the bulk of resources in
staff costs leaving little or nothing for other aids to the learning .... and caused them
to become the main bottleneck to expanding learning opportunities.
Moreover, distance education provides several lines of action for the effective
and fruitful literacy campaign. It can help adult illiterates to learn skills along with the
traditional 3Rs based literacy. According to Mukhopadhyay (2003, pp. 8-9),
Distance education offers several alternative delivery modes and adult
literacy needs to incorporate, besides the classical three R's, occupational
learning, speaking and articulation, moralistic and societal learning. It will be
necessary to juxtapose the literacy programme needs against the potentiality
of distance education delivery channels.

14

Many countries have used distance education successfully for literacy and
adult education. A number of experiences in open and distance learning need
discussing. Following are some of them:
In Indonesia, some aspects of distance education have been implemented for
Kejar Paket A. The learning materials of Kejar Paket A, together with Khit Pen of
Thailand have been acknowledged as illustration of the effective teaching-learning
packages developed in the region (UNESCO, 1994a, p.17). Although the number of
children who benefited from Kejar Paket A is not available yet, the learning packages
is still interested by those over school-age groups (Soedijarto, 1999). Kejar Paket A
programme send learning materials in the form of modules to the students and
provides tutors for them. The students are organized into study groups, and each
group has regular meeting schedule.
Another example of the use of distance education for the literacy purposes is
from India. In 1988, the Salaam Balaak Trust (SBT), a non government organization
(NGO) run a centre for street children and working children between the age of three
to 18, by applying non-formal and open learning method. Currently the centre that
based in New Delhi operates eight educational centres and four shelters. It has helped
about 5,000 children. The programme covers basic literacy and primary level courses,
which are incorporated with non-conventional learning techniques such as music,
theatre and puppet workshops.
The use of open and distance learning in formal education for nomadic
women in Gobi Desert is reported by Robinson (1999). The programme, run by the
Gobi Women Project, covered five main areas, i. e. (1) livestock rearing techniques
and processing of animal products, (2) family care, (3) literacy support & survival
skills, (4) income generation using locally available raw materials, and (5) basic

15

business knowledge for a new market economy. The learning materials were packed
in the form of booklets and 17 radio programmes. The booklets were centrally
distributed and radio programmes were broadcasted weekly. A number of 15.000
women involved as students and 620 visiting teachers worked for this programme.
Learning support was provided through visiting teachers, local meetings, and crash
courses at district centres. In spite of the limitation, the project was effective in
addressing the educational needs of a vulnerable sector of the population.
At present efforts are being made in the advanced countries to use Internet and
computers for the literacy programmes. Hopey et al. (1996, p. 210) states that:
Adult literacy practitioners use a variety of software packages for reading,
writing, math, and other instructional areas. Use of the Web can range from
supplementing instruction to more complex uses. And, while many
programmes are using more advanced learning technologies, some
programmes utilize "simpler" technology such as books on tape with cassette
recorders and hand-held dictionaries or translators. Closed captioning of
videos has been used as a strategy in ESL classrooms at the Arlington
Education and Employment Programme in Virginia.
Lesson learnt from these experiences in using open and distance education for
non-formal education supports the idea of literacy campaign through distance
education (Wardani, 2001, p. 8). Limitation that exists in each experience can be
challenged by the designer of such programmes to find out ways to overcome the
constraint. The lesson learnt from such programmes of non-formal education can be
referred in reducing the limitation. Therefore, each country with literacy problem can
try to develop a pilot of literacy campaign through distance education. The target

16

group can be narrowed down to those who are 15 years of age or above and reside in
rural as well as remote areas.

1.3

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since its independence in 1947 Pakistan had made many efforts to improve

her literacy rate. In this regard number of plans, policies and programmes had been
devised and implemented by the government of Pakistan. As a result of these efforts
literacy rate has gone up from 13% in 1947 to 54% in 2007. But, this increase is
much below the expectations. Therefore, it is important to explore whether the people
of Pakistan had not given due importance to literacy or the governments provisions
for literacy had been inadequate. Furthermore, there is need to determine why
different literacy programmes could not raise the literacy rate significantly? Since the
government has tried both the formal and non-formal modes of education to achieve
the cherished goal of 100% literacy without much success. Therefore, it becomes
indispensable to attempt another mode. Hence, a study is being carried out to develop
a distance education model for enhancement of literacy in Pakistan

1.4

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Following were objectives of the study:
i.

To assess the need of literacy among Pakistani illiterates.

ii.

To evaluate the literacy provisions of Government of Pakistan.

iii.

To identify the problems in the planning, implementation and

evaluation of literacy programmes in Pakistan.

iv.

To specify the role of distance education for the provision of literacy in

Pakistan.

17

v.

To develop a distance education model for enhancement of literacy

in Pakistan.

1.5

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In all the educational policies and economic development plans literacy of

Pakistani people had remained the first priority of government of Pakistan. It had
allocated funds and manpower to achieve the goal of 100% literacy. Moreover,
experts and various organizations in the public and private sector are still desperately
fighting to control the monster of illiteracy. They seem exhausted but not
disappointed. Hence, it becomes the duty of each Pakistani citizen to participate in the
efforts to eradicate the menace of illiteracy. Therefore, coping with his obligation the
researcher desires to lend a hand in the governments efforts and has undertaken a
study for the provision of a literacy model. The planned model for the enhancement of
illiteracy will provide guidelines for the future planners and administrators, as it will
be developed after a comprehensive review of pros and cons of the previous plans and
policies.
The study is firstly chosen because of its intrinsic importance for the
government agencies working for the promotion of literacy in the country and
secondly, because of its importance to help steer nations human resources with better
planning and management. The theoretical aspect of the model so developed will
serve as a resource material for education planners and for students, teachers, and
researchers concerned with literacy and adult education.
The practical aspect of the model, if adopted in the country, is expected to
enhance the present efforts for the improvement of literacy. At the same time, it is

18

expected that economic activities in the country will increase along with the
educational development. In this way, the outcomes of the study will help in the
economic growth and development of the country.
In a developing country like Pakistan, it becomes difficult for government
alone to combat illiteracy, especially when it is widely spread. In such situation the
role of NGOs is also important. The proposed study will possibly prove helpful for
NGOs to gear up the efforts for the enhancement of illiteracy from the country.
Although in the past distance education had been used for literacy purposes in
Pakistan but, the scale of its use was much limited. In this regard, the first attempt was
Pakistan Televisions Adult Functional Literacy Project. Its first phase was launched
on October 12, 1975 by the Pakistan Television Corporation with assistance from
Adult Basic Education Society (ABES) of Gujranwala. Similarly, the Functional
Education Project for Rural Areas (FEPRA) was the second attempt of this type. This
project was launched with the assistance of Allama Iqbal Open University from 1982
to 1985. As both of these projects had limited success therefore, the present study will
help such other projects and programmes to work effectively for the enhancement of
literacy in Pakistan.
A number of people are presently working to develop materials and generate
resources for various literacy programmes. They will be able to benefit from the
findings of the study. Similarly, institutions in Pakistan like AIOU, which are actively
participating in the national development tasks by educating and training the people,
will also be the beneficiaries of this study.
Literate society is always more civilized, disciplined, united and productive
than the illiterate one. It always enjoys much prosperity and happiness. Moreover,

19

literacy is the source of awareness and development. Therefore, the prescribed

model will possibly be a source to improve the social behaviour and economic
condition of the people of Pakistan. Above all Pakistani illiterate people will get
maximum benefit from the model as efforts for their literacy will be initiated in a
proper and planned manner. Therefore, it will become possible to make millions of
illiterate people literacy-oriented with the help of the model developed in the light of
the proposed study.

1.6

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

In view of the limited time and resources at the disposal of researcher, the

study was delimited to: i.

Develop a theoretical distance education model for enhancement of

literacy in Pakistan.

ii.

Develop a distance education model for enhancement of literacy in

Pakistan under the administrative control of Allama Iqbal Open
University Islamabad.

iii.

The provisions of literacy in educational policies and five years plans

of government of Pakistan since 1947.

iv.

Adult male illiterates living in the rural areas of the Punjab province of
Pakistan.

v.

Literacy instructors and Executive District Officers (E. D. Os) literacy

working in Punjab province during 2004-2005.

20

1.7

ASSUMPTIONS
Following were assumptions of the study:
i.

A review of previous efforts for the improvement of literacy in

Pakistan is helpful in developing a distance education model for
enhancement of literacy in the country

ii.

Adult illiterates can be motivated to join distance education literacy

programme.

iii.

NGOs are ready to cooperate in launching a distance education

literacy programme.

1.8

PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY

The study was designed in survey type which consisted of the following

procedural steps:
1.8.1 Review of Related Literature: To develop an operational definition of the
literacy and to become acquainted with literacy efforts in Pakistan a
considerable quantity of related literature was studied. Moreover, the related
literature about role of distance education in enhancement of literacy was
studied for validation and authenticity of the distance education literacy
model.
1.8.2 Population: The population of the study consisted of:
i.

Personnel involved in the development of adult literacy programmes,

policies and/or material from;
a.

The Department of Distance and Non-formal Education, and

Institute of Mass Education Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad. Total number of academic staff was 13.

21

b. EFA Wing, Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan. Total

population of this category comprised 8 officials.
ii.

E. D. Os literacy working in different districts of Punjab province of

Pakistan. Total number of E. D. Os literacy in 2004-05 was 29.

iii.

Instructors of ongoing literacy programmes in 2004-05 administered

by Executive District Officers Literacy. There were 4,239 literacy
instructors working in adult literacy programmes throughout the
Punjab province. But, the target population was 1,028.

iv.

Adult male illiterates living in the rural areas of Punjab province.

1.8.3 Sample: The sample for the study consisted of:

i.

Total population of the personnel involved in development of adult

literacy programmes, policies and/or material from Allama Iqbal Open
University Islamabad, EFA Wing, Ministry of Education Government
of Pakistan and the E. D. Os literacy (i.e. i & ii) was taken as sample
by adopting the technique of census sampling. Therefore, sample size
for AIOU personnel was 13 and for EFA personnel it was 8.

ii.

Technique of proportionate stratified sampling was applied for the

selection of sample from the population of instructors. Population was
divided on the basis of literacy rate into four strata viz. districts of
very high literacy rate, high literacy rate, very low literacy rate and
low literacy rate. Two districts with minimum and maximum literacy
rates from each stratum were selected. Then 50% of the total
instructors were randomly taken as sample. Hence, 514 out of 1,028
instructors, working in the selected districts, were taken as the sample.

22

iii. Technique of convenient sampling was used to select sample from the
very large and wide spread population of adult male illiterates. From
the above stated districts, one village from each district was selected
and 25% of all the illiterates living in it were randomly taken as
sample. In this way 630 adult male illiterates were selected as sample
of the study from a population of 2,519 individuals
1.8.4 Development of Instrument: Separate questionnaires for E. D. Os literacy,
personnel from Allama Iqbal Open University and literacy instructors were
developed on five point rating scale and were validated by try-out. The adult
illiterates and the personnel of EFA Wing Ministry of Education, Government
of Pakistan were interviewed through structured interview schedule.
Moreover, two focused group discussions with EFA and AIOU officials were
organized to discuss the role and effectiveness of distance education in adult
literacy programmes and the potential role of NGOs in such programme.
1.8.5 Collection of Data: For data collection questionnaires were personally
delivered or mailed to the literacy instructors, E. D. Os literacy, and personnel
from Allama Iqbal Open University whereas, the officials of EFA Wing,
Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan and adult illiterates were
interviewed. In the similar way, in order to discuss the role and effectiveness
of

distance

education

in

adult

literacy

programmes

and

possible

responsibilities of NGOs in managing literacy canters in such programme,

researcher personally arranged two focused group discussion sessions with the
EFA and AIOU officials. Similarly, document analysis was also made to
review the literacy provisions of the government of Pakistan.

23

1.8.6 Data Analysis: For the purpose of data analysis one sample t test was
applied to analyse the data collected through the questionnaires of literacy
instructors, E. D. Os literacy and personnel of Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad. The responses obtained through the scheduled interviews of
officials from EFA Wing, Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan and
adult illiterates, were analyzed on the basis of percentage. Moreover, for
analyzing the achievements of objectives of the study sum of scores for all the
items corresponding to an objective was calculated. These items were selected
from the quantitative data i.e. the data collected through the questionnaires for
the literacy instructors, E. D. Os literacy and personnel of Allama Iqbal Open
University. Depending upon the range of sum of scores categories
representing the achievement of objectives, viz. low, average, high, passive
and active, were devised. Documents analysis was also made to evaluate the
literacy provisions of Government of Pakistan. The qualitative data was also
consolidated in the analysis of achievement of objectives.

24

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF LITERACY

Literacy is a basic human need and night to knowledge. It has meaning only
when it leads to participation in cultural and social activities. It is empowerment that
means ability to make decisions and control affairs of ones own life, economically,
socially and politically, it is the first step in a life-long earning process of man and
women. Life without literacy is life without hope, security and freedom. It is the
foundation of all skills and pre-requisite for economic development. (Niaz, 1995, p.1).
Moreover, according to Stromquist (2005, p. 12) in modern societies literacy skills are
fundamental to decision-making, personal empowerment, active and passive
participation in local and global social community.
At the same time literacy is helpful in the development of human relations, the
economy, the political and social structure of nations. All these aspects are precisely
described below.

2.1.1 Human Benefits of Literacy

Literacy is useful at the individual level in inculcating humanistic etiquettes
and manners. The human benefits are related to factors such as the improved selfesteem, empowerment, creativity and critical reflection that can be produced by
participation in adult literacy programmes and the practice of literacy. Human benefits
are intrinsically valuable and may also be instrumental in realizing other benefits of

literacy like improved health, increased political participation and so on (UNESCO,

2006, p. 137).
The most apparent aspects of the human characters influenced by the literacy
teaching are the awareness, empowerment and self-esteem. Bown (1990, p.21) claims
that with the acquisition of literacy masses become more confident and courageous.
The awareness produced among them because of the newly imparted knowledge help
them to demonstrate decisive and confident behaviour. They become more active in
their social and private activities.
Literacy can also empower learners to take individual as well as collective
action in various contexts of their every day life, such as household, workplace and
community. These actions can affect in two main related ways. First, according to
Easton (2005, p. 32) literacy programmes themselves may be designed and conducted
so as to make participants enough able to become authors of their own learning,
developers of their own knowledge and partners in dialogue about limited situations
in their lives.
Second, literacy programmes can contribute to broader socio-economic
processes of empowerment provided they take place in a supportive environment.
Many learners of both the genders want to become able to read and write letters, deal
with money only because they desire be to self-reliant and to exert control over
everyday-life situations, citing, for instance, keeping secrets and not being cheated
(Lind, 1996, p. 45).
Briefly it can be said that literacy makes the people more consistent in their
attitudes and actions, more polite and civilized in their dealings, more accurate and
perfect in their decisions and reliable in their every day life. Moreover, literacy helps

26

in building confidence among individuals by providing them the necessary knowledge

and skills to combat their problems and difficulties.

2.1.2 Economic Benefits of Literacy

An educated and skilled workforce is one of the important element of the
knowledge-based economy. Increasingly, comparative advantages among nations
come less from natural resources or cheap labour and more from technical innovations
and the competitive use of knowledge. Education is one of the most powerful
instruments known for reducing poverty and inequality and for laying the basis for
sustained economic growth. Literacy is a word that is usually associated with the
more positive aspects of human civilization, like social and economic development.
Whether in the domain of religious tradition, the invention of the printing press, or the
internet, literacy has been central to many of our most profound human and historical
developments.
Literacy has a wide range of advantages and benefits for economic, social and
political development of a country. The positive relationship between economic
development and literacy levels and the impact of investment in education on
economic growth are well established. The transition of the world toward a
knowledge based economy is adding to the importance of human resources in general,
and of education in particular. Literacy is linked to economic success as literacy levels
help determines the kind of jobs people find, the salaries they make and their ability to
upgrade their work skills. According to Darlene, et al. (2001, p. 11);
Literacy and adult education have been recognized as essential elements of
human resource development. It is a big factor in the economic success of a
society. Thats because our literacy levels help determine the kind of jobs we

27

find, the salaries we make and whether were likely to experience

unemployment in our lives.
Literacy is one of the major objectives of the educational system, and the
number of years of education has long been found to be a good predictor of individual
earnings. How much of the benefits of education can be accounted for by an
individuals level of literacy is described by Osberg (2001, p. 7) in the following way;
The first examination of men employed full time and full year shows that
literacy accounts for about 30% of the return to education. Whatever way the
literacy score is stretched for the full-time, full-year work force, it is always
statistically significant.
In the same way while discussing the benefits of the acquisition of literacy
Osberg (2001, p. 08) describes the impact of literacy upon the personal earnings
regarding ones investment in the process of literacy is as under;
If we look at males who work full time, full year, and measure education by
credentials obtained, the conclusion that literacy skills explain a significant
fraction of the return to education is altered. In some cases, the impact of
literacy skills appears greater. It appears that including a control for measured
literacy skills reduces by 40% to 45% the estimated benefit of a university
education. Although the impact of including measured literacy with very low
education is less (a 16% to 26% decline), this examination still indicates that
much of the measured benefit of education is due to literacy skills.
Likewise, Orazem and Gunnarsson (2003, p.54) state that a substantial body of
evidence indicates that literacy increases the productivity and earning potential of a
population. An educated person earns more and has greater labour mobility. While
analysing the impact of literacy ACCI (2005, p.1) observes that literacy not only

28

enhances the individuals earning, it also has positive influence upon the economic
growth of a country;
Around the world, renewed emphasis is being placed by governments and
employers on literacy and numeracy skills for all people to enhance their
employability, job satisfaction, level of remuneration and community
participation. Recent OECD research has indicated that raising a countrys
literacy score by 1 per cent leads to a rise in productivity of 2.5 per cent with
the flow-on increase of 1.5 per cent in GDP.
Educational investments are also crucial for the sustained economic growth
that low-income countries are seeking to stimulate, and without which long-term
poverty reduction is impossible. Literacy directly contributes to worker productivity,
and can promote better natural resource management and more rapid technological
adaptation and innovation (Hanushek and Kimko, 2000, p. 97)..
Moreover, literacy is one of the most powerful instruments societies have for
reducing deprivation and vulnerability. It helps lift earnings potential and expands
labour mobility (Sosale, 2000, p. 62). Still, literacy can be thought of as a currency in
any society. It is the most powerful instruments known for reducing poverty and
inequality and for laying the basis for sustained economic growth. It is fundamental
for the construction of democratic societies and dynamic, globally competitive
economies. For individuals and for nations, literacy is the key to creating, applying,
and spreading knowledge.
In the present era, literacy is also recognized as an important tool for national
development. It is also important to describe the contribution of literacy in various
aspects of other development. Literacy is often understood as something that is good
for the individual and society. According to Carr-Hill, et al (1998, p. 45)

29

The education of each individual has the possibility of making others better off
(in addition to the individual benefits). Specifically, a more educated society
may translate into higher rates of innovation, higher overall productivity
through firms ability to introduce new and better production methods, and
faster introduction of new technology.
In short, from the poorest villages in Africa to the city boulevards of
industrialized Europe, one can hear the important economic rationale for literacy
development. Few countries are unconscious to the perception that a literate and
skilled population can have an important impact on the social and economic life of
each nation. Numerous claims have been put forward that a given minimum rate of
literacy is a prerequisite for economic growth in developing countries. In the context
of global competition, adult illiteracy will lead to economic ruin.

2.1.3 Social Benefits of Literacy

Literacy may also have social consequences that are important objectives for
national policy planning. Particularly in developing countries, the gender dimension
of illiteracy has been raised in this regard, as the majority of illiterate or low-literate
adults tend to be female in the poorest developing nations (Stromquist, 1999, p.55).
Furthermore, there are numerous empirical relationships between literacy and fertility,
infant mortality, and so forth. According to Barbara, et al (2003, p. 82) it is admitted
fact that literacy occupies an essential place in the life of the community. Beyond a
reflection on citizenship, we put forward the idea of an active society in which
individuals have a sense of freedom, but also one of responsibility. There will be no
progress for mankind without an awareness that each one of us has for their freedom
and their responsibility, whether in their community, their nation or in the world.

30

Links between education and society are strong, and each influences the other.
Education can help change society by improving and strengthening skills, values,
communications, mobility, personal prosperity and freedom. UNESCO (2006, p. 141)
observes the influence of literacy upon the social life of an individual in the following
way;
The practice of literacy can be instrumental in peoples achievement of a range
of capabilities such as maintaining good health and living longer, learning
throughout life, controlling reproductive behaviour, raising healthy children
and educating them. Improving literacy levels thus has potentially large social
benefits, such as increased life expectancy, reduced child mortality and
improved childrens health. The evidence has often focused on the benefits of
education, as opposed to literacy per se, but evidence on the effects of adult
literacy programmes is beginning to accumulate.
Likewise, the services of literacy regarding social life are much obvious in
four major aspects namely health, gender equality, education, and reproductive
behaviour. Above all literacy also has implications for the safety of the communities.
Along with the traditional components of literacy, citizens may need higher order
thinking and problem-solving skills, computer and other technology-related skills,
literacy skills necessary for workplace, and literacy skills appropriate for family life.
The acquisition of literacy benefits personal health. Particularly powerful for
girls, it profoundly affects reproductive health, and also improves child mortality and
welfare through better nutrition and higher immunization rates. A growing body of
longitudinal research evaluating the health benefits of literacy programmes points to
the same impact as that of education, and indeed in some cases, to a greater impact.
For example, infant mortality was less among Nicaraguan mothers who had

31

participated in an adult literacy campaign than among those who had not, and the
reduction was greater for those made literate in the literacy campaign than for those
made literate in primary school (Sandiford et al., 1995, pp. 517). Similarly, Bolivian
women who attended literacy and basic education programmes displayed gains in
health-related knowledge and behaviour, unlike women who had not participated in
such programmes (UNESCO, 2006, p. 142). Moreover, it seems that in the future
education may be the single most effective preventive weapon against HIV/AIDS.
As far as the impact of literacy on gender equality is concerned, it had proved
helpful in reducing any kind of such inequality. Education is a great leveler whereas
the illiteracy being one of the strongest predictors of poverty. Primary education plays
a catalytic role for those most likely to be poor, including girls, ethnic minorities,
orphans, disabled people, and rural families. The gender inequality between the men
and the women is being tried to reduce through giving more stress to the female
literacy, limiting the ways in which gender equality can be addressed holistically and
directly through the programmes themselves. The programmes have thus tended to
concentrate specifically on womens inequality rather than gender equality.
Participation in adult literacy programmes does enable women to gain access to and
challenge male domains by entering male-dominated areas of work, learning
languages of power previously associated with men and participating in household
finances. Examples of elite languages newly available to women include English in
Uganda and posh Bangla in Bangladesh (Fiedrich and Jellema, 2003). Similarly, in
some Bangladesh households, literacy has enabled women to become involved in the
financial management of the household, previously controlled by men (Maddox,
2005, pp. 137-51). In India, an evaluation of a literacy programme showed that
women learners had a strong desire to earn. Similarly, women may become aware of

32

further education possibilities or of information about AIDS prevention through

literacy.
Another important aspect of the social advantages of literacy is that it has
significant educational benefits. Literacy on one hand supports the cause of education.
But, on the other hand it is itself influenced by the level of education. For example,
the parents who themselves are educated, whether through schooling or adult
programmes, are more likely to send their children to school and more able to help the
children in the course of their schooling (UNESCO, 2006, p. 142). In general, the
effects of literacy are more likely to be determined by formal schooling, socialisation,
and the cultural practices of a particular society than by literacy per se (Patel, 2005).
Thus, literacy or basic education has really become an effective tool to help
people solve the problems they face in their daily life and also assist them to live in
harmony with their rapidly changing environment. This shows that literacy today
plays important role as the tools that will enable individual to create harmony between
him and todays rapidly changing surroundings especially the world today.

2.1.4 Cultural Benefits of Literacy

Literacy has an important relation with the culture. This relation is of two
modes. Firstly, literacy influences the culture. It is helpful in bringing the cultural
change and preservation of the present cultural values and norms. Moreover, the
transformation of culture, in one way or the other, is also dependent of literacy.
Secondly, literacy itself is influenced by the prevailing cultural environment as
planning of a literacy programmes is usually done according to the present culture
along with the future needs and requirements. That is why the literacy materials, and
the strategies of literacy imparting always correspond with the cultural aspects.

33

At the same the cultural benefits of literacy are harder to identify clearly than
benefits in terms of political participation. Adult literacy programmes may facilitate
the transmission of certain values and promote transformation of other values,
attitudes and behaviours through critical reflection. They also provide access to
written culture, which the newly literate may choose to explore independently of the
cultural orientation of the literacy programmes in which they participated. Adult
literacy programmes can thus be instrumental in preserving and promoting cultural
openness and diversity. However, any effect that literacy may have on the culture
(i.e. what people believe and how they do things) of an individual or group will be
slow, will not be easily and immediately accessible, and will be difficult to identify as
the outcome of a single intervention such as a literacy and adult education programme
(Farah, 2005).
The impact of literacy in the cultural change is also very important. It brings in
to action new concepts, norms and values after enabling the people to analyze their
existing attitudes and behaviours as literacy programmes can help challenge attitudes
and behavioural patterns. Indeed, this type of cultural transformation is central to the
Freirean approach, which aims to develop skills of critical reflection (Freire, 1985).
Literacy programme also try to affect other cultural aspects as stated by UNESCO
(2006, p. 140);
Many programmes also aim to promote values such as equity, inclusion,
respect for cultural diversity, peace and active democracy. However, such
transformation typically is limited.
Adult literacy programmes can help preserve cultural diversity. In particular,
literacy programmes that make use of minority languages have the potential to
improve peoples ability to participate in their own culture. This has been observed in

34

programmes whose outcomes included the writing down of folk tales (Chebanne et
al., 2001),
Now keeping in mind the above presented framework of literacy it becomes
essential that the planning of literacy programmes should be done very carefully so
that it can become inline with the ever changing culture.

2.1.5 Political Benefits of Literacy

Literacy is a tool for creating the political awareness among the masses. It
helps them to understand the nature of government in their country and ways for
effective communication with it for the solution of their problems. Literacy possesses
the empowering potential that can be translated into the increased political awareness
and participation. It in return contributes to the quality of public policies and the
democracy.
As far as the relationship between education and political participation is
concerned, it is well established (Chebanne, et al., 2001, p.13). Educated people are to
some extent more likely to vote and voice more tolerant attitudes and democratic
values. According to Carron, et al. (1989) participation in adult literacy programmes
is also correlated with increased participation in trade unions, community action and
national political life, especially when empowerment is at the core of programme
design. Evident are there that the expansion of education may contribute to the
expansion of democracy and vice versa (UNESCO, 2006, p. 139). In return the
democratic classroom practices are the most effective means of promoting civic
knowledge and engagement among students.
Likewise, literacy has the potential to benefit disadvantaged ethnic groups and
the minorities of different states. But, this benefit is of literacy become doubtful

35

because in some countries the traditional caste system is too strong that it does not
permit the members of minority group or disadvantaged people even to have a meal
with them or allow them to participate in their ceremonies or social .activities
(Hannum and Buchmann, 2003, p. 11).
In short,,, the most important aspect of education is that without it all learning
comes to a stop. We would literally be thrown back in time to before there was
reading or writing. Literacy is important because it makes us who we are. It makes us
individual, and distinct. Literacy is the key to all learning and the path to the future.
Moreover, the advantages of literacy go on forever, but one more example of how
literacy helps us is that without it we are nothing in today's world. Being illiterate in
today's world often means low paying jobs, little to no respect from our peers, and the
constant question of how long will I be able to work here. Being literate gives us
advantages; being illiterate gives us none, it only gives us obstacles.

2.2

LITERACY EFFORTS IN PAKISTAN

The government of Pakistan has to pursue two obligations of the teachings of

the Holy Quran and the ideology of Pakistan. These include that education will be
accessible to all citizens of the state and it shall enable them to prepare enlightened
and civilized individuals committed to the cause of Islam and national development
(Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 1).
Therefore, since the inception of Pakistan government has adopted number of
measures for the improvement of literacy rate in the country. But these measures did
not prove much helpful in improving the literacy rate in the country. As according to
Ghafoor and Khan (1994, p. 12) since independence there has been a thrust on
quantitative expansion of primary education making it accessible to the specific age

36

group (5-9) children by gender and geographic region. But despite hectic efforts the
number of illiterates continued to increase at a gradual speed eating up all the
endeavours initiated by the government of the Pakistan. For example the number of
illiterates increased from 20.25 million in 1951 to 48.8 million in 1998 (UNESCO
2002, p. i). Although during this period the number of literates also increased but
rapidly increasing population made all these efforts useless ending in failure.
Nevertheless, for the improvement of education in the country government of
Pakistan has prepared several policies and plans since 1947. All these documents
contain measures for the enhancement of literacy and adult education along with the
betterment of formal education. A brief review of all these policies and plans is
presented in the following section.

2.2.1 Literacy Programmes in Pakistan

A number of initiatives during the last century aimed at spreading literacy and
education acquired a new momentum because of the freedom struggle in Indo-Pak
sub-continent in first half of 20th century. The efforts were further strengthened and
intensified after independence with formulation of various national plans and
programmes.
At the provision of provincial autonomy by the British Government in 1930s
to some provinces, a number of mass literacy programs were initiated under the
leadership of nationalist leaders who took it as a sacred mission and integrated it with
the independence movement. These mass literacy movements during the decade
1931-1941 resulted in substantial improvement in the literacy levels. The literacy rate
went up by 6.6 percent from 9.5 in 1931 to 16.01 in 1941. This is in contrast to the
earlier decadal growth rate of 0.5 percent during 1901-1911, 1.3 percent during 1911-

37

1921 and 2.3 percent during 1921-1931. In terms of actual numbers, it is worth noting
that more than 24 million were made literate during this period as compared to 2 to 9
million persons per decade in the earlier periods (Rao, 2002, p. 4).
Literacy and adult education have been recognized as essential elements of
human resource development. Therefore, since independence, literacy and adult
education have been an integral part of educational policies and national plans. The
impact of these policies and plans can be assessed when they are converted into
programmes/projects and are actually implemented on the ground (PMLC, 1997, p.
3). Following are the various adult literacy drives and schemes launched in Pakistan
since independence.
2.2.1.1

Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Programme (1953)

In 1953 first national attempt was made to set up a kind of community

development system on large scale known as Village AID, or "The Village

Agricultural and Industrial Development Programme. Village AID operations were
carried out in 79 development areas scattered all over Pakistan to cover 20% of all
villages of the country (Development World, 2005). This was essentially a
community education programme for the rural areas and was a promising beginning
to the effort (Javid, 2003). Since literacy was a prerequisite to real social and
economic progress, it was decided to include the organizational aspect of literacy
effort as a Village AID responsibility. To cope with this responsibility an educational
sector was set up at one of the training schools to train the literacy teachers and to
produce teaching aids and reading materials for the new literates (Govt. of Pakistan,
1959, pp. 198-99). These specially trained literacy workers organized and taught
literacy classes in the villages and trained additional literacy teachers from the
villages (Govt. of Pakistan, 1959, p. 200).

38

Under Village AID programme a massive literacy programme was prepared as

a part of the over all rural development plan. About 267 trained literacy workers were
prepared during 1961 through the Village AID training school established at
Lalamusa in Punjab. These literacy workers spread out over whole of the then West
Pakistan to establish 1215 literacy centres that produced 20 thousand literate adults
(APPEAL, 1991, p. 34).
Overall, the V-AID programme had some success in the initial period, but the
progress slowed down subsequently. Village AID Programme was the first organized
attempt for the promotion of literacy and rural development in Pakistan. Since the
entire programme was funded through the foreign assistance, it came to an end
abruptly after the foreign assistance was terminated. Furthermore, the temporary
nature of the V-AID organization could not provide adequate incentives to most of the
staff on deputation to the programme by their mother departments. Hence, the
programme suffered from low staff motivation (Development World, 2005). Another
cause of abandoning the Village AID programme was the introduction of the Basic
Democracies System in 1959 due to which Union Councils took over all the literacy
centres (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 165). Despite its overall failure, the implementation of this
programme has sown the seeds for the idea of participation at the local levels in a
situation within the rural areas largely characterized by semi-feudal social structures
and authoritarian rule.
2.2.1.2

Literacy Programme under Basic Democracies (1964-69)

At wrapping up of Village AID programme due to lack of funds the task of

literacy promotion was shifted to the Basic Democracies System introduced by the
president of Pakistan 1964. The programme was conceptually based on the then
internationally re-known Comilla Project in East Pakistan. It was closely tied up with

39

the Basic Democracies institutions that were meant to find local remedies for local
problems. As it was an effort to evoke peoples participation and by that to impart a
higher momentum into local development in the rural sector therefore, the local
council system of the Basic Democracies provided local support to the programme
(Pragmatic Publishing, 2004).
Under this programme a study group was set-up to prepare pilot projects on
literacy in 1964. Union councils in rural areas and town committees in urban areas
were entrusted the responsibility of organizing literacy centres in their purview
(PMLC, 1997, p. 4). Local Government and Rural Development Department
(LGRDD) contributed significantly in planning and implementing different literacy
programmes with the coordination of the Union councils in rural areas and the town
committees in the urban areas (Ghafoor and Khan, 1994, p. 42).
The efficiency of literacy efforts under Basic Democracies System could not
be evaluated because of the 1965 war between India and Pakistan and political crises
in the country in post war period. Although efforts of literacy improvement made
under Basic Democracies System did not yield expected results, yet it paved the way
for the use of local institutions in the literacy efforts or other aspects of social welfare.
As with the V-AID also the RWP only had little positive effect on the rural poor.
2.2.1.3

Peoples Works Programme, 1973 (Sipah-E-Khidmat)

To achieve the literacy targets of National Education Policy 1972 Government

of Pakistan decided to launch a literacy campaign throughout the country with the
help of volunteers from the public and private sectors. Therefore, literacy and adult
education were regarded as an important component in the Peoples Works
Programme 1973 that was basically a rural development programme (Pragmatic

40

Publishing, 2004). Under this programme the unemployed educated youth, rural
development workers, school teachers, retired government employees and volunteers
were engaged to undertake literacy work. The programme was simultaneously
launched in the provinces of Punjab and Sindh on November 1, 1973 (Ghafoor and
Khan, 1994, p. 41). The volunteers selected for programme were trained as literacy
teachers at the government training institute Lalamusa so that they can perform the
task in the best possible way. Total number of volunteers who received training was
21650 including 650 master trainers. Summary of the trained personnel is given
below:
Table 2.1: Summary of the trained personnel for Peoples Works Programme
S. No.

Category

Punjab

Sindh

Total

Master trainers

250

400

650

Unemployed educated volunteers

6000

5000

11000

Rural development workers

2000

2000

School teachers

3000

5000

8000

Source: Ghafoor, A. & A. S. Khan (1994). Literacy efforts in Pakistan, from rhetoric
to action, Islamabad, National Education and Training Commission, Ministry of
Education (p. 40).
Each volunteer was to be paid a nominal honorarium for his/her services. Each
person was supposed to teach 50 illiterates at a time. An annual target of imparting
literacy to 400000 illiterates was fixed (Govt. of Pakistan, 1973a, p. 17).

41

This scheme was discontinued before completing its 1st phase in 1974 because
of the defective planning, unrealistic targets and absence of a proper monitoring and
supervision systems. Moreover, the main stress of the government during this period
was upon the reforms in formal system of education, like nationalization of the private
educational institutions. At the same time the programme was not properly advertised
due to which very few adult illiterates joined the literacy centres. Some causes for
abandoning of this programme are discussed by the Pragmatic Publishing (2004) as
under;
the whole administrative machinery at the district level was really not
geared to reinforce the PWP operations. Because of that there was an almost
complete lack of understanding of the PWP philosophy at the field level. No
government department seemed to sacrifice its autonomy for the sake of
development work in rural areas. As a consequence, line agency co-ordination
- particularly at the local level - was completely lacking After the abolition
of Basic Democracies, the rural people were again detached from their means
of participation. The peoples elected local government institutions, which
were meant to be pivotal to the participatory implementation of the PWP did
not exist anymore and the project committees and district bodies were based
on nominations by the political elite.
People Works Programme had a few cases of significant achievements
scattered all over the country, but these cases were the exception. There is evidence
that overall impact of the programme was far below the aspirations.

42

2.2.1.3

Literacy Programmes through Local Councils in Punjab

Province (1974-81)

This programme was started in Punjab province of Pakistan after abandoning

the Sipah-E-Khidmat programme in 1974. Under this programme, literacy work was
mainly assigned to the Department of Local Government and Rural Development
(LGandRD). A Directorate of Adult Education was established to look after the
implementation of the programme. No separate staff or infrastructure was engaged to
monitor and supervise the functioning of programme. The secretary union council was
assigned an additional responsibility to supervise the literacy centres in his area
(PMLC, 1997, p.6).
Part time teachers were engaged to impart literacy skills to adult illiterates.
Teachers along with the supervisors were trained by Department of Local
Government and Rural Development to successfully organize the literacy programme.
A nominal honorarium of 125 rupees per month was paid to these teachers (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1974, p. 25). According to the progress report compiled by the Department
of Local Government and Rural Development Punjab about 592975 illiterates were
made literate under this programme.

2.2.1.4 Pakistan Televisions Adult Functional Literacy Project 1973.

Recognizing that television is a powerful resource for imparting of literacy the
Education Division of the Pakistan Television Corporation prepared a proposal in
August 1973 for launching an experimental project for the improvement literacy in
Pakistan. To cover major cost of the project UNESCO provided financial aid of 220
million US Dollars (APPEAL, 1991, p.11). The first phase of the project was
launched on October 12, 1975 by the Pakistan Television Corporation with assistance
from Adult Basic Education Society (ABES) of Gujranwala. The first cycle of the

43

project was completed on April 30, 1978 and the sixth and final phase of the project
completed on May 19, 1981 (Ghafoor and Khan, 1994, p. 42).
The package contained a total of 156 tele-lessons, 10 lessons on teacher
training, 78 lessons on reading, and numeracy, and 68 lessons for post literacy. A
primer named Nia DIN (new day) was developed through intensive consultation of
experts. Subjects such as health, hygiene nutrition, child and maternal care, sanitation,
home economics, and basic agricultural practices were introduced in a story form in
the context of family relationships (APPEAL, 1991, p.12
Pakistan Television from August 2 to 14, 1975, telecasted an intensive teacher
training course. For this purpose Teacher, s Guide prepared by ABES was used.
Community viewing centres were established with the involvement of NG0s. These
centres consisted of a TV set, a trained instructor supervising and guiding 15 viewers.
A total of 1091000 illiterate persons were made literate through six cycles of
the project (PMLC, 1997, p.7). The average cost of making an adult literate through
TV was Rs. 108 per capita as compared to the per capita cost of Rs.650 for formal
primary education (APPEAL, 1991, p.12).

2.2.1.5

Experimental Pilot Project Integrating Education and Rural

Development 1977

The Ministry of Education in collaboration with UNESCO launched

Experimental Pilot Project Integrating Education and Rural Development (EPPIERD)
in 1977. The overall aims of the project were:
i.

To develop and structure curricula, textbooks and instruction aids for

children, young people and adults.

ii.

To establish educational services for primary school leavers.

44

iii.

To develop new communication and learning techniques for adult

education (APPEAL, 1991, p. 12).

Women Education Centres, two mosque schools and a middle school was
established in the rural areas of Federal Capital Territory, Islamabad during the period
from October 1977 to February 1978.
An evaluation of this project was carried out during October 1980 and the
following were the findings and recommendations (Khan, et al. 2000, p. 2),
i.

In its four years, the project has made most impact through the
community and non-formal activities, especially the women education
centres. It has been a stimulating force toward the self-help attitudes
being encouraged by the Government.

ii.

The main purpose of the project, i.e. its impact on the re-orientation of
Primary School learning, has had less attention. New and more urgent
efforts are needed if this aspect is to be implemented

Though EPPIERD has not achieved the potential expected, this does not
mean that its concepts should not be further explored.

2.2.1.6 Rural Education and Development Programme 1982-83

In view of the findings the project was re-organized under the name Rural
Education and Development (READ) in 1982 and was assigned to Primary and NonFormal Education Wing of the Ministry of Education in Islamabad. UNICEF provided
financial support for continuance of this project.
READ undertook to pursue the objectives laid down by EPPIERD. The
overall objective of the READ project was to develop effective teaching-learning
methods of assisting children, young people and adults in rural areas to prepare them

45

for effective integration into the economic, social and cultural development of
Pakistan. The project provided a package of five components i.e. mosque schools;
women education centres; village workshops; community viewing centres; and adult
literacy centres (APPEAL, 1991, p. 12).
The project was launched in January 1982 and evaluated in 1983. The
evaluation report recommended its extension to 2000 villages all over the country, yet
it could not be continued for other reasons.

2.2.1.7

Functional Education Project for Rural Areas

From 1982 to 1985, IEC in partnership with the Allama Iqbal Open University
(AIOU) was involved in a programme called The Functional Education Project for
Rural Areas which was implemented in Dinga, a locality in district Gujrat Pakistan.
The overall aim of the project was to assist AIOU to acquire the knowledge, skills and
experience needed to mount a long-term programme of basic functional education for
learners in rural areas.
FEPRA was initiated as an experimental programme to address the learning
needs of rural people of Pakistan, who are predominantly poor (Perraton, 2000).
Based on the extensive research and careful development of material, Allama Iqbal
Open University worked out a style of teaching, group study led by villagers, which
matched the needs of village people.
The objectives of the project were as under;
i.

To develop and try out ways of gathering information about

rural learners for:
a. Helping to decide the type of courses beneficial for community
of rural areas with particular characteristics

46

b. Developing an appropriate teaching methodology

c. Helping in identification of content, level and treatment through
knowledge
d. Carrying out developmental testing of learning materials
ii

To develop an out reach system for effective delivery to village

learners using distance teaching technique.

This was project of AIOU with assistance from UK, which had developed and
launched functional education courses for rural illiterates. These courses were: (i)
child care, (ii) poultry-keeping at home, (iii) livestock management, (iv) electricity in
the villages and (v) agricultural credits. This project was merged into the main stream
of the AIOU system (Khan, et al. 2000, p. 2). The main medium used was audiocassettes, with additional resources (IEC, 2004).
Since the Project was meant for illiterates, cassettes were prepared in local
dialects that explained the pictures and diagrams drawn on the flip charts. Each group
of the learners had a group leader who was trained in operating radio cassettes and to
follow the instructions given therein. Built-in discussion intervals were provided in
the cassettes.
The main teaching methods and media include printed teaching material,
illustrated flip charts, and audiocassettes, and group meetings led by group leaders.
Field workers were recruited who trained group leaders in the techniques of group
study and supervised their work in the field. At the end of each session the group
leader completed a feedback form that provided information for later sessions in the
course for the management and for evaluation.
FEPRA was an experiment. Its main findings, according to Asghar (1985, p.
46), are as under:

47

i.

The strategy and technique developed for outreach system was

successful.

ii.

Learners were responsive to the instructional materials and generally

took part actively in learning activities.

iii.

Training of group leaders is quite important.

iv.

Seasonal adjustment in courses should be made.

v.

A full-time employee with the assistance of a part-time supervisor can

assist 30 groups.

The project was reaching about 1500 learners and it was estimated that the
same structure could reach about 5000 a year. It had some success in reaching its
target audience of people with little formal education: 55 per cent of the learners were
illiterate and 66 percent had either not gone to school or progresses no further than
lower primary level. The evidence is consistent in showing that the project succeeded
in establishing a viable and effective system for rural education (Edirisingha, 1999,
pp. 11-12).

2.2.1.8

100% Literate Islamabad Project (1983-84).

To make the federal capital city of Islamabad 100% literate a literacy project
was undertaken by LAMEC from November 1983 to April 1984. For this purpose 103
literacy centres were set up in Islamabad (Federal Area). These literacy centres were
operated in the private houses, mosques, schools and community centres. The face-toface teaching method was employed with an instructor present at the literacy centre
with the adult illiterates (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 47). To teach the adult illiterates part time
teachers were engaged. These literacy teachers were paid nominal honorarium by the
organizing authority. The face-to-face instruction was followed by the repeated

48

television literacy lessons. Free of cost literacy primers were provided by LAMEC to
the adult illiterates (Ghafoor, and Khan, 1994, p. 46). The timing of the literacy
centres was flexible in accordance to the leisure time of the adult illiterates.
According to an estimate 2060 illiterates were made literate under this experimental
programme (PLC. 1998).
The 100% Literate Islamabad project was not well administered and properly
organized. No supervising or monitoring staff was appointed to monitor the efficiency
of the adult illiterates. Hence, the entire efficiency of the project depended upon the
literacy teachers. But, they were not provided any kind of training to handle such
programme. Moreover, the project was run just for the period of six months that is not
enough to know the pros and cons of any experimental programme. The out come of
the project, i.e. 2060 literates, is evident of its failure in achieving the prescribed
objectives.

2.2.1.9

The National Literacy Plan (1983-93).

In 1983, Local Government and Rural Development Department prepared a

Ten Year National Literacy Plan (1983-1993). It was the first national level plan
which fixed a target of making literate 40 million persons aged ten or beyond in two
phases of five years each. The order of priorities in terms of population groups was (a)
rural females (b) rural males (c) urban females and (d) urban males (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1983, p. 8). The estimated budget was Rs. 5750 million.
The programme aimed to bring a greater understanding of Islamic values, the
promotion of community harmony and mobilizing masses to participate actively in
the national development activities (Govt. of Pakistan, 1983, p. 6). The specific aim of
the plan was to enable the adults to read with understanding, write in national or

49

regional languages and to learn the arithmetic operations needed in every day life
(Govt. of Pakistan, 1983, p.7).
The target of the first phase of National Literacy Plan was to make 15 million
illiterate youth and adults (10 +) literate within a period of five years (1983-88) at the
cost of 750 million. The NLP was implemented at two levels i.e. at the National and
the District level. At the national level NGOs and CBOs were engaged by LAMEC to
run the literacy centres. Provincial Committees were constituted to look after the
implementation of the plan in the provinces.
Under this programme people from different segments of the society including
teachers, imams and ex-service men were engaged. A part time teacher was appointed
to run the literacy classes. The duration of the face-to-face literacy instruction was
two hours at a suitable time for six days a week. The teachers were paid Rs. 250 per
month as honorarium (Govt. of Pakistan, 1983, p. 30).
Initially

the

plan

was

launched

in

nine

districts

namely,

Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Jhang, Bahawalnagar, Okara, Quetta, Mirpur, Mardan,

Hyderabad, and Shikarpur (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 48). A total number of 4712 literacy
centres were organized and 99955 learners enrolled until 1986. Rs. 678.526 million
were incurred on the scheme (PLC. 1998). The achievement was that 96115 illiterates
were made literate under the National Literacy Plan. The plan was wined up abruptly
without any summative evaluation due to the administrative and political change,
disguised opposition of non-formal education and the rampant among educationists
(Ghafoor and Khan, 1994, p.34). The hierarchical structure of the plan is as under;

50

Figure No. 2.1: Hierarchical Structure of the National Literacy Plan (1983-93).
LAMEC
CBOs
NGOs
Provincial
Literacy Committee
Administrative
Wing

District
Councils

Teachers

Training Wing

Supervisors

Material

Finance Wing

Tehsil Councils

Literacy Center

Union Councils

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1983). The national literacy programme NLP 1983-1993,
Islamabad: National Education Council, Ministry of Education.

2.2.1.10 Television Literacy Centres 1983-84.

It was basically a television literacy programme for adults. Literacy lessons
were telecast from November 1983 to May 1984. A total number of 1024 community
viewing centres (CVCs) were established for this purpose (PLC. 1998). These CVCs
were established in buildings provided by the community and the Rural Development
Centres. The Literacy and Mass Education Commission provided the primers free of
cost. Whereas, PMLC, provincial government and NGOs provided Television sets.
The duration of class was one hour daily in the afternoon (Ghafoor and Khan 1994, p.
48). To assist the adult learners, services of a part-time teacher were hired for each
community viewing centre. From November 1983 to December 1984 20480 adult
learners remained busy in 1024 community viewing centre along with there teachers
(Ghafoor, 1994, p. 48). The Literacy and Mass Education Commission made the

51

supervision of the programme with the help of supervisors from the non-government
organizations. The programme was planned with the following hierarchical structure:
Figure No. 2.2: Hierarchical Structure of Television Literacy Centres

LAMEC
PTV

Teacher

NGOs

CVCs
Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1983). The national literacy programme NLP 1983-1993,
Islamabad: National Education Council, Ministry of Education.

2.2.1.11 President Ten Points for Literacy Promotion (1984-85)

The president of Pakistan On May 12, 1983 announced a 10 points
programme for the promotion of literacy in the country. It involved all the sectors of
the society to launch a comprehensive literacy campaign through out the country. The
main features of the drive were (Govt. of Pakistan, 1983a, p. 3-5);
i.

Incentives for successful completers of the literacy programme.

ii.

Involving university and college students in the literacy work.

iii.

Organization of literacy classes for illiterate employees.

iv.

Remission of sentences for those illiterates who become literate.

v.

Incentives and rewards for the individuals and groups including

villages, wards and mohallas on outstanding performance in the
literacy work.

52

vi.

Use of electronic media for motivational purposes.

A nation wide student literacy drive was launched in summer 1984 and 1985.
In the same way literacy centres were set up by different organizations including both
the government and semi-government. These literacy centres were meant for the
illiterate employees. A total of 163, 233 illiterates were made literate through diverse
drive during 1984-85 (PLC. 1998). A summary of the achievements in response to the
President, s Ten Point Programme is given below;
Table 2.2: Summary of the achievements of Presidents Ten Point Programme
S. No.

Programme

Persons Made Literate

i.

Students literacy drive 1984

116775

ii.

Students literacy drive 1985

4229

iii.

Illiterate employees made literate

42229

Total

163633

Source: Ghafoor, A. (1994). Quest for adult literacy, Islamabad: National Education
and Training Commission, Ministry of Education.

2.2.1.12 Iqra Pilot Project 1987-88

Iqra Pilot Project was launched in twin districts of Rawalpindi and Islamabad
in October, 1986 on experimental basis. Iqra project was introduced by the Literacy
and Mass Education Commission (LAMEC) Educated persons, ex-servicemen or
persons already engaged in some economic activity were encouraged to utilize their
free time and knowledge productively (Khan, et al. 2000, p. 4).
The project aimed at covering 50,000 people in one year. The plan was predominantly result-oriented with handsome reward to voluntary teacher of Rs. 1000.00
per neo-literate. Out of the total of 60095 adult illiterates were registered under this

53

project, out of which 18442 persons qualified the literacy test conducted by the
examination teams. The remaining 41253 persons although received varied degree of
literacy, but could not take the examination because of the termination of the project
in April, 1988 (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 49). The programme was stopped because it proved
much expensive as it cost Rs. 14.87 million during one year of its implementation.
Hence, the cost per literate was Rs. 1150.00 (Ghafoor and Khan 1994, p.34). The
project office in LAMEC at Islamabad had the overall operational control for
registration and examination of volunteer illiterates. Elected institutions like union
councils were fully involved for the convenience of participants in the scheme.
Some salient features of the project are summarized below;
Table 2.3:
S. No.

Salient features of Iqra Pilot Project 1987-88

Description

Total

Male

Female

Total No. of students registered

60095

10050

50045

ii

Total students appeared for examination

27193

2172

25021

iii

Total No. of students passed

18842

2042

16800

vi

Total No. of teachers/volunteers registered

7905

3891

4014

Percentage of passing students

10%

90%

Source; Ghafoor, A. & A. S. Khan (1994). Literacy efforts in Pakistan, from rhetoric

to action, Islamabad, National Education and Training Commission, Ministry of

Education
2.2.1.13

Nai Roshni Schools Project (1987-89)

The Literacy and Mass Education Commission of government of Pakistan

launched its Nai Roshni Schools Project in 1986. It was meant for primary school
drop-outs and children who never enrolled in primary schools. Nai Roshni Schools

54

was completely a non-formal system intended to enable 10 to 14 year old children to

complete their education up to the grade 5. The duration of schooling was two years,
completion of which was expected to enable a child to join class 6 in the formal
system (literacy online, 2003)
The main objective of this project was to provide primary level education to
school drop outs and youth of age 10-14 through a condensed course of two years
duration (Govt. of Pakistan, 1986, p. 3). Hence, main objectives of the project were;
i.

To offer a second chance to the drop-outs and first chance to those of

the 10-14 years age group who never joined the school.

ii.

To provide free education with flexible timings and non-formal

environment in open school-like literacy centres.

iii.

To provide employment to the unemployed educated youth by training

and engaging them in these schools.

Specially trained teachers were employed for teaching in the formal school
buildings in the afternoon. Besides teaching, special task of these teachers was to
motivate the target population, public relationing and keeping records of the enrolled
students. The programme was planned for 1986-90 and the expected number was to
educate 1,650,000 students in 22,000 Nai Roshni Schools (Govt. of Pakistan, 1986, p
8.). The estimated cost of the project was Rs. 3153.215 million for the period of four
years (1986-90) in a Non-formal manner (PLC. 1998).
The project was fully supported by media and well balanced supervision. The
media, electronic and print, was used for community mobilization and awareness
about literacy among the illiterates. As for as the supervision is concerned, ten literacy
centres were supervised by a supervisor along with the Tehsil, District and Divisional
level monitoring (APPEAL, 1991, p. 16).

55

According to the evaluation survey about 95% Nai Roshni Schools were
functional. About 24927 persons acquired the level of literacy during the project
period (Khan, et al. 2000, p. 5). NRSP teachers used formal school buildings. Up to
April 30, 1988 total of 13688 schools were established with an enrolment of 349767
students (PLC. 1998). It was an innovative scheme but it was closed without any
academic rational in 1989.
The main causes due to which the Nai Roshni School Project was abandoned
are (APPEAL, 1991, p. 16);
i.

Overlapping and waste in the formal primary sector.

ii.

A very high cost per a literate person as compared to the formal

primary education.

iii.

Wastage of budget on non productive facilities like cars, jeeps and

very high salaries for the managers and the bureaucrats centrally
controlling the artificial system.

iv.

2.2.1.14

Semi-trained or untrained teachers.

Training of Unemployed Educated Youth Project (1990-91)

A project titled Training of Unemployed Educated Youth for skill

development and teacher education was developed and launched by PMLC in May
1990. According to this project 20,000 persons were to be imparted teacher education
and 40,000 persons employable skills at an estimated cost of Rs.901.05 million (PLC.
1998). During the period of their training, the trainees were to be paid stipends at the
rates ranging from Rs. 750 to Rs.1050 per month depending on their qualifications
(Matriculates Rs. 750; intermediates Rs.900 and Graduates Rs. 1050).
The project was split into two phases. In phase-1, 18353 persons were trained
by Allama Iqbal Open University in teacher education (10681 in Primary Teaching

56

Certificate PTC.; 4466 in Certificate in Teaching CT.; 3206 in Bachelor of Education,

B.Ed.) and another 8618 in vocational skills (PLC. 1998). Out of 26971 trainees, 50%
were nominees of the M.N.As, M.P.As, Senators, etc. In phase II, 30,000 persons
were to be trained in vocational skills through National Training Bureau of Manpower
Division. The Inter-Provincial Education Ministers Conference in its meeting held on
16th January 1991 unanimously decided to finish the project after the completion of
its first phase. The trainees who wish to continue their training without payment of
stipends may be allowed to do so but, any stipends shall not be paid (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1991, p.2). The project was thus discontinued without having desired
impact.
2.2.1.15

Quranic Literacy Project (1991-95).

According to 1981 census literacy rate among females was 16% whereas 41%
women could read Holy Quran and recognize Arabic letters. The idea gave birth to a
hypothesis that this group can acquire literacy In shorter period of time and lesser unit
cost as there is presumption that a Quranic literate can be made literate in National
language (Urdu) by teaching only six additional alphabets. A pilot project titled Use
of Quranic Literacy for the promotion of general literacy among females (QLP) was
conceived. The Quranic Literacy Project (QLP), is considered one of the most
important, professionalized and innovative literacy efforts in the country, was
launched in 1991 to test whether Quranic literate females could be made general
literates in a shorter time using their decoding skills from Quranic Arabic (Asghar,
1999).
The project was implemented in 450 centres donated by the communities
themselves, using primers, trained teaching, supervisory and monitoring staff
appointed from the village. A motivational campaign was also started which stressed

57

the importance of literacy for both men and women, focusing on religion in these very
traditional communities (Asghar, 1999).
The project was approved in 1991 at a total cost of Rs.3.73 million. The
programme had three cycles, in which 200 centres had to be established in each cycle.
The programme was launched in five selected districts. These districts were
Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Attock, Haripur and Abbottabad.
Objectives of the Project were as under (Govt. of Pakistan, 1991a, p. 4):
i.

To test, as to whether the females who are able to read/recite Holy

Quran can be made literate in Urdu with greater ease and In short,,er
time.

ii.

Testing the hypothesis whether Naskh Script is easier to learn

literacy Nastaleeq than Script.

iii.

Pre-testing of the usefulness of a new primer evolved by NETCOM for

those already possessing Quranic literacy.

iv.

To impart literacy to 18000 female illiterates.

For admission in these literacy classes priority was given to those females
who had already possessed Quranic literacy. The target group was the female of 10-45
years age. Literacy material like mates, black boards, note books, slates, pencils and
other necessary material was provided free of cost to each and every literacy centres.
The other objective was to establish 600 literacy centres in the typical rural
areas of the selected district. The project created job opportunities for 650 rural
females in their own environment by employing them as teachers and supervisors.
Selected literacy teachers were given Rs.500/- per month as honorarium (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1993b, p.12). Evaluation Committee constituted by Ministry of Education
carried out assessment of project on the completion of its first cycle. The Committee

58

recommended the replication with slight improvements like addition of arithmetic's

component and improvement of primer according to graded vocabulary (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1993b, p. 11).
By the end of the project in 1996, 6,613 women had become literate and 4,000
women had improved their pre-literacy skills. Most participants were eager for postliteracy and continuing education activities, but a second proposal for the continuation
of the project was not approved by the government (Asghar, 1999).
The limitations of this programme are given below: i.

Time table arrangement sometimes kept some of the literacy teachers

busy throughout the day, as all the learners were not able to attend the
centres at the same time.

ii.

There was no incentive in any form for the learners, due to which
dropout could not be checked.

iii.

The rural community is too pre-occupied hence the total number of

days attended by learners was not up to the required level (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2003, pp. 42-43).

The Quranic Literacy Project was a unique one in the history of literacy
efforts in Pakistan due to its approach and methodology. The programme suffered
because of the unavailability of dedicated volunteer teachers, absence of incentive for
the female group and the improper management and supervision.
2.2.1.16

Islamabad Literacy Project 1992-95.

This project was designed for Islamabad district as it was estimated that there
are more than one hundred thousand illiterate residing in rural areas and urban slums
of Islamabad district. To launch the project five reputable NGOs/agencies including
Adult Basic Education Society (ABES), Family Planning Association of Pakistan

59

(FPAP), Pakistan Girl Guides Association (PGGA), Islamabad Boy Scouts

Association (IBSA), and Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) were assigned the
responsibility (Govt. of Pakistan, 1991b, p. 22).
Against the PC-I target of 1221 literacy centres (p.26), only 744 (61%) centres
could be established during 1st cycle of Islamabad Literacy Project (PLC, 1998). Out
of these 744 literacy centres 200 were closed due to lack of enrolment resulting from
high dropout rate. According to the approved PC-1 about 37600 illiterates were to be
enrolled during the 1st cycle (p. 16). Against this target only 11663 (31%) could be
enrolled (Zahida, 1997).
Out of the enrolled 11663 illiterates in the 1st cycle, 6888 learners appeared in
the final examination conducted at the end of this cycle, but only 5031could managed
to pass. The pass percentage was 73, but completion rate of those enrolled in the
beginning of cycle was only 43% (PLC, 1998).
Performance of various participating NGOs is evident from following table:
Table 2.4: Performance NGOs participating in Islamabad Literacy Project
Agency

Classes

Enrolment

Appeared

Passed

AIOU

228

4863

2868

2651

FPAP

141

1928

957

575

IBSA

47

1130

743

482

PGGA

131

2269

1644

1286

ABES

395

7763

5039

4174

942

17953

11251

8946

TOTAL
Source:

PLC

(1998).

Project

histories,

www.plc.sdnpk.org/

60

Retrieved

June

15,

2003

from

Since its beginning in 1992 the project suffered due to shortage of funds,
absence of proper administration and unavailability of trained personnel. At the same
time factors like higher illiteracy rate among the rural people, abundance of the
economic opportunities and the absence of any kind of incentive for the illiterates
negatively affected the attendance at literacy canters (PLC. 1998).
2.2.1.17

Eradication of Illiteracy Project (EIP) 1992-93

In view of successive setbacks to literacy projects, NETCOM decided to make

Islamabad an illiteracy free area. A project was developed and submitted to the
Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan. Representatives of the Provincial
governments desired that experimentation of literacy efforts should not be confined to
Islamabad only. They were of the view that similar projects should be launched in
selected areas of Pakistan. Accordingly, projects related to the respective provinces
were incorporated in an umbrella project which was approved by Central
Development Working Party (CDWP), a forum of the Planning Commission at a cost
of Rs. 72.374 million. As per C.D.W.P. decision, the literacy programme in respect of
provincial areas was to be implemented and financed by the provinces themselves.
However, provinces were given special federal grant of Rs. 15.3407 million during
financial year 1992-93. Salient features of the project were as under (PLC 1998);
i.

Implementation of literacy programme through NGOs, instead of

doing it through government functionaries.

ii.

Increased involvement of local community in the management of

literacy programmes.

iii.

Greater emphasis on motivational drive to create demand for literacy.

iv.

Use of non-conventional approaches and participation of all sections

of the society in the literacy drive.

61

The targets for the project were;

i.

To enroll 268400 illiterate learners, preferably of the age 10-30.

ii.

To make 174460 illiterate persons literate during 2-cycles.

The project was supposed to be launched in the following areas (Govt. of

Pakistan 1992, p. 25);
i.

District Islamabad (ICT)

ii.

Tehsil Hafizabad district Gujranwala (Punjab)

iii.

District Karachi East (Sindh)

iv.

District Quetta Balochistan

v.

Tehkal Bala Area of Peshawar City (NWFP)

It was an experimental project was implemented by the provinces in

collaboration with NGOs under the guidance of NETCOM. Islamabad district and one
project area in each province were selected. Area specific approach was used in this
project. The project was for the period of 15 months, which started from June 1992.
The programme has 2 cycles. One cycle was of seven months which includes one
month for training of teachers, identification of location of literacy centre and
registration of learners; 5 months for reading and one month for examination,
evaluation etc. The teacher of literacy centre used to teach for two hours daily and
was given Rs.500 to Rs.700/- per month as honoraria. Under this programme 3460
face-to-face and 200 TV centres were to be established. 8990 volunteers, Boy Scouts
and Girl Guides were involved under each one teach one approach. 174,460 persons
were expected to be made literate of whom 50% female. Implementation was made
through NGOs and community with strong motivational drive. 138025 illiterates
(Male 17943 and female 120082) were made literate under this project.

62

Under this project 1, 38,025 (79%) adult illiterates were made literate against
the target of 1, 74,460. Out of these 1, 20,082 (87%) were females and 17,943 (13%)
males (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p.42).
2.2.1.18

Ten Year National Literacy Plan (1993-2003)

Main purpose of the plan was to realize the objectives of National Education
Policy 1992 regarding the eradication of illiteracy from Pakistan (Govt. of Pakistan,
1993, p. 8). The objectives of the plan were:
i.

To raise the literacy level of the population 10+ up to 70% by the year
2003.

ii.

To indirectly improve the quality and efficiency of primary education

by increasing access and reducing dropout rate.

iii.

Enhancing sustainability of literacy and basic education through

community education.

iv.

To make 24 million adult illiterate persons literate with in a period of

10 year through non-formal education system.

Following strategies were proposed by the plan (Govt. of Pakistan, 1993, p.

32-36) to achieve the specified objectives:
i.

Literacy will be an integral part of social services and the development

programmes.

ii.

Literacy programmes, with special emphasis upon female literacy, will

be initiated.

iii.

Literacy and post literacy programmes will be reinforcement.

iv.

Involvement of industrial units in the literacy programmes.

v.

Effective

participation

of

programme will be ensured.

63

educational

institutions

in

literacy

vi.

Area specific approach will be adopted to combat illiteracy.

vii.

Non government organizations, semi-government organizations and

autonomous bodies will be encouraged to start literacy programmes
for their illiterate employees.

Although the objectives of the programme along with strategies planned were
unique in nature, yet none of the objective of programme could be realized because of
absence of a structured agency to undertake implementation of the proposed plan.
2.2.1.19

Non-Formal Basic Education Community Schools Project (1995)

Pakistan as the signatory of the World Declaration on Education for All

(1990) and it was committed to reduce its illiteracy rate by half and universalize
primary education by the year 2000. This commitment gave a target of raising
existing literacy rate of 46% to 70% and increasing current participation rate of about
77% to 100%. Which means provision of basic education facilities to about 25 million
illiterates of age 10 plus and to millions of out of school children of age 5-9 years.
This situation necessitates the launching of a nation-wide programme Education for
All. Therefore, to combat illiteracy and provide basic education a new initiative was
needed to offer a Second Chance of primary education through non-formal
programmes to large number of illiterates and semi-literate adolescents and youth.
Keeping in view the gravity of the situation of literacy and basic education in
the country, Prime Ministers Literacy Commission (PMLC) in 1995 formulated a
project titled Establishment of 10000 Non-Formal Basic Education Schools. The
project was approved December 1995 with the total cost of Rs.1263.375 million. The
project was to be implemented within a period of five years (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003,
p. 43). The project was based on the idea of home school to be run through NGOs and
CBOs. The project was started in April 1996 and in the first financial year 1052

64

NFBE Schools were established with the enrolment of 31560 students. In the next
financial year another 6065 NFBE Schools were opened throughout Pakistan, making
it to the total of 7117 NFBE Schools. The financial allocation for the year 1996-97
was Rs.241.352 million but the allocated amount was reduced to Rs.112 million
(PLC, 1998). Resultantly the project received a major setback. The teachers could not
get salaries in time nor did the students receive the books and learning materials.Table
below shows Province/Region-Wise Details of NGOs, Schools and Enrolment.
Table 2.5: Province/Region-Wise details of NGOs, schools and enrolment in NonFormal Basic Education Community Schools Project
S.NO

PROVINCE

NO. OF NGOs

No. Of Schools

Enrolment

i.

Punjab

112

3770

129724

ii.

Sindh.

24

755

24652

iii.

Balochistan

09

320

13196

iv.

N.W.F.P

34

1423

48265

v.

AJandK

17

1435

vi.

FATA

13

1011

vii.

FANA

101

4315

viii.

ICT

88

3700

181

6487

226298

GRAND TOTAL
Source:

PLC

(1998).

Project

histories,

Retrieved

June

15,

2003

from

www.plc.sdnpk.org/
The salient Features of the project were as under:
i.

Teaching aids like black boards, charts, mats etc. for students were
provided by the Government.

65

ii.

Learning materials in the form of books, notebooks, pencils, slates etc.

were supplied to learners free of cost.

iii.

Preference was given to the establishment of schools for females.

iv.

These NFBE schools had intake capacity of 50 to 60 children at a time.

v.

Final examinations were conducted by examination teams headed by

authorized representatives from District Education Offices.

vi.

Graduates of Non-Formal Basic Education Schools are eligible for

admission in 6th Class in formal schools.

vii.

Schools function at places provided by the community free of charge.

These include public places, Mosques, community centres, or
residence of teachers.

viii.

An educated person, preferably a trained PTC was contracted for the

task against a fixed emolument of Rs.1,000/- per month. In case of
unavailability of a trained PTC teacher with simple Matriculates were
considered.

ix.

It was expected that employment opportunities for 83,047 educated

persons will be created.

Education Policy (1998-2010) recommended to continue the literacy efforts

through the non-formal educational mode and approved measures to expand the
programme to a larger scale, by opening 75,000 more NFBE Community Schools
during the next three years (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 28). The policy urged to
launch literacy campaign using the non-formal education mode on the vast scale
covering the whole country.
The project was expanded on July 11, 1998 from 7,000 to 82,000 NFBE
Community Schools with a total budget of Rs. 11214.898 million. However, its

66

expansion was to be made after an evaluation of the existing schools by the third
party (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p.43).
Multi-grade teaching system was introduced which catered the learners, needs
successfully. The syllabus of formal government schools was covered in 40 months
reducing the period by 20 months. In the later stage the responsibility and autonomy
on the implementation of the project was shifted to the Provincial Governments for
rapid and cost effective increase in literacy and basic education. Proposed total local
cost for the programme was Rs. 11,214.896 million.
The progress of establishment of the Non-Formal Basic Education
Community Schools was much slower than the policy recommendations as 8,977
NFBE schools were established till March 2002 where 296,241 children were
studying. Out of these 236,993 were girls and 59,248 boys. The programme also
created several employment opportunities especially for the educated poor rural
females, as 80% teachers were rural females (MOE, 2004).
2.2.1.20

Crash Literacy Programme

In 1998 ministry of education planned to launch an extensive literacy

programme in Pakistan. The programme was named as Crash Literacy Programme.
The programme was initially started as a pilot project in the federal areas of
Islamabad and in Punjab province. The programme aimed at promoting literacy and
basic education in the country by making maximum use of the available resources like
school buildings and teachers during summer vacations and evening hours (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2003, p. 44). Drop-outs and out of school adults were the target population
for the programme. To make the programme cost effective, existing school buildings
along with all the infrastructure of shelter and supplies were used to open literacy
centres. Teachers who were qualified, trained and available during summer vacations

67

were engaged for the programme. They were paid nominal honorarium for this extra
duty after a short orientation. The location of centre was nearest to majority of
learners.
Following were the main features of the programme:
i.

The main focus was on rural female.

ii.

87 literacy centres were opened in the federal areas of Islamabad and

222 in Punjab province.

iii.

For each literacy centre services of a teacher were provided who was
paid Rs. 1500/- per month as honoraria in Federal areas and Rs.
1,000/- in Punjab (Govt. of Pakistan 1998b, 19).

iv.

Students were paid Rs. 20/- per attendance as an incentive (in Punjab
only)

v.

The syllabus prepared by Allama Iqbal Open University was selected

for the course (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p. 45).

vi.

Learning material was provided free of cost.

vii.

Unit cost of the programme was around Rs. 1,899 per student.

The Crash Literacy Programme proved quite popular in Federal Areas of

Islamabad as well as in the Punjab. Under the Federal Areas Crash Literacy
programme, 87 literacy centres were opened in three phases. The total enrolment of
these centres was 1500. The assessment test conducted by the ministry indicated that
82% of the enrolled population qualified (Govt. of Pakistan, 2001, p. 12).
The Punjab programme was successful in terms of enrolment. A target of
5550 students was fixed and the department was able to meet 96% of the target. In a
few girls centres, enrolment exceeded the maximum number of 25 students per class
and the girls in excess of the maximum limit attended the centre without any financial

68

incentive (Govt. of Pakistan, 2001, p. 16). Encouraged by the results of this

programme, the government of the Punjab undertook phase II of the programme. The
target enrolment was 50,000 students, for which 1668 centres with 30 students each
were opened. The honoraria of teachers were raised to Rs.1500/- with added financial
incentives related with results of final examination (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p. 46).
2.2.1.21

ICT Adult Literacy Project

In order to make Islamabad Capital Territory illiteracy free the Government of

Pakistan launched a literacy project for this area in 2001. The objectives of the project
were (MOE, 2004):
a. To establish 1,170 adult literacy centres within the vicinity of
Islamabad Capital Territory for making 29,250 adults of 15+ age
literate through non-formal method of education.
b. To create mass awareness amongst the adult illiterates to make them
literate through the Adult Literacy Centres and Media Programme.
As for as the implementation of Islamabad Capital Territory project concerns
a total of 1414 literacy centres were established with total enrolment of 35375 adult
learners of 15+ age group. 1200 adult literacy teachers were trained for the project.
Total cost incurred during the period 2001-04 was Rs. 27 million. Therefore, the cost
per learner was Rs. 763. About 467 literacy centres were functioning successfully till
January 2005 with an enrolment of 14000 learners (MOE. 2004).
2.2.1.22

Adult Literacy Centres (2001-06)

One of the priority areas of Education Sector Reforms (2001-06) is adult

literacy. ESR envisages in opening 270,000 literacy centres in 5 years time to achieve
the target of 60% literacy rate by the year 2006. However, due to financial constraints
only 6,000 literacy centres could be opened throughout the country. Each centre had

69

completed 2 cycles of 6-month duration at the average intake of 20-25 learners per
centre per cycle (Munir, 2005, p. 10). Total people so far made literate under this
programme were 240,000. Most of these centres were for females. Besides that,
National Commission has opened around 2,500 literacy centres for Human
Development. Some of the districts also opened literacy centres out of their own
budget/resources. In 2006, 13,000 literacy centres, both in public and private sectors,
have were functional. NWFP government allocated funds to NWFP Elementary
Education Foundation for opening of 18,000 literacy centres in collaboration with
National Commission for Human Development (Munir, 2005, p. 10). Literacy and
Non-formal Education Department Punjab launched a total literacy project in 4
selected districts of southern Punjab. Opening of literacy centre project is effective
and successful in case of females but ineffective and failure in case of males.

2.2.2 Issues and Problems in Literacy Promotion in Pakistan

Pakistan has one of the lowest literacy rates in the region. In 2004 literacy was
about 54%. Literacy rates for male and female are 66.25 % and 41.75 % respectively
(Govt. of Pakistan, 2004, p. 123). Despite desperate hopes and successive plan and
policies on literacy and adult education no dynamic change in the literacy rates could
be witnessed. From 1947 to 1981 literacy rate in Pakistan increased at a rate of 0.4%
per year and since then at a rate of 1.17% per year (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 19).
The reason behind it is that education system in the country has suffered both from
the deficiencies and the shortcomings (Shahina, 2002, p. 271). Ghafoor and Khan
(1994, p. 105) summarize the causes of failure of literacy efforts in Pakistan as under;
Every Government, each development plan and all educational policies were
decorated with rhetoric on literacy. Ambitious targets were set but

70

commensurate financial resources were not made available for their

materialization. Even if some literacy programmes were funded, these were
planned in haste and implemented un-scientifically. No effort was ever made
to develop non-formal education sector on professional lines and to
institutionalize adult literacy programmes.
The major factors influencing the growth and effectiveness of literacy and adult
education programme in Pakistan are briefly highlighted as under;
2.2.2.3

Allocations for education and literacy

Despite ambitious policy goal of reducing illiteracy, in most countries

financing for adult literacy is far from satisfactory (Ila, p. 2002). The same is the case
with Pakistan. All the governments raised slogans to eliminate the curse of illiteracy
from the state within a short period. But, even reflections of these slogans could not
be seen in national development plans or budgetary allocations (UNESCO, 2004a, p.
27). In Pakistan, allocations for education in general and for enhancement of literacy
in particular, have, always been very low with, 2.3 % of GNP being the highest figure
in 9th Plan (1998-2003).
As far as allocation for literacy in Pakistan concerns the first three
development plans (1955-1970) did not contain any amount for literacy. Allocations
for literacy started with the non-plan period (1970-78) in which Rs. 2.3 million were
allocated for the literacy but actually only Rs. 5.00 million were spent. The allocated
amount for literacy during the Fifth Five Year Plan 1978-83 was Rs. 50.00 million
(Govt. of Pakistan, 1978, p. 167) and it was Rs. 750 million in Sixth Five Year Plan
1983-88 (Govt. of Pakistan, 1983b, p. 97). The allocation for literacy and adult
education was reduced to Rs. 300 million in the Seventh Five Year Plan 1988-93
(Govt. of Pakistan, 1988, p.109). The Eighth Five Year Plan 1993-98 allocated Rs.

71

1750.00 million for the literacy promotion through Social Action Programme. But, to
a great surprise only Rs. 12.5 million and Rs. 8.5 millions were respectively spent
during the 7th and 8th plans periods.
A summary of all the allocations for literacy in the five year development
plans is given in table 2.13
Table 2.6: Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education in Pakistan
Total

Percentage
Percentage

Allocations

Allocations

of total

Actual

for

for Literacy

Allocations

Expenditure

of Actual
Plan

Expenditure
Educational

(In Million

for

(In Million

Sector (In

Rs.)

Education

Rs.)

to Total
Allocations
Sector

Million Rs.)
1st. Plan to 5th
15577.67

18830

750

4.0 %

724.00

Plan (1955-83)
6th Plan

96.53 %

(1983-88)

(0.038%)

7th Plan

170.10 %
22684.8

300

1.32 %

510.308

(1988-93)

(0.022%)

8th Plan

23.34 %
20232.8

1750

8.6 %

409.164

(1993-98)

(0.02%)

9th Plan
133500

1000

0.74 %

(1998-2003)
Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1998) National Education Policy (1998-2010), Ministry
of Education, Islamabad (p. 134).

72

Meanwhile, the National Education Policy 1998-2010 aimed at achieving a

55% literacy rate by 2003, by spending a total of Rs. 559,290.00 million on the
education sector and Rs. 5000.00 million specifically on literacy by 2003 (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1998a, p. 23). The total allocation for literacy and adult education in the
Ninth Five Year Plan 1998-2003 was Rs. 12455.00 million (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998c,
p. 201).
Moreover, according to UNESCO (2004a, p.27) the allocations for education
in terms of percentage of GNP have been continuously declining during the years
1997-2001. It was 2.34% of in 1997-98, 2.2 % in 1998-99 and 2.14 % for 1999-2000.
On the other hand according to ICLC (2001) report;
Military expenditures and interest payments on international loans account for
60-70% of the total national budget, leaving merely some 30% to cover all
other federal departments and projects. Hardly a token sum is allotted to
raising literacy in the nation. Even if new plans for literacy education are
proposed, very little survives the trip from planning table to actual
implementation.
Consequently, many literacy programmes failed due to the shortage of funds.
For example because of the non-availability of funds Village AID Literacy
component, Punjab Local Government literacy programme, Iqra Pilot Project, and
Quranic Literacy Project were abandoned or stopped abruptly.
It seems that government has taken into consideration the importance of the
provision of adequate funds for literacy programmes. That is why a healthy increase
in the allocation of funds for education is being seen since the launch of 9th Plan 1998-

73

2003. Even the National Plan of Action of Education For All recommends reasonable
amount for adult education and primary education. It is clear from the table below.
Table 2.7: Allocation for adult education and literacy in National Plan of Action on
Education For All
EFA

Kind of

Phase-1

Phase-2

Phase-3

Sector

Fund

2001-02 to 2005-06

2006-07 to 2010-11

2011-12 to 2015-16

Developing

Rs. 37870 Million

Rs. 10202 Million

Rs. 14966 Million

Recurring

Rs. 21640 Million

Rs. 52690 Million

Rs. 64810 Million

TOTAL

Rs. 59510 Million

Rs. 62892 Million

Rs. 79776 Million

Developing

Rs. 16582 Million

Rs. 16775 Million

Rs. 17811 Million

Recurring

Rs. 36857 Million

Rs. 41246 Million

Rs. 50705 Million

TOTAL

Rs. 53439 Million

Rs. 58021 Million

Rs. 68516 Million

Primary
Education

Adult
Literacy

Source; Govt. of Pakistan (2003). National plan of action on Education for All (20012015), Islamabad: Ministry of Education
It is clear from the above discussion that allocations for the adult education and
literacy programme in Pakistan had never been satisfactory. It had never touched the
4% of GNP as recommended by UNESCO. Hence the expectation of a rapid and
continuous improvement in the literacy rates could not be realized. The result is much
evident from the literacy rate of 54% after efforts of 59 years.
2.2.2.4

Gender issues
In no society do women yet enjoy the same opportunities as men. They work

longer hours and they are paid less; their life chances and choices are more restricted
than for men (UNESCO, 2003a, p. 3). At present 57% of the 104 million children not
in school were girls and two-thirds of the 860 million adults without literacy were

74

women (UNESCO, 2003a, p. 2). This gender difference in literacy is found through
the world as reports UNESCO (2004b, p. 9)
Women are the main victims of illiteracy. One out of three adult women in the
world today cannot read and write, compared with one out of five adult males.
In sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab State sand South Asia, two out of three
women are illiterate.
Similarly, a major reason for illiteracy among females in developing countries
is that school participation rates for females are almost always lower than those for
males (UNESCO, 1994). In 1992, for every 100 boys at each level, there were 80
primary school girls and 67 secondary school girls in low-income countries (World
Bank, 1995a, p. 101).
Reasons for the lower school participation rate of girls vary from country to
country and can be attributed to a combination of cultural and economic
circumstances. In some countries deep-rooted attitudes operate against girls almost
from the moment of birth (Ramadas, 1994, pp. 11-12). Many parents simply do not
appreciate the value of educating their daughters; others are concerned with the safety
of their girls in route to school and while at school. In Pakistan's largest province,
Balochistan, boys have enrolled in schools in greater numbers because 90% of the
schools are designated for boys (World Bank, 1995b, p.102).
Moreover, girls in developing countries tend to marry young, frequently in
their early teens. Both in developed and developing countries, teenage marriage is
associated with early withdrawal from school (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1995, p. 9).
Another reason for the lower school participation rate of girls in some countries is that
a girl is not considered as good an educational investment as a boy because she
becomes part of her husband's family. (King and Hill, 1993). In addition, cultural

75

norms in some countries dictate that women will not fit into traditional roles if they
become educated (Bequele and Boyden, 1988).
In Pakistan the traditional ascription of feminine and masculine standards of
behaviour, division of labour and family responsibilities have been the main barriers
in achieving a female literacy rate equal to that of males. In rural areas poor people
send their sons to school but, female children are kept without schooling. As a result,
the situation has not only hampered the overall process of national development, but
has also adversely affected the management of the day-to-day affairs of women, like
childcare and child rearing, economic participation and social mobility (UNESCO,
2002).
In the rural areas of the country and the provinces of Balochistan and NWFP
the situation of female literacy is not satisfactory. According to the Population Censes
Report 1998 the comparative situation of literacy rates among males and females is
shown in the table on next page
Table 2.8: Comparison of male and female literacy rates in Pakistan
Urban

Rural

Total

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Both

Pakistan

70.0

55.2

46.4

20.1

54.8

32.0

43.9

Islamabad

89.2

69.7

75.1

48.8

80.6

62.4

72.4

Punjab

70.9

57.2

50.4

24.8

57.2

35.1

46.6

Sindh

69.8

56.7

37.9

12.2

54.5

34.8

45.3

NWFP

67.5

39.1

47.7

14.7

51.4

18.8

35.4

Balochistan

58.1

33.1

25.8

7.9

34.0

14.1

24.8

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (2003). Population Census Report, 1998 Islamabad:

76

The gender differences in the literacy rates in Pakistan are clear from the
above Table. Just 7.0% females were literate in rural areas of Balochistan and 20.1%
in Pakistan. The situation is bit better in the urban areas. On the whole 32.0% females
were literates as compared to 54.8% of their male compatriots. During the last few
years a small improvement in literacy rates has been witnessed. In 2004 the literacy
estimates for the country are 54% including 66.25% for males and 41.75% for
females (Shami and Hussain, 2005, p.47).
Despite the fact that female population in Pakistan is more, there are fewer
institutions girls as compared to boys. McGinn et al. (1989, pp. 3-4) reports:
i.

The difference in opportunity to enrol in schools was very high in

Balochistan, where there were three schools for boys and one for girls.

ii.

In NWFP there were three schools for boys for every two girls
schools and in Punjab and Sindh there were six schools for boys for
every four girls schools.

Total number of formal institutions for both the sexes is given the table below..
Table 2.9: Comparison of total number of formal institutions for male and female
Primary

Years/

Middle

High

Levels

Boys

Girls

Mixed

Total

Boys

Girls

Mixed

Total

Boys

Girls

Mixed

Total

2000-2001

73796

42870

31070

147736

6551

5675

13046

25472

6201

2773

5812

14786

2001-2002

73788

43525

31773

179085

6834

6257

13699

26790

6198

2762

6091

15051

2002-2003

75272

44411

32864

152546

6978

6385

14370

27734

6333

2823

6388

15545

2003-2004

76785

46325

34000

156100

7125

6516

15075

28716

6472

2886

6700

16059

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (2006). Facts and figures of Pakistani institutions,

Islamabad: Ministry of Education

77

But, the situation is little improving as for as the gender disparities in Pakistan
is concerned. The net enrolment of girls has increased as claimed by government
(Govt. of Pakistan, 2004, p. 123);
It is encouraging to note that enrolment of girls child increased by 6.4 percent
while boys enrolment increased by 3.5 percent over the last four years.
Accordingly the share of girls child enrolment in primary school registered
marginal improvement from 40.5 percent to 41.1 percent in the same period.
In conclusion, according to Ila (2002, p. 38), women have become an
important group of beneficiaries for literacy programmes of the countries with high
illiteracy among women. Literacy curriculum and material for women, however,
continues to highlight gender division of labour and gender roles.
But, Wolfensohn (1995) concludes that gender equity in literacy does not
mean neglect of addressing the problem of illiterate men. The main thing to stress is
not the snatching of males, rights but, understanding that educating girls also
increases the potential for females to acquire positions of influence at local, regional,
and national levels, which eventually can lead to initiatives, programs, and policies
designed to improve the provision and quality of education for girls.
2.2.2.5

Participation rate
Low Participation rate at the primary level is one of many other causes of the

unsatisfactory literacy situation in Pakistan. Unfortunately, in Pakistan neither there

was a high Participation rate at the primary level nor was the dropout rate as low as to
enhance literacy position in the country. Hence literacy is not hampered only by low
participation rate but a major problem is retention of children. In 2000 dropout rate in
Pakistan was over 55% (Govt. of Pakistan, 2001a, p. 118). The situation improved a
little and survival rate up to grade 5 rose to 49.7% (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002a, p. 9).

78

Table 2.10: Plan-wise targets and achievements of participation rates

Five Years Plans

Bench Mark

Target

Achievement

First Plan 1955-60

32

58

36

Second Plan 1960-65

36

56

45

Third Plan 1965-70

45

70

46

Non Plan 1970-78

46

65

54

Fifth Plan 1978-83

54

68

48

Sixth Plan 1983-88

48

75

64

Seventh Plan 1988-93

64

79.7

68.9

Eight Plan 1993-98

68.9

87.7

72.4

Ninth Plan 1998-2003

72.4

90

77

Source: Five Year Development Plans 1955-98

Pakistan is among one of those country where the retention rate is very low.
Half of the children who enrol in grade-l drop out before completing primary
education. Female drop out rate is 54% as compared to 45% for boys. The below
comparison of retention rates of five SAARC countries (Govt. of Pakistan, 2004a, p.
11) makes it clear that Pakistan has the lowest retention rate in the region.
Figure No. 2.3: Comparison of Retention Rates of Five SAARC Countries

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (2004a). EFA in Pakistan: where do we stand, Islamabad:

EFA Wing Ministry of Education.

79

Different agencies and experts give many reasons for this high dropout rate.
But, the main causes behind this phenomenon are given in a research study conducted
by AEPAM (2004, p. 55) as under:
i.

Expensive education

ii.

Lack of parents, Interest

iii.

Large family size

iv.

Remote schools

v.

Security problem

All this suggests that a considerable number of non-literates in the form of

non-enrolled and dropout children are being added to the already massive pool of
illiterates. It has been estimated that if past trends continue, and no significant
acceleration occurs in the rate of expansion of literacy, Pakistan could well end up
with the dubious distinction of being home to more than 108.7 million non-literates by
2025 AD (UNESCO, 2002a, p. 58).
Therefore, the situation demands a careful consideration. To enhance the
literacy rate in Pakistan only improvement in the gross enrolment is not enough,
Government has to find out ways to keep in school the enrolled persons. Keeping in
view this purpose the Punjab government has launched a comprehensive programme
under which education is free op to class X and students are provided books free of
cost. Similarly, girl students with 80% attendance per month are given Rs. 200 (Govt.
of Punjab, 2004). The other provincial governments are in line to follow the suit.
2.2.2.6

Absence of infrastructure for literacy

The existence of a permanent infrastructure and an institutional set-up also

contributes positively in enhancing the literacy rate in developing countries. One of

the causes of Pakistans despairing situation in terms of literacy rate is that adult

80

literacy and non-formal basic education have not been institutionalized (UNESCO,
2004a, p. 32). Pakistan, being a poor state, is one of such countries that suffer from
the shortage of basic facilities needed for the provision of education to all the people.
Lack of physical access to schooling is a major cause of under-enrolment in primary
schools in developing countries. Children often do not go to school because places are
not available or schools are far away from home. (Kowsar, 1996, p. 09).
There is absence of basic infrastructure in Pakistan through which the literacy
campaign can properly be organized. At the national different departments or cells
were established but, at the provincial level no such effort was made in any part of the
Pakistani history. As observed by Ghafoor, (1994, 106)
Organizational infrastructure was not created at provincial level to undertake
the planning and management of literacy programmes. At present no
permanent Directorate, Wing or Section exist in the provinces for literacy.
As far as the educational policies of the government of Pakistan are concerned
no policy prior to the 1992 recommended any suggestion to set up a literacy
department, cell or wing at the provincial level. According to this policy (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1992, p. 15) directorates of adult education with wings at the divisional and
district level will be established in each province. Similarly, in the education policy
1998 (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 21) states that PMLC will prepare a plan of action,
in consultation of provinces to coordinate efforts in national literacy movement. In the
same way National Plan of Action on Education for All (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p.
53) recommended that the literacy programme in the country will be implemented by
the District Literacy Department. Moreover, literacy programmes are being launched
and monitored by National Commission for Human Development at the district level
since 2003 raising a hope that the basic level infrastructure will be provided at the

81

grass root level to counter the wide spread illiteracy in the state. According to
UNESCO (2004a, p. 32) during 1990s, Balochistan created a skeleton structure in the
form of Directorate of Literacy on Non-formal Education. After the abolition of
National Literacy Commission at Federal level in 2001-02, Punjab has recently started
to shape literacy and mass education in an institutionalized form. Punjab earlier
constituted the Punjab Commission for Literacy and EFA and in 2003 a separate
Department of Literacy and Non-formal education headed by a separate minister. Sind
and NWFP have not established any institution on a permanent basis for this
important task. Thus the governments inability to provide a permanent infra structure
for literacy and non-formal education has paved the way for the failure of literacy
efforts in Pakistan.
2.2.2.7

Geographic barriers and isolation

Literacy efforts in Pakistan were also hampered by the geographic barriers and

the long distances between the schools and the residence of the learners. The effect of
this hindrance is much evident in Balochistan province where literacy rate is lowest as
compared to the other regions of Pakistan. In Balochistan the schools are fewer and
far from one another. Students are unable to travel across the desert to attend a school
or college. Hence, the result is illiteracy and ignorance.
Although the geographic barriers obstacles literacy process but the women
folk suffer much because of geographic remoteness of schools and other literacy
imparting institutions as they are strictly disallowed to continue education. This
situation kept majority women away from any kind of schooling, especially in the
rural areas where the gender differences are more visible and conservativeness of the
people stop women to attend a school or literacy centre which is at a distance from

82

their house. Thus in Balochistan, NWFP and in the Southern Punjab the geographical
barrier is adversely affecting the cause of literacy promotion in Pakistan.
Isolation not only affects the learners but, the practitioners also face
difficulties in the administration and management of literacy programme. Networking
for professional or personal development is more difficult in far flung rural areas.
Sharing resources is also more cumbersome and costly to orchestrate. Group meetings
for the learners in such situation are difficult to organize. Because of the large
distances the monitoring and evaluation of the literacy programme becomes difficult.
Consequently the feedback for the adult learners becomes hard and the problems of
the teachers and the local administration remain unsolved.
2.2.2.8

Limited supporting services

A lot of support is needed for literacy programme in the shape of financial,

moral and above all the technical assistance. The administrators, the teachers and the
learners need such help at various stages of the literacy programme. Failure of this
help results in the barricade of the literacy programme. Primary schools, which are the
first ingredient of literacy enhancement operation, lack physical facilities including
buildings, furniture, tats/mats and even very basic necessities like blackboard, chalk,
and charts. Similarly the factors such as low salaries, low status of teachers and weak
supervision have contributed toward absenteeism of teachers, particularly in rural
areas.
Moreover, the failure to invest in teachers and especially to develop a cadre of
developmentally minded teachers has perpetuated the uplift of literacy along with the
caste, communal and other prejudices factors. According to Lalita (1997):
the lack of complementary support systems and programmes such as
Integrated Resource Centres, Post Literacy Programmes, an effective Library

83

movement, and above all basic economic development and employment

opportunities in rural areas - has failed to create that all important
environment for learning and reading. Even those who have been to school
lapse back into illiteracy
Some literacy programmes in Pakistan, like Nai Roshni and Iqra Pilot Project,
failed to achieve their specified objectives despite their excellent take-off because of
the failure of support services and limited feedback. There were no incentives, no plan
of post literacy, no guidance services available, and no provision of profession related
literacy skills. This situation forced the learners to rethink about the continuation of
literacy programme.
As Leis (1994) says that because there are limited social, educational, and
employment services, literacy providers tend to abstain from becoming front-line
workers who must respond to a wide variety of needs.
2.2.2.9

Inappropriateness and shortage of reading materials

Reading materials are an essential component of any literacy programme. It

becomes even more important where teacher mastery of subject matter is weak and
adult learners do not have access to the modern technologies. It is the factor due to
which a child can leave his/her formal education incomplete or an adult can absent
himself from the literacy centre. Moreover, according to Lundberg and Linnakyla,
(1992) achievement of adult learners is directly proportional to the availability and
quality of literacy materials. But, the haste with which the primers and other reading
materials are introduced and the way they are generally introduced do not result in
creating motivating atmosphere for illiterates to join the class.

84

It is found that most of the literacy programmes in Pakistan suffered from the
following kinds of problems generated purely from the nature and type of the learning
materials.
i.

Shortage of text books

ii.

Language factors

iii.

Absence of supplementary reading material

iv.

Quality of reading of learning materials

Literacy programmes are badly affected because of the shortage of text books
and the reading materials for the adult illiterates. But, this shortage of textbooks
according to Altbach (1992, p. 189) can be attributed to a number of factors such as
poor economy, lack of expertise and unavailability of trained writers or publishers.
The production of reading materials in developing countries involves many
problems unlikely to be encountered in the developed world. For example, textbook
publishing and production tend to be handled by the state. Centralized efforts to
publish textbooks also have had serious negative consequences for local publishers.
The language factor is another problem regarding the nature of the reading
materials. In multilingual countries like Pakistan it becomes fairly difficult to produce
adult literacy reading materials in number of different languages to cope with the
needs and demands of different lingual groups. Although research shows that initial
instruction should be offered in a child's first language. After two to three years of
instruction in this language a child can learn a second language fairly effectively
provided he or she is given many opportunities in the classroom to speak the language
and the teacher speaks the second language well.
Moreover, in many developing countries including Pakistan it is economically
impossible to publish materials in the students' home language because the number of

85

languages spoken in these countries is large. For example Zambia, with a population
of less than 9 million, has seven principal languages and five official languages
(World Bank, 1988). India has 1,652 mother tongues and between 200 and 700
languages belonging to four language families, and ten major writing systems
(Pattanyak, 1993, pp. 50-51). China has seven basic language groups; Hann Chinese,
usually called Chinese, has upwards of 1,000 dialects (Greaney, 1996). Thus,
publishing textbooks for each of the major linguistic groups adds considerably to
national textbook production costs and may have major budgetary implications for
educational administrators.
One more problem relating to the learning materials is the availability of the
supplementary reading material. Efforts are being made to introduce the students in
developing countries to material other than textbooks. Many countries have
introduced innovative programmes to promote a love for reading and the reading
habit. For this purpose newspapers, journals, story books and the books with cultural
illustrations can prove useful. No material of this kind was ever used in any literacy
programme in Pakistan.
But, in many developing countries according to Osa (1986, pp. 103-104) it
may not be possible to obtain interesting reading material in the first language, either
locally produced or in the form of imports. Also, the subject matter and illustrations in
many imported books are often unfamiliar to the cultural backgrounds of young
readers.
The quality of literacy materials has always been a critical issue for the
literacy programmes. In most of the literacy programme reading materials are usually
adopted from the formal systems which are unable to cope with the demands of adult
learners. In these materials the language, vocabulary, examples and illustrations all

86

are meant for the children. Hence, the literacy programme suffers due to poor quality
of learning materials.
As far as the literacy programmes in Pakistan are concerned, there were few
of them for which the learning materials were developed by the administrators. Even
the developed materials did not contain any kind of innovation. These materials just
had few lessons upon reading practice and numeracy. There was nothing of quality or
of the standard included in these materials.
2.2.2.10

Negative connotation of literacy

In some communities, there may be a stigma associated with the term literacy,
and even upgrading is not always viewed positively. Usually adult learners find it
difficult in coming and leaving literacy centres. Coming out to a literacy programme
in a small town is a risk. As long as there is such a stigma, there will be adults who
will not want to be associated with a literacy program (Leis, 1994).
Moreover, it is also seen that some of the illiterate adults are totally against
any kind of literacy learning or formal education. The various arguments they put
forward are "so many educated youth are unemployed, then what is the use of
learning? The school or college education is not at all related to our daily life. It is not
going to reduce the life stress and struggle. We have to live and die in this
surrounding only.
Therefore, they do not feel the need for 3Rs, as life they live has no direct
reference to 3Rs. They require a skill that can add to their earning subsequently or can
facilitate their every day life. Similarly, the women did not attend the literacy
programmes due to the absence of their favourite activities. They might have joined
the literacy centres to learn domestic chores like cooking, sewing, knitting or childcare tips instead of the acquisition of reading and writing skills. Consequently they

87

give up literacy work and avoid it in future even if some elements of their interest are
added to the traditional literacy programme. Such situation is created only because of
the fact that no social awareness or mass mobilization activity is undertaken by the
concerned authorities to introduce the people about the importance of literacy.
In Pakistan, like many third world countries, the adults find it difficult to
initiate or to restart the literacy work. Because of their social position and
responsibilities they feel hesitance to go to the literacy centres or to carry the school
bag full of books and stationary. Moreover, instead of being appreciated usually they
are laughed at, taunted and named derisively by their friends and peers for starting the
strange act of reading and writing. Therefore, most of them are forced to flee from
the literacy centre leaving their literacy class half-way stranded.
2.2.2.11

Lack of expertise

The field of adult education and literacy is specific in its nature as there is
need of specially trained personnel to plan, implement and evaluate literacy
programme. Its complex nature makes it essential that the people running literacy
programme possess special training besides their personal competencies and interests
to work with the adults. But, the case is different in case of Pakistan where literacy
programmes were mostly controlled by the untrained and temporarily appointed
workers. In most of the literacy programmes officials from other departments of the
government were hired on temporary basis. They were neither familiar with adult
education nor possess any kind of experience in managing and supervising adult
literacy programmes. Mostly literacy programmes were conceived, formulated and
administered by generals, or by those who had no prior training or any kind of field
experience regarding literacy and adult education. (Ghafoor and Khan, 1994, p. 105).

88

To provide trained personnel for the literacy campaign in Pakistan the policies
on education suggested different measures. For example, in 1947 All Pakistan
Educational Conference aimed to provide properly trained adult school teachers for
the literacy centres (Govt. of Pakistan 1947, p.22). Similarly, the National
Commission on Education 1959 recommended that the number of both the specially
trained adult literacy workers and part-time literacy teachers from the villages should
be increased, (Govt. of Pakistan, 1959, pp. 204-5). In this regard the most remarkable
recommendation was made in Education Policy 1992. It recommended that a National
Institute of Training and Research for Literacy (NITRL) will be established under the
NETCOM for providing service to agencies engaged in literacy work (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1992, p. 14).
Similarly according to Government of Pakistan (2001, p. 41) the professional
base of adult literacy initiatives remained underdeveloped due to lack of training of
instructors; no formalized curriculum; and a virtual non-existence of effective
research.
Despite all the above mentioned suggestions and recommendations no training
could be practically provided to the most of the literacy workers. The provided
training was not appropriate in case it was arranged for certain programmes. Majority
of the literacy teachers remained ignorant of adult education skills and techniques.
2.2.2.12

Adverse home and school circumstances

The circumstances and environment of the home as well as the school also
affects the literacy rates of a country. Among the home factor parents level of
literacy, their economic condition, their profession, the distance of home from the
school, parents attitude toward literacy and the environment of neighbourhood all
have much influence upon the literacy condition of the children. The home factors

89

that militate against the development of literacy in developing countries according to

Greaney (1986, pp. 813-14) include;
illiterate parents and elders in the home, reticence about encouraging reading
in the home, lack of appropriate reading material, inability of parents to
purchase any form of reading material, lack of space and light, number of
household chores, child labour practices, and in some instances, communal
lifestyles which frown on solitary activities such as reading.
If a childe according to Adams (1990) continuously remains in an
environment which supports the literacy process, he/she is likely to participate in
teaching learning process. Hence there are fewer chances that he/she will be an
addition to illiterates. In the same way child living in a family where illiterates are
more than the literates and the environment in not much conducive for literacy there
are more chances that the child may become an illiterate. As such situation prevails in
Pakistan, the level of drop out at early stages is maximum. The only reason for this is
that the first most ideal personalities of the children are illiterates, either their parents
or their other relatives.
Similarly, according to Cunningham and Stanovich (1991, p. 266) unlike
their counterparts in more rich countries, children in developing countries are unlikely
to be confronted regularly with printed matter in the home in newspapers and
magazines, on covers of boxes and wrappings, on television screens, and outside in
the forms of posters and public signs.
Despite these factors the interests of the child and of the parents also account
for the status of literacy in that family. Some times, as in most of the cases in
Pakistan, parents simply do not allow their offspring to go to school because there is
no one to help them in their domestic chores. Occasionally, a businessman, a worker

90

or a peasant can abandon his childs schooling because he finds no advantage of

literacy in his every day business. The adverse social conditions such as poverty,
unemployment or insecurity can also force the parents to abstain or to end the
schooling of their children.
Like wise the home factor, the atmosphere of the school also influences the
literacy rates of a state. The comfortable and interesting school environment adds to
the learners interest in the teaching and learning process. It consequently reduces the
drop-out rate and improves the literacy situation.
Physical facilities like proper building, furniture, tats/mats and even very basic
necessities like blackboard, chalk, charts and drinking water plays important role in
maintaining the interest of the students in the teaching and learning process. But most
of the Pakistani schools lack such facilities. The condition of the rural schools is very
substandard. Many schools in the rural areas have one room and one teacher for the
entire primary section. There is no furniture, no drinking water and even no
arrangement of toileting (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 123).
Similarly, according to Govt. of Pakistan (1998, p. 123) un-attractive school
environment has resulted in poor retention and a high dropout rate. In the same way
the timings of the class, the place of the class, the distance, the space available, and
the light arrangement are not suitable (www.literacy.org, 1997).
In short,,, literacy campaign in Pakistan is significantly hampered by the home
and the school factors. The illiterate parents, unwilling children for school, poverty of
parents, absence of domestic guidance, child labour, building less schools,
uninteresting learning materials and far off schools are some of the bad factors
generated from the home and schools environment which are creating obstruction in
literacy enhancement process in Pakistan.

91

2.2.2.13

Ad hocism

Since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 the field of literacy and adult education
has not been properly handled by the government agencies. A tendency of ad hocism
has always been witnessed for planning and manipulating the literacy programmes in
Pakistan. Departments, commissions, Organizations, plans and policies have
continuously been formulated throughout the scenario. Most of these were run on the
ad hoc bases rather than the permanent ones. Therefore, the situation of literacy in
Pakistan remained grim and unsatisfactory (UNICEF, 1994, pp 13-14).
For example, in the beginning literacy work was attached to the V-AID
programme which was primarily meant for the social development. Afterwards the
education department was asked to look after the literacy process in the state. But,
because of the overburden and lack of expertise this experiment also failed to yield
the expected outcomes. After this neither a separate institution was set up nor was any
other department assigned any kind of responsibility regarding literacy till the
establishment of LAMEC in 1981. It was renamed as NETCOM in 1990 for the
purpose of reorganization and improving efficiency. NETCOM was again renamed, in
accordance with the decision of Social Sector Committee of the Cabinet, dated 21-11995, as Prime Ministers Literacy Commission. In the year 2000 Prime Ministers
Literacy Commission was abolished following a presidential ordinance. To undertake
the responsibility of literacy provision it was replaced with National Commission for
Human Development in 2002.
At present Project Wing of the Ministry of Education is looking after the
affairs of literacy along with the National Commission for Human Development.
Department of Education for All is undertaking a multidimensional programme to
improve the existing situation of literacy, Universal Primary Education and Early

92

Childhood Education (www.moe.gov.pk). At the same time a number of NGOs are

also working to control the ever deteriorating literacy situation.
2.2.2.14

Quality of adult education

The quality of schooling is also an important determinant of participation and

retention. Poor quality teaching, curriculum, instructional materials and school
infrastructure can have an adverse affect on student learning (Kowsar, 1996, p. 09).
The psychology of adult learners suggests that they want to have useful and
innovative skills. They do not show any kind of interest is the process of mere reading
and writing if it is not practically useful in their every day life as they are specifically
goal oriented.
The quality of any literacy programme is usually determined by the concept of
literacy being followed, realistic planning, the nature of materials developed,
incentives promised, level of academic qualification of the teachers and the training
provided to them, the sincerity of literacy workers, effectiveness of administration and
the facilities provided at the grass root level.
As far as Pakistan is concerned the element of quality was continuously
missing from almost the entire literacy campaign since 1947. The majority of literacy
programme stressed upon only the acquisition of the reading and writing skills. None
of the literacy programmes had any kind of orientation toward the professional
development or the teaching of a technical skill that can help adult learners in raising
their social status or the improvement of their financial position. The materials
developed for literacy programme were never up to the mark. These were developed
on the formal pedagogical format lacking interest for the adult learners. Similarly the
planning for the literacy was defective on several bases as the targets was unrealistic,
the provisions were inadequate, the management was lazy and there was no proper

93

supervision and monitoring. Most of the literacy programmes were run by the
volunteer teachers who were neither properly educated nor trained to teach the adult
learners. That is why they treated even the grown up learners on the pedagogical
patterns. At the same time because of the improper remuneration their level of interest
with the literacy classes was not so high. Consequently, the out-come of the process
was the failure of the programme or very poor quality.
The administration of these literacy programmes was not interested in any
kind of quality assurance activities. Their main concern was with the release and
utilization of funds. At the same time no arrangements were ever made to evaluate the
quality of the literacy programme. Monitoring of the programme or its evaluation was
never given due importance by any planner or the administrator of literacy campaign.
It resulted into the withdrawal of adult learners from the literacy programme after
joining it.
2.2.2.15

Inconsistencies and hasty discontinuation

Politically Pakistan is not a stable country. In the last sixty years here
governments had frequently been changed or overthrown. This political instability has
affected the system of education along with the other fields. Therefore, despite the
formulation of successive plans and policies on education literacy rates in the country
always remained well below the stipulated targets. The main reason behind this
failure is the foreclosing or hasty discontinuation of the policy or plan by every new
coming government. For example, the educational policies 1970, 1972 and 1998
could not be fully implemented because of the political instability in the country.
The same is the case with the programmes of literacy. Most of the literacy
programmes were abandoned even without carrying out any kind of evaluation. For
instance, according to Ghafoor and Khan (1994, p. 106), the Sipah-E-Khidmat project

94

1973, National literacy programme 1985-86, Eradication of illiteracy project 1992-93

are some of the programmes which were stopped before the completion of there
specified period.
Similarly, Nai Roshani Schools Project was in its full swing in 1989 with
13688 schools established and with an enrolment of 349767 students (PLC. 1998)
when it was closed without any rational leaving hundreds of teachers unemployed and
thousands of students stranded half-way in literacy skill. Despite this hasty end about
24927 persons managed to acquire the level of literacy during the project period
(Khan, et al. 2000, p. 5).
Such political decisions not only proved disastrous for the economy of the
state but also had very bad impact upon the national literacy campaign as the
infrastructure developed for the projects had to be abolished and the assets acquired
disposed off. It can shatter the national resources along with the confidence of the
literacy workers and the people willing to join the literacy programme.
2.2.2.16

Patronage of political leadership

Literacy programme, like any other educational programme, is a social

activity. It can not be solely coped by government or any organization. There is need
of cooperation and support from all sections of society to successfully run a literacy
programme. Moreover, political will and support of social and political leaders makes
such social activities successful and effective. But, all the adult literacy programmes
launched in the past could not receive due attention and favour of the political parties,
public representatives and local leaders. None of these social elements took the
responsibility of mobilizing masses in their constituencies for literacy drive, motivate
illiterate people for literacy classes and supervising the performance of literacy
centres.

95

The status of the political will for the literacy efforts in Pakistan is evident
from the following statement (Govt. of Pakistan, 2001, p. 41):
Adult Literacy has suffered due to lack of political will and absence of
consistency in policy. It has not been given the needed/desired priority in EFA
programmes. Only a few projects on adult literacy could be launched during
the post Jomtien period, which had limited coverage and were restricted to not
more than 10% of the target group.
Consequently the literacy programmes in Pakistan remained the assignment
of government machinery only. The adult illiterates could not be easily motivated by
the teachers to join the literacy class. Hence, attendance at the literacy centres
remained very unsatisfactory. In Pakistan the interest of the political or social leaders
remains till the recruitment of their nominees as employees or the release of funds for
the literacy programme. Never a public representative visited any literacy centre nor
met the personnel working in a literacy programme. The result of which was the
absenteeism, irresponsibility and the faulty management causing the failure of
literacy programmes.
2.2.2.17

Poverty

Poverty and economic constraints are the most powerful factors that influence
the literacy work. It is the poverty that forces the people to flee from the educational
institutions in search of daily bread. Poverty, on individual as well as national level,
influences the literacy enhancement process. At the individual level the masses prefer
earning instead of spending something on their children by enrolling them to the
educational institutions. But, at the national level even the launch of literacy
programme becomes difficult because of the unavailability of funds for the support of

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literacy programme. Even the poor nations of the world find it hard to properly run
even their formal education system.
Moreover, limited economic opportunities affect children's learning potential
and thus the returns from their schooling. This lowers parental expectations of the
benefits of their children's education, and so reduces their willingness to invest in their
children's future. Girls are particularly affected as they have fewer opportunities in the
labour market than boys. Moreover, any economic benefits accrued from a girl's
education may be transferred to another family when she marries (Kowsar, 1996, p.
09).
The costs of literacy whether it is direct or opportunity demand to be met
properly. But, in a developing country like Pakistan it becomes very difficult for the
government alone to handle the situation because of devastating economic conditions.
Similarly, people do not show interest in literacy programmes due to their poverty. It
is reflected from the previous efforts for literacy that people showed enthusiasm for
those literacy programmes which promised any kind of incentives. For example
Tawana Pakistan and provision of free textbooks with monthly financial support of
students under Punjab Education Sector Reform has proved very fruitful programme.
Hence, there is need to alleviate the widespread poverty in order to enhance
literacy rate in Pakistan. This can not be done overnight and single handedly only by
the government. For this purpose collaborative efforts are needed from sections of the
society including non governmental organizations, community based organizations,
the individuals and the government.
2.2.2.18

Administrative opposition

Another cause of the failure of literacy programmes in Pakistan is the absence

of interest from the personnel administering such programmes. In Pakistan Adult

97

literacy programme in the past were simultaneously administered by different

departments and organizations. There had been a conflict within and among these
departments for the control and management of these programmes. Moreover,
because of the failure of the programmes these departments and organizations had
been blaming each other for this failure. Similarly, due to the absence of any
evaluating agency personnel working for the literacy did not consider themselves
answerable before anyone. hence, the result was irresponsibility and the negligence
from the duty which led to the failure of the most of the programmes. The jealousies
and the personal grudges of the people had also been a hindrance for the promotion of
literacy in Pakistan. The political differences of the political parties also proved
harmful for the improvement of literacy. Literacy programmes, like Nai Roshani,
were stopped only because it was started by the rival party of the newly elected
government in 1989.
At the same time, according to Ghafoor and Khan (1994, p. 8) the traditional
planners, technocrats, educationists and finance people opposed any kind of
innovation and investment in adult literacy programmes due to the ignorance from the
need, feasibility and style of non-formal education programmes. Because of the overt
and disguised of these officials at different, adult literacy sector has not been able to
emerge fully and prove its usefulness.
2.2.2.19

Dilemma of definition

Another main issue regarding literacy promotion in Pakistan has been the
specification of true meaning and definition of literacy. It has over the years been
given a variety of interpretations, from the earlier idea of acquiring the basic skills of
reading and writing in the mother tongue, to the much broader concept of the making
people able to actively participation in a literate culture, at the individual, local,

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national and regional levels. Terms such as literate environments, a culture of reading,
post literacy, continuing and non-formal education, life long education and adult
education give some indication of the scope and diversity in the concept of literacy.
Just as measures like levels of government spending on non-formal education and
family and community support are used as substitute to literacy programmes, so adult
literacy itself is an alternative for a wide range of adult learning outcomes.
This conflict in defining the term literacy exists since the primitive
civilizations of the world as viewed by Boyarin, (1993):
The changing meanings for literacy have appeared as a variety of forces that
have influenced the development of new technologies and the literacy
envisionments they prompt. In earliest societies, literacy was a way to record
land, livestock, and crops, often for taxes or to record business transactions. In
Mesopotamia, for example, Summerians used cunieform writing on clay
tablets to keep these types of records
In the present day UNESCOs definition of the adult literacy rate is the
percentage of the population aged 15 years and over who can both read and write with
understanding a short simple statement on his/ her everyday life (UNESCO, 2000b, p.
39).
In the same way, Wijitilleke (1998) states that the issues regarding the
pedagogy of literacy are still very much evident even in the most developed nations of
the world. There are differences regarding the nature of literacy skills, level of literacy
and the methods of literacy acquisition. People are yet unable to decide whether to
adopt the traditional concept of 3Rs or the modern vision of functionality leading to
more empowerment. The content and the methods used in most literacy programmes

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are still mainly on the 3 R's of reading, writing and arithmetic. But, empowering
education is a process where by new knowledge, information and skills are acquired
of which literacy is an important component.
As far as situation in Pakistan concerns, the notion of literacy has always been
changing since 1947. The level of the literacy skills and the particular age limit to
achieve this level had never been fixed. It has been changing from time to time as
shown in the following table
Table 2.11: Definitions and status of literacy in different censes years of Pakistan
Year of Census

Definition of Literacy

Age Group

1951

One who can read a clear print All Ages

Literacy
Rate (%)
17.7

in any language
1961

One who is able to read with Age 5 and above

16.9

understanding a simple letter in

any language
1972

One who is able to read and Age 10 and above

21.7

write in some language with

understanding
1981

One who can read news paper Age 10 and above

26.2

and write a letter

1998

One who can read news paper Age 10 and above

43.92

and write a simple letter in any

language
Source: UNESCO (2004a). Literacy trends in Pakistan, Islamabad, UNESCO Office.
This variation in the context of literacy has been constantly a problematic
section for the administrators as well the adult learners of various literacy
programmes in Pakistan. The allocations of funds, the recruitment and training of
personnel to undertake the literacy programme, development of literacy materials and

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support services all depend upon the age group of target population and the level of
literacy to be achieved. In the absence of clearly defined concept of literacy and the
age limit of adult learners the management of the literacy programmes had been
suffering from variety of difficulties. The duration of literacy programmes, the
development of literacy materials, the instructors eligibility, the skills to be imparted
and the methodology had always been wavering. Consequently the literacy
programmes in Pakistan failed to achieve objectives in the desired manner.
2.2.2.20

Unrealistic targets

Another problem confronted by the literacy efforts in Pakistan had been setting
of unrealistic targets for the future. Due to these imaginative planning for the future
the literacy efforts in Pakistan can not be properly managed. The setting of targets
regarding educating the people and allocation of the finance has always been
unrealistic. As an example the 9th Plan 1998-2003 targeted to increase the literacy rate
to 60% by the year 2003, and 75 % by the year 2010 by increasing the allocations for
education. But could actually attain the literacy rate of about 54% by the end of the
year 2005 (Govt. of Pakistan, 2005). In the same way The National Education Policy
(1998-2010) also aimed to achieve a 55% literacy rate by 2003 but could not realize
the set target. In all the educational plans and policies the government desired much
but got very little. A summary of the government aspirations regarding literacy rates
in Pakistan and actual achievements for the five year development plans is given in
the table below.

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Table 2.12:

Targets and gains of literacy rate in the Five Year Development Plans

Plan No.

Plan Period

Target Literacy Rate

Achieved Literacy Rate

1970-1975

25%

19.8%

1978-1983

24.9%

21%

1983-1988

35%

30%

1988-1993

40%

35%

1993-1998

48%

43.92%

1998-2003

60

51.6

Similarly, the allocations for literacy were not completely utilized affecting
the achievement of the specified targets. For example by the year 1979 the
universalization of primary education (UPE) targets were not met even halfway. The
fifth plan (1977-83) increased resources but the share of the educational budget was
halved. The enrolment achieved were 22 percent (boys) and 31 percent (girls) of the
targeted numbers (5.9m boys and 2.685m girls). The sixth plan (1983-88) focused on
primary education, mass literacy, enrolment of girls and basic facilities. The utilizable
budget remained below 31 percent. While target enrolment was 200 percent that
achieved was 25 percent, and participation rate was less than 55 percent. Performance
in primary education however was described as 'relatively satisfactory'. The seventh
plan (1988-93) aimed to complete infrastructure needs for primary education, to
reduce urban-rural and boys-girls disparities, and achieve UPE by 2000.
The actual utilization of the allocated funds in the five year development plans
is presented by Yasir (2001) which is shown in the Table 2.21 given upon the next
coming page.

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Table 2.13: Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education
Total
Educational
Allocations

Allocations
for Literacy

Percentage
of total
Allocations

Actual
Expenditure

15577.67

6th Plan
(1983-88)

18830

750

4.0 %

724.00

7th Plan
(1988-93)

22684.8

300

1.32 %

510.308

8th Plan
(1993-98)

20232.8

1750

8.6 %

409.164

Plan
1st. Plan to 5th
Plan (1955-83)

th

9 Plan (1998133500
1000
0.74 %
2003)
Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1998): National Education Policy (1998-2010),

% of Actual
Expenditure
to Total
Allocations
96.53 %
(0.038%)
170.10 %
(0.022%)
23.34 %
(0.02%)
-

Islamabad: Ministry of Education (p.134).

In short, it is evident from the above discussion that all the governments in
Pakistani wished much but did very little to match their aspirations. This attitude
created distress and frustration among common people and problems of planning for
the next coming government.
2.2.2.21

Absence of incentives and motivational measures

Incentives play a vital role in any kind of literacy programme, especially when
the learners are grown up. The incentives provided to the adult learners help in
increasing their level of motivation. Motivation means to be moved, activated, or
directed into action. For the adult learners motivation has various dimensions. The
learner's enrolment, his/her retention, completion of the whole curriculum, joining the
post literacy programme and joining the continuing education programme all these
action form a continuum only if the learner is so much motivated that he/she takes a
decision of joining the literacy centre.

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If the literacy programme is not going to add to their daily income, which is a
very obvious incentive expected from the literacy programmes, the adult learners are
not going to continue it. So the literacy class which is equated to 3Rs, without any
other kind of learning leading to enrichment of thinking, the adult illiterates are not
interested in taking it, especially when the entire day is spent in hard labour.
The provision of incentives is not only needed for the adult learners, the
instructors, the supervisors and other supporting staff also need some kind of
motivational support. In Pakistan this element is found missing in almost all the
literacy programmes. The instructors were inadequately salaried, the supervisors were
not facilitated and the learners never got any kind of motivational incentive. This
resulted in low enrolment and high drop-out rates in the literacy programmes.
The neglect in creating motivational atmosphere for learning needs to be
understood and rectified as soon as possible. Then only the beginning of a learning
society in the context of new technology and new needs of 21st century can have a
very sound base, as all citizens from all walks of life would be participating in the
onward march of development and overcome the constraints of poverty and reduce
the level of deprivation as fast as possible (www.literacy.org, 1997).
Thus it becomes clear that until there are some incentives in literacy work the
adult learners remain interested in the literacy programme but, when there are no
incentives or the promised incentives are not provided the adult learners leave the
literacy programme halfway. Therefore, according to Ames (1987, p. 132) an
atmosphere or environment that nurtures the motivation to learn can be cultivated in
the home, in the classroom, or at a broader level throughout an entire educational
institution. Much of the recent research on educational motivation has rightly centred
on the classroom, where the majority of learning takes place and where students are

104

most likely to acquire a strong motivation to gain new knowledge. Hence it is

necessary that along with the provision of incentives there should be reforms in the
class room. It should friendly and cooperative for the adult learners.
2.2.2.22

Absence of evaluation system for literacy programmes

A comprehensive and scientific evaluation system makes the literacy

programme more rational and efficient. In Pakistan evaluation of the literacy
programmes was never made and if this practice is made it was half hearted and
fruitless. The reason is that the evaluation system for the literacy programmes in
Pakistan is excessively flawed with serious weaknesses. This has caused serious
damage to the efforts of literacy improvements and has made it very difficult to
suggest whether the literacy programme achieved its specified objectives or not. Only
a few literacy programmes were evaluated in Pakistan. But the evaluation of these
programmes was never published or made available to the planners of literacy
programmes which diminished its importance.

2.3

ROLE OF DISTANCE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN

LITERACY ENHANCEMENT
Distance education is currently considered one of the fastest growing forms of

education both domestically and internationally. The process of distance education is

providing a structured learning environment in which the teacher and student(s) are
separated by time and geographical place with some form of technology being used
for the transmission of all teaching and learning.
Distance education brought a revolution in the process of imparting education,
especially the adult education. According to Kaur (1996, p. 1) It may be considered a
revolutionary developments because it marked significant break from the centuries

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old formal teaching system and led to the development of an innovative multi-media
teaching for learning system.
For the achievement of proper benefits in a distance education system where
students and educators are geographically separated, technology is used to facilitate
their communication. It includes the use of radio, television, computer networks,
telephone support, air lessons, telematics, or print material.
As far as the relationship of literacy and distance education is concerned,
Fleischman (1998, p. 81) states that very little is known about what works and what
doesnt when using distance education with Adult Basic Education (ABE). This is
probably due in part to the fact that literacy programmes have historically been the
last to access new technology, primarily due to the lack of funding to the literacy field
in general (Turner, 1998, p. 68). As the body of research about distance learning and
adult basic education is limited, understanding the potential of distance education for
the provision of literacy services to illiterates is questioned by several educationists
(Turner, 1998, p. 81).
According to Mukhopadhyay (2003, p. 3) distance education offers several
alternative delivery modes and adult literacy needs to incorporate, besides the
classical three R's, occupational learning, speaking and articulation, moralistic and
societal learning. It will be necessary to juxtapose the literacy programme needs
against the potentiality of distance education delivery channels. There are several
alternatives available for developing the various literacy skills. One-way mass media
and two way interactive media have very important roles to play. Computer mediated
learning with the new developments in multi-media can substantially enrich learning
of literacy skills. The education in occupational skills, mapping local issues on
national and global contexts and participative and collective decision making

106

(learning to live together), components of moralistic learning (learning to be) can be

delivered through all the channels independently and in certain combinations.
In the same way distance education can support the literacy in the following
ways.
i.

Training of literacy personnel.

ii.

Enhancement Adult learners motivation.

iii.

Provision of literacy at the doorsteps of illiterates.

iv.

Provision of literacy in the cheap mode

v.

Public-private partnership for literacy purposes.

vi.

Increased possibilities of the use modern technologies

Despite the limited evidences of distance education role in the promotion of

literacy there is no doubt that literacy and distance education do have a lot in common.
First, these are areas in the field of adult education. Two, the clients are mostly adult.
Three, the methodology of instruction are expected to be similar in orientation due to
the need to address adult needs. To this end, andragogical methods of instruction are
most desirable for adult learners in both literacy and distance education. Fourth, the
clients seem to have suffered some form of neglect or the other in the past thus
requiring special methodologies that would address their needs. The clients in the
programmes are similar in the way they are disenfranchised. Fifth, and based on the
new dimensions of conceptualization for literacy, the potential clients are quite large.
Six, literacys new demands would require the use of new technologies, a pattern that is
becoming increasingly observable in distance education. Seven, and increasingly too,
the issue of strict adherence to the use of qualifications for admitting learners is giving
way to more liberal initiatives and tailor made educational programmes, sometimes in
modular forms. Eight, the multi disciplinary nature of work in distance education is a

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situation quite common in adult education, a branch of education to which literacys

apron string is tied. In short, the background of both educational thrusts is aimed at the
masses; and their implementation strategies veer away, in some measures from the
normal classroom practices (Adekanmbi, 2002, p. 3).
In the following section examples of different successful distance education
literacy programmes are presented to make it clear that in the provision of literacy
distance education is as effective as the formal system.

2.3.1 Global View of Employing Distance Education for Literacy

Distance education has been implemented in many countries for many years in
many different subject areas. Although it is assumed that distance education is
exclusively for subjects that mainly relying on printed study materials because it is
mainly cognitive learning, but through the use of audio and video recording,
telephone contacts, laboratory kits, computer programme, etc, a great number of other
subjects can be learned through distance education. Now a days adult literacy and
continuing education has become one of the important aspect of distance education. In
many countries throughout the world it is being for initiating literacy process,
sustaining the acquired literacy ability and for further education. Some successful
examples of the use of distance education for improvement of literacy and adult
education are presented here.
Drawing upon the well known model of the British Open University, countries
such as Pakistan, India and China have combined modern methods of teaching with
emerging technologies in order to provide low-cost instruction for basic literacy and
job training. Turkey has recently joined those nations involved in large scale distance
learning. Only twelve years old, their distance education programme has enrolled

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almost one million students and is the 6th largest distance education programme in the
world. The first programme to provide education out-of-school was the Indian Open
School project in 1979, which after ten years became the National Open School
(NOS). Ten state governments followed this example and initiated their own State
Open Schools. Pakistan established the Mass Education Programme in 1982 and
Bangladesh initiated the Open School of Bangladesh in 1992, both were off-shoots of
their national open universities (Edirisingha, 1999, p. 6).
In Indonesia, some aspects of distance education have been implemented for
Kejar Paket A, a programme for those who cannot finish formal elementary school. It
is an elementary education equivalency programme, designed to enable the students to
get elementary education certificate. In order to keep them learning and to be able to
master basic competencies similar to that mastered by elementary school graduates,
Kejar Paket A programme send learning materials in the form of modules to students
and provides tutors for them. The students are organized into study groups, and each
group has regular meeting schedule. Learning materials of Kejar Paket A, together
with Khit Pen of Thailand have been acknowledged as illustration of effective
teaching-learning packages developed in the Region (UNESCO, 1994a, p.17).
Another experience related to the use of distance and open education is again
from India. In 1988, the Salaam Balaak Trust (SBT), a non government organization
(NGO), run a centre for street children and working children between the age of three
to 18, by applying non-formal and open learning method. Currently, the centre that
based in New Delhi operates eight educational centres and four shelters houses
helping about 5.000 children. The programme covers basic literacy and primary level
courses, which are incorporated with non-conventional learning techniques such as
music, theatre, and puppet workshops. In addition, the centres also provide vocational

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training, job placement, medical treatment and counselling, and opportunities for
education beyond elementary level.
In 1990 Vietnam launched literacy and a post-literacy programme. The former
was structured in three levels, with a total of 150 broadcasted and recorded lessons,
each of which lasted 100 minutes. Level 1 focused on language (letters and words),
while levels 2 and 3 combine language with knowledge and practice skills (Wagner
and Robert 2003, p. 11). The post-literacy curriculum consisted of two levels and 96
lessons. It served to consolidate the learners knowledge as well as practice skills, and
helped them find ways of supplementing their income. At the same time, the literacy
curriculum aimed at increasing awareness of health care and family planning.
In the same way the Gobi Women Project, started in the early 1990s, is a nonformal distance learning programme utilizing print and radio lessons to communicate
and renew a number of survival and income-generating skills important to the
nomadic women of the Gobi Desert. The programme, run by the Gobi Women
Project, covered five main areas, i. e. (1) livestock rearing techniques and processing
of animal products, (2) family care, (3) literacy support and survival skills, (4) income
generation using locally available raw materials, and (5) basic business knowledge for
a new market economy. The learning materials were packed in the form of booklets
and 17 radio programmes. The booklets were centrally distributed and radio
programmes were broadcast weekly. The project provided radios as well as batteries
for them and relevant booklets. Learning materials were supplemented by newsletters,
demonstration materials, and information sheets. Teachers travelled to the women
homes to check their progress and help them with any specific problems. A number of
15.000 women involved as students and 620 visiting teachers worked for this
programme. Learning support was provided through visiting teachers, local meetings,

110

and crash courses at district centres. It is reported that in spite of the limitation, the
project was effective in addressing the educational needs of a vulnerable sector of the
population. Participants reported that not only were they satisfied with the new skills
they acquired through the programme, but they also enjoyed the interaction with
teachers and other learners and gained a sense of self-sufficiency within their
environment (Wardani, 2001, pp. 7-8).
Many post-colonial African countries could not expand the conventional
schools within their shrinking budgets, even within a generation or more (Perraton,
1982). They chose distance education as an alternative model, which was becoming
popular in rich countries at that time. Study Centre model was the particular
organisational structure that was established to provide education at a distance in three
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa: Malawi, Zambia. Most students of these
programmes are primary-school leavers. All the three countries use an approach
which recognizes that these students need considerable support and have combined
the use of print correspondence materials with support from tutor. On enrolment
students receive printed correspondence courses and access to a marking service.
They then register in a local study centre. They are supervised by individuals who are
either primary school teachers or reasonably well educated adults, and they may get
the opportunity to listen to radio programmes or taped instruction (Curran and
Murphy, 1992, p.19). The courses provided are equivalent to those of the regular
school, and at the successful completion of the course the learners gain certificates
that are comparable to those gained from formal schools. Learners study at the study
centres, under the supervision of facilitators, using the print materials specially
prepared for them. Radio and other audio-visual media are also used to some extent
(Edirisingha, 1999, p. 5).

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Working on the similar pattern in Kenya a non governmental organization

named African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) started a distance
education literacy programme to provide training in the health related issues. This
attempted to address the needs of the learners by raising the effectiveness of
intermediaries, such as extension agents and health workers agents who are working
with them. The distance education unit of AMREF provided in-service education for
health workers in Kenya. This unit has developed a programme with correspondence
lessons, audiocassettes, a weekly radio session called Health is life and practical
demonstrations to support its other teaching methods. The programme grew from a
pilot of 100 students in 1980 to reached 6000 by 1995 with 4090 active learners, all of
them paramedical health workers. The AMREF project was unusual in using distance
education for the in-service training of field workers. Although there is extensive
experience of supporting schoolteachers at a distance, far fewer projects have used the
same method for health workers or extension agents (Perraton, 2000).
Application of distance education for the promotion of literacy in the modern
era is being made with the support of information and communication technologies
(ICT). ICT in various forms has been used with some success to support the initial
acquisition of literacy skills. For example in the UK, according to Pennells (2005, p.
3) ICT has been used to enhance literacy in primary schools under a government
initiative, the National Grid for Learning, with various generally favourable examples
documented by the Basic Skills Agency and evaluated by the governments Office for
Standards in Education (OFSTED). A consortium of bodies, the National Association
of Advisers for Computers in Education (NAACE), provides resources such as model
literacy plans for teachers to use ICT in literacy teaching.

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Another literacy programme which adopted the distance education mode was
organized by the British Broadcasting Corporation. Whilst the audience of the BBC
Adult Literacy Campaign had been open and the number of non-literate adults in
Britain at the start of the campaign was unknown (estimated at approximately two
million). The records of programme indicate that 65,000 volunteer tutors were
recruited initially, and approximately 125,000 learners had been under tuition at
some time between the start of the programme in 1974 and 1978. In the programme
between one third and a half of these actively had been attending classes. A major
benefit of the campaign was the awareness it raised among the literate community of
the issue of illiteracy and the engagement of many members of the public as voluntary
literacy tutors (Hargreaves, 1980).
UNESCO supervised a distance education adult literacy programme to create
awareness about HIV infection rate in Southern Africa which is among the highest in
the world. Some 30 women and men met at the workshop with the intention of
developing this type of sensitivity toward HIV/AIDS, as well as compassion for those
living with it and those at risk. Based on the UNESCO manual, Gender Sensitivity, a
variety of activities, including media support and mutual interaction, helped
participants sharpen their own sensitivity toward issues related to power relationships
between sexes and how these influence spread of HIV/AIDS (UNESCO, 2001, p, 01).
In the South Asian sub-continent, the immediate post-independence era was
too early a time for the establishment of open and distance learning initiatives for outof-school populations. Innovations such as the UK Open University, which became
one of the main influential factors later on, were still to come. The formal education
system has been leaving behind a large proportion of people who were not able to
read and write. High population growth was adding to the problem, while social,

113

cultural and geographic reasons limiting the access to education for marginalised
communities (Edirisingha, 1999, p. 5). Hence the first step in this field was taken in
Pakistan in 1974 when Allama Iqbal Open University was established. Later on
IGNO, Indira Gandhi National Open University, in India also launched some adult
literacy programmes
In the West African countries correspondence material combined with the
radio broadcasting and causal face-to-face meetings was used to impart literacy
among the farmers. A literacy programme named INADES-formation provides
educational opportunities for rural audiences, including farmers in 1970s. The idea of
using correspondence courses to teach better farming practices to peasant farmers,
often with modest levels of literacy, proved successful although it seems old
fashioned in its nature (Perraton, 2000). However, it was quite startling to arrive with
INADES-formation staff, in village after village, often miles from a main road and
often with no warning, to be met by students coming from their houses carrying their
correspondence assignments ready to be marked (Jenkins and Perraton, 1982, p.15).
With its headquarters in Ivory Coast, INADAS-formation established its several
branches in seven Francophone states and in Kenya and Tanzania. INADASformations provides a diverse educational programme for farmers, agricultural
extension personnel, and women are some of its learners. The system works through a
variety of means, including distance education. Its programmes included farming
practices, womens participation in development, soil conservation, water supply and
civic education. The main media and methods included correspondence lessons,
assignments, seminars, magazines, and occasional broadcast radio.
There are new and exciting ideas concerning the utility of technology for
literacy and adult education provision for out of school youth and adults. Much of this

114

work is still in its infancy and evolving very rapidly. Technological solutions to
instruction known as computer based education (CBE) or computer assisted
instruction (CAI) have been used, primarily in industrialized nations, for more than a
decade. The presence of microcomputers in the classrooms of schools has continued
to grow at an exponential rate (Wagner and Hopey, 1999). With adult instruction,
growth of CBE and CAI has recently begun to show similar growth patterns, but it
remains limited to a few sectors in a limited number of countries. Especially
promising is the use of CBE and CAI in second language/literacy instruction. Another
use of technology for literacy entails telecommunications networks, such as the
Internet, for distance education. Now available in all countries of the world the
Internet offers tremendous possibilities to improve the communications infrastructure
for literacy and adult education programmes within and across countries. Broadly
speaking, distance education using radio, television and telecommunications is likely
to see a dramatic growth in the decade to come, though some programmes have built a
track record of over a decade already.
An Internet-based literacy programme named LiteracyLink was launched in
the United States In 1996. The U.S. Department of Education committed five years of
support to PBS Adult Learning Service, the National Centre on Adult Literacy at the
University of Pennsylvania, and Kentucky Educational Television to build, for the
first time, an instructional system using the latest in video, on-line, and computer
technology to help adults receive literacy instruction and gain high school diplomas or
equivalencies in the United States in a programme known as LiteracyLink. This
programme is designed to serve the more than 40 million Americans who require
basic skills instruction. As an on-line lifelong learning system, it incorporates the
latest internet technologies (Java and streaming video), video technologies (digital,

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closed-circuit, broadcast, satellite), and computer technologies (digitized audio and

video, computer-generated graphics, interactive multimedia, and text). LiteracyLink
has two major goals: (1) increase the access of adults to learning opportunities and (2)
improve the quality of instruction available to individuals and adult literacy providers
nationwide through enhanced resources and expanded staff development. As of late
1999, thousands of adult educators in dozens of sites across the U.S. have participated
in the teacher training part of the project, which incorporated an electronic community
of teachers, a series of on-line workshops with professional certification, a collection
of web sites that have been evaluated for adult learning, and a database of Internetbased lesson plans (Wagner and Hopey, 1999).
One more example of the use of internet for the adult literacy programme is
again from USA. CNN Interactive Learning Resources: The California DOEs Adult
Education Unit and Cable News Network (CNN), San Francisco have collaborated to
develop a World Wide Web site that offers a resource tool for supporting classroom
and distance learning instruction (Fleischman, 1998, p. 86). One of the major
purposes of this website is to make available current news stories to adult learners
with low reading levels who may be unable to read and understand standard
newspaper articles. A variety of interactive learning activities help to reinforce and
provide a greater understanding of what is presented on the screen.
Similarly, GRASP (Giving Rural Adults a Study Programme) is a home study
course that was developed in New York to deliver packaged, individualized
instruction in adult and basic. The programme is targeted to rural adults who face
barriers such as childcare, shift work hours, or physical or emotional disabilities, or
who lack adequate transportation to attend traditional education programmes.

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In the light of the above few examples+ it is obvious that distance education
can be successfully used for literacy purposes. Previously it was considered effective
only to enhance the existing skills or the continuing education but, in the present era
mixture of styles are making it possible to launch literacy campaign through distance
education.
2.3.2

Pakistani Perspectives
The use of distance learning for literacy development has been mooted and

indeed cited as an established component of literacy programmes for a considerable

period of time. However, in some cases the rhetoric is not matched by the reality of
implementation. For example, a regional CoL-sponsored symposium on womens
literacy and distance learning held at Allama Iqbal Open University in 1993 found
relatively little evidence of substantial work in this area (CoL, 1993). Most of the
projects described at the symposium which cited distance education as an approach
were speculative, small-scale or used distance education for literacy teaching only in a
marginal sense of printed primers with local-level literacy facilitators. The most
developed and established case discussed was AIOU, whose Functional Education
Programme for Rural Areas (FEPRA) and Integrated Functional Literacy project
combined print, facilitators and audio-visual support material in the form of audio
cassettes and flip charts. Intensive human support was involved, including extension
workers to support the local facilitators (Pennells, 2005, p. 10).
The Functional Education Project for Rural Areas in Pakistan (FEPRA) was
initiated as an experimental programme to address the learning needs of the rural
people of Pakistan who are predominantly poor (Perraton, 2000). In Pakistan only
about 10 percent of rural women can read. Based on extensive research and careful
development of material, the Allama Iqbal Open University worked out a style of

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teaching, and group study led by villagers, that matched the village peoples needs.
The experimental stage ran from 1982 to 1985 and has since institutionalised some of
that work. The main teaching methods and media include printed teaching material,
illustrated flip charts, and audiocassettes, and group meetings led by group leaders.
Field workers recruited and trained group leaders in the techniques of group study and
supervised their work in the field. At the end of each session the group leader
completed a feedback form that provided information for later sessions in the course
for management and for evaluation. The project was reaching about 1500 learners and
it was estimated that the same structure could reach about 5000 a year. It had some
success in reaching its target audience of people with little formal education: 55 per
cent of the learners were illiterate and 66 percent had either not gone to school or
progresses no further than lower primary level. The evidence is consistent in showing
that the project succeeded in establishing a viable and effective system for rural
education.
Working on the similar pattern Education Division of the Pakistan Television
Corporation planned a literacy programme using the distance education mode. The
first phase of the project was launched on October 12, 1975 by the Pakistan
Television Corporation with assistance from Adult Basic Education Society (ABES)
of Gujranwala. The package contained a total of 156 tele-lessons, 10 lessons on
teacher training, 78 lessons on reading, and numeracy, and 68 lessons for post
literacy. A primer named Nia DIN (new day) was developed. Subjects such as
health, hygiene nutrition, child and maternal care, sanitation home economics and
basic agricultural practices were introduced in a story form in the context of family
relationships (APPEAL, 1991, p.12). A total of 1091000 illiterate persons were made
literate through six cycles of the project (PMLC, 1997, p.7).

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Another literacy programme in Pakistan which possessed distance education

mode was Television Literacy Centres (TLC) started in 1983-84. It was basically a
television literacy programme for adults. Literacy lessons were telecast from
November 1983 to May 1984. A total number of 1024 Community Viewing Centres
(CVCs) were established for this purpose (PLC. 1998). The Literacy and Mass
Education Commission provided the primers free of cost. Whereas, PMLC, Provincial
Government and NGOs provided Television sets. The duration of class was one hour
daily in the afternoon (Ghafoor and Khan 1994, p.48). From November 1983 to
December 1984 20480 adult learners remained busy in 1024 Community Viewing
Centre along with there teachers (Ghafoor, 1994, p. 48). The Literacy and Mass
Education Commission made the supervision of the programme with the help of
supervisors from the non-government organizations.
At present Virtual University is playing a remarkable role in imparting
computer literacy in Pakistan. It is adopting distance education mode for teaching and
learning activities. The major proportion of teaching and learning process is carried
through tele-lessons and the on-line support via internet.
In the above examples it is reflected that distance education mode has been
successfully adopted for launching the literacy programmes in Pakistan. The only
need in this regard is to show the consistency in programme development and its
implementation along the effective administration and management.
2.3.3

Effectiveness of Distance Education for the Literacy Work

Distance education has widened horizons for the Illiterates for becoming more

productive by attaining the literacy. Despite it increased use for adult education it has
rarely been used for provision of literacy to the illiterate people. In spite of the
potential role of distance education for the literacy purposes, perhaps many people

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will question about the feasibility of distance education in literacy campaign. Their
quarries might be like, is it possible to make illiterate people, who are almost
unmotivated to learn, participate in literacy campaign through distance education? If
face-to-face literacy programme cannot motivate them to increase their basic
competencies, how will distance education make them interested in learning? Is it
possible to involve every illiterate people in distance education? In other words,
which population will benefit from literacy campaign through distance education?
The answers of these questions are not simple. Many aspects, according to (Wardani,
2001, p. 6), need to be analyzed carefully and experiences in distance education
should be considered before employing it to the literacy campaign. But, it does not
reflect in any way the inability of distance education for incorporating adult literacy
programme.
It is believed that distance education can reach all illiterate people, even
though they reside in very remote areas. The literacy programme can be developed in
the form of printed learning materials, or audio and videocassette, at the national level
or at the regional level. To increase the effectiveness of the distance education
programme, informal groups can be created, based on interest, residency, and the need
of each group member. The printed materials and other learning materials are sent to
each informal group. Tutors for these groups can be recruited from those who reside
close to the group. In addition, the use of advance technology in distance education
may increase the effectiveness of this programme (Wardani, 2001, p. 1).
While discussing the role of distance education in the literacy work
Adekanmbi (2002, p. 1) describes
..need for a discourse on literacy and distance education becomes obvious,
against the background of both educational thrusts being geared toward the

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masses; and their implementation strategies veering away, in some measures

from normal classroom practices. The clients in the programmes are similar in
the way they are disenfranchised as well as in the adult education nature of
their programmes.
For some adult learners, distance education is attractive because it provides
them with a route out of the educational mainstream (Threlkeld and Brzoska, 1993, p.
51). Learners who have had negative experiences in more traditional face-to-face
instruction may prefer the relative anonymity of distance education. Adult learners
often cite convenience or flexibility as reasons for enrolling in distance education
courses. Distance education is a viable alternative for learners with other obligations,
such as family and work demands, or lack of transportation or childcare, which
prevents them from attending traditional classes. Hence, distance learning may extend
access to learning opportunities to adults who might not otherwise be served (James
and Gardner, 1995, p. 19).
That is why Perry (1986, p.16) is of the views that distance teaching offers the
possibility of replacing conventional methods because of its theoretical advantages as
well as proven practical advantages both to the providers and the consumers. Some of
the potential advantages of distance education when it is used for the adult literacy
programme are listed below by Satija (1996, pp. 10-11);
i.

Distance education is essential to attain the cherished goal of the

nation for universalisation of education.

ii.

Distance education is beneficent because it is able to provide

opportunities to large number of people who had previously
been denied such opportunities.

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iii.

Distance

education

fulfils

the

educational

needs

of

geographically isolated people.

iv.

Distance education is essential from the point of view of selflearning and self-improvement of an individual who otherwise
has been deprived of receiving proper education.

One of the major advantages of adopting distance education for the literacy
programmes is the economy. Distance education enlarges educational opportunities to
group of people previously unable to benefit from traditional education at costs which
comparatively low to the conventional education. Thus, although it has high initial
costs, distance education lowers variable cost per student provided the student
population is large enough. While commenting upon the cost of distance education
Rashid (1992, p. 13) also stresses upon its cost-effectiveness. In his opinion,
Distance education is claimed to be cheaper than the formal system. It is
economic because of its large group approach as the need for residential
teaching is eliminated or diminished and study can take place during leisure
time.
In the same way another advantage of distance education is that it allows the
use of various media in combination. Distance teaching can be used at differed levels,
for various types of education with the help of broadcast and non-broadcast media
simultaneously. Rashid (1992, p. 13) observes that technologies of the information
age have the potential to bring education to each person by allowing individuals to
take more responsibility for their learning and achieve independence of thought and
action. Furthermore, adult literacy practitioners use a variety of software packages for
reading, writing, math, and other instructional areas (Hopey et al., 1996). Use of the
Web can range from supplementing instruction to more complex uses. And, while

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many programmes are using more advanced learning technologies, some programs
utilize simple technology such as books on tape with cassette recorders and hand-held
dictionaries or translators.
Another aspect of the use of distance education for literacy programme is
highlighted by Pennells (2005, p. 34). In his opinion distance learning and ICT are
valuable for training and supporting literacy instructors and facilitators. This is true
because rather than instructors receiving a brief initial training they can professionally
be trained to run a distance education literacy programme successfully. It can impart a
significant impact upon the development of their skills or understanding of their role
as a literacy worker. By using ICT and distance learning such instructors can engage
in continuing professional development as literacy workers as they proceed in their
roles and gain experience.
In short,, a cursory look at the field of distance education and its use in the
literacy programmes reflects that since its inception as correspondence education it
tends to distinguish it as a unique way of the provision of literacy. These include its
uniqueness, its pedagogical possibilities, and its ability to mass-produce its graduates
as well as its teaching and learning materials. It has a potential for fast mass delivery
of instruction, tapping in the process from existing resources, human and material. It
relies on a wide range of experts thus allowing it to achieve large economies of scale.
It stresses upon a system of individualised instruction while at the same time
exhibiting great support service potentials. In short,,, distance education pursues the
development discourse through its unique features that can be adapted for use in other
educational activities (Adekanmbi, 2002, p. 2).
Thus it becomes obvious from the above discussion that distance education is
an effective way for launching a literacy programme. The only thing to be observed

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according to Turner (1998, p. 70) is that the adult literacy practitioners must be
thoughtful in their approach to knowledge and how instruction is to be delivered.

2.4

RESEARCHES ON LITERACY THROUGH DISTANCE

EDUCATION
Since its use for the provision of literacy distance education had been the

research topic of several studies. A number of research studies has been undertaken to
investigate the use and effectiveness of distance education for the literacy purposes.
Some of these studies are discussed in the coming paragraphs.
Mukhopadhyay (1997) study entitled Linking literacy to education through
open and distance education tried to obtain following objectives (p. 6).
i.

Provide an alternative channel to schooling,

ii.

Reduce disparities in educational access especially with regard to girls

and disadvantaged groups,

iii.

Increase retention rates for all learners at the primary levels, and

iv.

Provide a learning continuum based on a graded curriculum that would

ensure quality education for all neo-literates.

The research yielded that distance education is the cheapest and most feasible
way of providing literacy to the people in developing and poor countries like India.
Moreover, the use of local languages is possible in distance education especially when
the population is large and wide spread.
Alam (2002) study Technology Based Literacy Education through Distance
Mode in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects reflected that
Sophisticated technological development in the education world changes the
pattern of role and responsibility of learners and teachers and creates more
opportunities of learning. Using the virtual image of the distance education

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system there emerges a new horizon of innovativeness with its unlimited

possibilities to resolve a very long felt need of eradicating illiteracy and
developing person resource (HRD) in the globe. It is also potentially dynamic
and flexible due to methodology and instrumentation. Technologies are used
in distance education and which can create a forceful impact to accelerate
mass literacy, gender balance and also help develop person resource in the
pursuit of acquiring different branches of knowledge and skill along with
technical and vocational aspects to meet the thirsty need of the time (p. 1).
The study concluded that Technologies for distance learning are developing
fast, especially in delivery systems and learning support network infrastructures. In
order to achieve the required levels of quality, access and cost that users and providers
expect, it is likely that solutions for delivery of distance learning literacy programme
will involve an appropriate combination of computer and network technologies (p. 8).
In the same way Askov (2003) revealed important aspects of distance
education utilization for adult literacy through the research study entitled Expanding
Access to Adult Literacy with Online Distance Education. This is a theoretical
research work which investigates the possibilities of the use of world wide for the
adult literacy and training. It revealed that (p. 67)
Online distance education can be viewed as a continuum of instruction,
ranging from high engagement in social interaction to individual, independent
learning opportunities that may include some minimal electronically mediated
instructor to learner and learner to learner interactions. The media involved
may include the World Wide Web, e-mail, video, audio, computer software,
print, or some combination of these media. Each option has different
implications for teaching and learning.

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Similarly, a research study entitled Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of a

Distance Learning Model for Professional Development for Teachers of Adults
was carried out by Russel (2003). The study was conducted to find out the problems
of the teachers of adult learners in distance education literacy mode. A 4 point
Likert scale was used to investigate the problem. The findings of the study included
that these instructors find it hard to meet the needs of adult learners, the content of
teaching was not properly relevant, there was a difficulty to connect the content with
every day practice of adult learners, the teaching of citizenship was relatively easy as
compared to the reading and writing skills and finally their effective was found out to
be good while employing the distance education mode for literacy.
Pennells (2005) study entitled Literacy, distance learning and ICT discusses
the questions like what circumstances and with what results has the use of ICT and
distance learning had a part to play, directly or indirectly in the initial acquisition of
literacy skills and sustaining literacy within wider literacy environments? The
important conclusions of the study are (pp. 32-33);
i. Distance learning and ICT have and can have an important role to play in
promoting literacy. This includes direct supply to learners of learning
resources and opportunities for interaction and practice; production and
sharing of learner-generated materials among groups; stimulation, awarenessraising and motivation; support and training of literacy workers; facilitating
distribution of materials and information to resource centres; and gathering
feedback from those centres and individual learners regarding the materials
and programmes on offer.
ii. Distance learning and ICT are most often and most likely to be used as part of
wider programmes which include conventional face-to-face contact as an

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integral part of their design. This may most fruitfully be in a carefully

blended programme wherein distance and contact components are closely
integrated and complementary, rather than as separate alternative or
supplementary elements.
iii. Community resource centres are useful as focal points, although they have
their drawbacks for literacy programmes. They enable programme providers to
manage their literacy programmes at a local level, to build capacity of local
resource people, organize training of trainers sessions, distribute and store
materials, locate and support equipment and communications infrastructure
(such as telephones, televisions, video-players, cassette players, computers,
radios and internet terminals), and gain feedback and information on the
learners, their progress, views, needs and wishes. Centres also provide a
psychological, social, political and physical focus for community sharing of
responsibility and participation in literacy learning and related development
activities.
Similarly, a research study entitled Empowerment of Women through
Distance Education in Pakistan was carried out by Bukhsh (2007). The main
objectives of the study were:
i.

To analyze the situation of gender disparities in education at national

and international level.

ii.

To evaluate the outcome of formal and non-formal system of education

in Pakistan

This study was documentary research in nature. The number schools and
enrolment of the formal system of education during the year 2001 to 2004 in Pakistan
was considered. The enrolment of nom-formal system of education during the year

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1998-99 and 2004 from secondary to Ph.D level was considered. The data was
analyzed in term of percentage and average.
The important conclussions drawn from the research study were:
i.

There exist gender disparities in formal system of education with

respect to number of institutions and enrolment in Pakistan.

ii.

In formal system of education there are inadequate schooling and

facilities for female education in Pakistan

iii.

Females have greater number of chances for education through

distance education rather than formal system education in Pakistan

iv.

The enrolment ratio of the girls in formal system is less than the boys
at all levels in Pakistan

These are some of the researches which describe the effective use of distance
education for the provision of literacy. It is clear from the above discussion that
distance education is capable of playing a vital role for the literacy campaign in such
countries where the population is scattered widely and is large enough to be educated
in formal school system. Moreover, it is the best available alternative of educating the
people of such countries which are economically backward and have no resources to
establish too many literacy centres and depute large number of personnel to run the
literacy programme.

2.5

COMPONENTS OF ADULT LITERACY.

The components of literacy depends the definition of literacy being adopted in
a society. As different concepts of literacy exist in the world, the components of
literacy vary accordingly. At one hand it is regarded as a continuum of skills or
acquisition of new skills whereas, at the other gaining the ability of reading and/or

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writing is regarded as the basic components of literacy. So, Herod (2000, p. 5)

illustrates these components of adult literacy in the following way.

Figure No. 2.4: Components of Literacy

Source: Herod, L. (2000). Numeracy for adult literacy learners, adult literacy and
continuing education, 280-800 Portage Avenue Education Winnipeg, Manitoba R3G
0N4H (p. 5)
It is evident from the above figure that reading, writing and nomeracy go side
by side in any adult literacy programme. But, in the modern days acquisition of
technological and occupational skills are also being regarded as the fundamental
components of the adult literacy. The main components of the literacy are discussed
below.

2.5.1 Teaching Reading

Teaching how to read the written text is the main component of the literacy
acquisition process. To infer meaning from what is spoken or read depends upon the
capacity of learner to infer from the experience and to categories likenesses in what is
represented in the word or other symbols (Rashid, 1997a, p. 47). Effective instruction

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in adult literacy requires careful planning understanding of the individual being

taught. It is necessary to know the learners strengths and weaknesses, his interests and
needs and his objectives and goals.
Therefore, teaching reading starts from the very simple phase of word
recognition and ends at the climax of word understanding. As far as the word
recognition concerns it deals with the distinction among different words along with
their specific phonics. In this regard a three part strategy in word recognition is
adopted. The strategy described by Rashid (1997a, p. 48) is as under.
i.

Context clues: If a clue to an unknown word is recognized and fits and

makes sense of completing the meaning of a group of word or whole
sentence, the word is attacked through context. Most context clues
demand some inferential thinking involving the word adjacent to new
word.

ii.

Context clues plus beginning sound: if more than one word is suitable
to complete the meaning of a group of words or a whole sentence, the
beginning sound of the word is used to try to identify the new word.

iii.

Context clues plus sound plus structure: If two or more words with
the same beginning sound make sense for applying the new word, the
structure of the word is used to analyze the word.
After that the learner has become able to differentiate among different types of

words the next stage is to know their meaning i.e. word comprehension. In other
words there is need to interpret the word recognition in such a way that it provides
some kind of meaning. Interpretation depends upon understanding the directly stated
or un-stated or implied meanings. These meanings refer to levels of comprehension.

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The levels of comprehension are discussed by Dale (1966) and presented by Rashid
(1997a, p. 49) in the following way:
i.

Literal Comprehension: it involves getting meaning from facts

that are directly stated. To involve learners in the reading
process the instructor must begin with simple tasks by applying
questions and activities to some of the skills like recalling facts,
recognizing details, locating main idea and identifying
relationship.

ii.

Critical comprehension: it enables the learner to get an

expanded grasp of the reading material and to understand ideas
within the material. Teaching critical comprehension involves
three important tasks such as to read the question, to pick and
choose material that fit ones purpose and to reason and pass
judgment.

iii.

Creative comprehension: this type of comprehension involves

the ability to imagine, predict, reflect, and conclude from well
founded facts. It is some time referred as reading beyond the
lines.

There are several methods of teaching reading to the adults. These methods
range from very simple to complex ones. According to Waechte (2001, p. 1) there
are two main modes of teaching reading to the illiterates that are adopted by the
literacy instructors at different stages of the literacy programme. These are
i.

Guided Reading and,

ii.

Shared Reading.

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In the process of guided reading the learners are taught by the instructor but in
the shared reading mutual cooperation of the learners counts much. Books selected for
guided reading offer opportunities to read familiar words and to decode new words,
and allow students to interact with meaningful text. These experiences can be scaffold
by introducing and modeling strategies for decoding words and interacting with texts.
Despite these two approaches to reading there are several other important
approaches to teaching reading. First of these approaches is the sight approach. The
second approach is phonic approach. The third approach is the linguistic approach.
The forth approach is the basal approach. The fifth approach is the Paulo Friere
approach. The sixth approach is the self-directed approach.
In short, during the process of teaching reading the adult learners should
acquire the ability to name letters or smallest script unit, ability to understand the
relationship between text and images, sight word recognition of common words in
contextual print (road signs, package labels), decoding skills and pronouncing written
words, comprehension of simple phrases and sentences and the ability to locate,
comprehend and use information embedded in prose text or in documents (ILI, 2002,
pp.9-10). Moreover they should become able to read with understanding so that they
can their lives in the best possible way as a common literate does.

2.5.2 Teaching Writing

Teaching writing is the second important task in the literacy programme.
Imparting the skill of writing to adult learners is quite different as compared to the
children at the beginning stage. Adults learn writing only for the productive purposes
and hesitate to indulge themselves in those activities that are of no advantage.
Following are some important types of writing skills that can be included in the adult
literacy programme:

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i.

Ability to form letters and words using common writing implements

(e.g., pencil and paper)

ii.

Awareness of print conventions (directionality of script; top and

bottom of documents; naming of punctuation.)

iii.

Ability to copy a written text

iv.

Ability to write a text from dictation

v.

Ability to compose a message, or to fill out a form (ILI, 2002, p. 10).

2.5.3 Functional Numeracy

Among the components of literacy numeracy is the third one. It has been the
important aspect of literacy campaigns since long with a limited scope as only the
calculating skill formulated the whole theory of numeracy. Thus, most numeracy
definitions have been limited to the four basic arithmetic operations i.e. addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. But, in the modern days numeracy
encompasses a broad range of skills. It enables a person to interpret, act upon, and
communicate about mathematical information in a wide range of everyday or workrelated activities and hence supports effective participation in diverse roles of every
day life. The important aspect is that usually literacy and numeracy skills are mutually
intertwined. In most of the literacy programmes today the two skills are taught
simultaneously along with the skill of reading.
Overall, numeracy makes possible critical comprehension of quantitative
statements about trends and changes in ones community or nation, and in the world.
Numeracy is also needed for effective functioning in a world of amounts, volumes,
shapes, drawings, maps, graphs, rates, prices, weights, distances, formulas, shipments,
timetables, schedules, production statistics, and so forth. From a life skills
perspective, numeracy is often required for the effective comprehension of

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information about health related risks, side-effects of different treatments, and

dosages. Finally, formal mathematical skills are often a prerequisite for entering
diverse types of vocational or on-the-job training. Some examples of numeracy skills
are as under;
i.

Ability to count, sort, and perform simple comparisons of quantities of

concrete objects (e.g., bottles, cattle, coins)

ii.

Decoding the meaning of numerals (e.g., how many units of something

are signified by the digit 5) and of number-words in an indigenous
number system

iii.

Possession of number-sense (awareness of meaning of numbers, and of

magnitude of small and large numbers)

iv.

Ability to carry out the four arithmetical computations, either mentally

and/or in writing (using written symbols, notations, and procedures)

v.

Knowledge of measurement systems and procedures (telling time,

using a scale, using a ruler or measuring tape, using money, converting
between unit systems, reading dials)

vi.

Understanding of percents, averages, graphs, and other means for

summarizing and displaying data that are often used in conveying
information about groups or about trends (ILI, 2002, pp. 11-12).

Therefore, numeracy is the use of mathematical skills to create ease in the

business and every day affairs.

2.5.4 Occupational Skills

The term literacy is sometimes broadened to become a metaphor for any kind
of skill or competence. In the modern days it is considered that the literacy

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programme should include the process of the provision of information about different
aspects of every day life like, technology, health, information, media, visual,
scientific, and numerous others. Thus literacy programme should arrange for the
impartation multiple literacies. These new literacies range from concepts depicting
and clear set of competencies to concepts implying skills that enable access to
knowledge and information. Now a days the concept of literacy is not only restricted
to the acquisition of the skills based on 3 Rs but it also includes the functional
element. Draper and Taylor (1994) state that literacy is a long-term process and as
such it must be part of long range career plan for employees (p. 376). Therefore, in a
literacy programme now a days stress is not laid upon the imparting of reading,
writing and reckoning skills but effort is also made to make the learner economically
productive. It is possible only when some kind of earning i.e. occupational skill is
taught to the learners. Tuijnman, Kirsch, and Wagner (1997) state that work and
work-related activities comprise the largest proportion of the human lifespan (p. 74).
Most adults can expect to spend 40 or more years in the workforce. Employees need
job related skills so that they can build on their conceptual understanding and use it to
operate new technologies to meet job requirements. Furthermore, workplace skills and
worker training are now among the major priorities of all literacy programmes.
Although business unions and taxpayers provide resources for workplace literacy
education, yet their effects are normally invisible to the illiterate workers of the
developing countries.
Hence, literacy in the modern era is not confined to the paper and pencil work but
it is the skill of life. It makes life easier and help people to become more productive
and resourceful.

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2.6 PERSONNEL OF ADULT LITERACY PROGRAMME

Human resources obviously form one of the essential links in literacy
operations. All the adult literacy programmes involve a number of personnel which
are needed at different levels of the programme i.e. planning, implementation and the
evaluation. The efficiency of these personnel reflects the success or the failure of the
programme (Ali and Daniel, 1986, p. 83). Therefore, the mutual understanding and
professionalism is necessary to run any adult literacy programme successfully.
Moreover, as there is difference in the teaching and learning process of adults and
children, therefore, it is pre-requisite to any adult literacy programme that its
personnel are especially trained to cater for the learning needs of adults (Rashid,
1997a, p. 19)
In order to run the adult education programmes effectively, it is necessary that
each personnel involved in the system must be duty conscious, hard working and
efficient. Mostly following personnel are involved in launching and running any type
of adult literacy programme.

2.6.1 Administrators/Managers
The role of the manager in the literacy programme is of the key importance. In
fact,, the managers role is multidimensional. In an organization the manager has to
work as the planner, organizer, administrator, supervisor, implementer and
coordinator. It can be said according to Rashid. (1997, p. 21) that the managers role
is like the supervisor of supervisors. The success of an organization depends very
much upon the effective role of the manager. If the manager is efficient, then the
organization will prosper and if not, then the organization will suffer.

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The manager of any adult education programme needs special training and
education to perform his/her duty in a useful manner. Leonard (1980, p. 82)
comments upon the role and training of managers as under:
Managers play pivotal role in any organization. Good ones contribute greatly
to the organizations success, while dissatisfied ones can contaminate it and
help to cause its demise. Similarly, any organizational change requires the
cooperation of the Managers, who often have the power to change the
proposal if they do not like it. Thus, to have satisfied, effective managers,
organizations are increasingly giving them opportunities for training
education, and development.
Along with several other problems of literacy programme one is confronted
due to the managers unawareness from the principals, methods and techniques to
work in the organization providing adult education. Most of the managers of literacy
programmes are usually hired from the formal system or they are promoted to the
managerial ranks without any kind of training (Leonard, 1980, p. 84). Hence, they
find themselves unfit, or at a problematic situation while working with the adult
illiterates.

2.6.2 Instructors
The operations and results of literacy work do not depends upon only the
availability of but also on the quality and numbers of those responsible for teaching.
The recruitment and training of instructors represent one of the cornerstones of the
literacy operation (Ali and Daniel, 1986, p. 84). Moreover, according to
Ramabrahmam (1988, p. 93) instructor of an adult education centre is virtually the
king-pin in the entire administrative edifice of adult education programme.

137

The teacher of adults is somewhat different as compared to that of the teacher

of children as the teaching of literacy is both the social process and the instructional
process. Before there is teaching, there has to be relating. Human Relations come
first, instructional process can happen later. Obviously, good human relations are
most crucial in good teaching (Bhola, 1995, p. 122).
The methods and techniques of teaching adults differ greatly from those used in
pedagogical settings. Levine, (1995) states that good teacher of the adult learners
knows when to switch between being a learner and a being a teacher, defines a clear
distinction between him/herself and the adult and sees him/herself only as a learner.
Moreover, adult learners demand greater freedom and more autonomy.
Similarly, while discussing the characteristics of the instructor of adult literacy
programme Hanemann (2004) states that the popular educators opted to take a double
role as both educators and the facilitator. Regarding functions and responsibilities of
literacy instructor in an andragogical practice Brookfield, (1986, pp. 2-3) highlights
the following aspects of the instructors role:
i.

Facilitators (Instructors) must establish a climate of humanness,

physically and psychologically conducive to learning:

ii.

Climate of mutual respect among all participants

iii.

Emphasizing collaborative modes of learning

iv.

Establishing atmosphere of mutual trust

v.

Offering to be supportive

vi.

Emphasizing that learning is pleasant.

vii.

Instructors must involve participants in diagnosing their own learning

needs.

138

viii.

Instructors must involve learners in evaluating their learning

principally through the use of qualitative evaluative modes.

While working with the adult learners a literacy instructors has to confront
several problems. These problems might be because of the specific nature of the adult
literacy programme, as they are not specially trained to handle the adults. They might
be suffering from financial problems, as throughout the world literacy instructors are
less paid persons. There might be some problems because of the temporary nature of
their job. At the same time they must not be finding standard literacy materials to be
used in the literacy class. Usually in every day practice during the teaching and
learning process, according to Marshall and Copely (1967, pp. 55-56), adult
instructors faces problems in four categories of curriculum development, learners,
problems, problems of teacher development and problems of organization and
administration.
In the same way, there are several factors, according to Tibbetts et al. (1991)
that can affect the training of adult instructors. These may include scarcity of financial
resources to fund training programme or to fund teachers to attend regularly the
literacy class, the part-time nature of adult basic education teachers jobs, lack of
research in the field on which to base professional development, a high rate of teacher
turnover, and lack of certification requirements
To overcome the above mentioned difficulties in the training of literacy
instructors Fullan (1990, p. 3) states that such teachers may be involved in:
i.

Building their technical repertoire for improving their mastery of

teaching skills

ii.

Reflective practice for considering what they do so that it has clarity,

meaning, and coherence in teaching practice

139

iii.

Research for investigating ways to improve practice

iv.

Collaboration for exchanging advice and ideas with other teachers

Despite all these hardships literacy instructors must know that they are a part
of something greater than the literacy class in which they teach. They are part of a
national movement, In fact, of an international movement. They are the implementers
of their nations development mission (Bhola, 1995, p. 144). Hence, they must work
sincerely and efficiently putting aside all the hindrances and barriers.

2.6.3 Supervisors
The role of supervisor in any literacy programme is similar to that of the
facilitator. There is more than one designation for the person who supervises literacy
work in the field. Literacy supervisor, literacy assistant, and literacy co-coordinator
are some of the names used in Third Word literacy programmes. Normally literacy
supervisor is a full-time employee of a project although some times school
headmasters are requested to supervise the literacy programme in their areas.
Supervisor is the person who reports about progress and efficiency of the
literacy programme. Moreover, he has to work for the solution of the problems
affecting the performance of literacy instructors and adult learners in literacy centre.
Thus, supervision of literacy programme is essential to run it smoothly. According to
Borders (1994) the essential characteristics of a literacy supervisor are:
Good supervisors seem to have many of the same qualities of good teachers
and good counsellors. They are empathic, genuine, open, and flexible. They
respect their supervisees as persons and as developing professionals, and are
sensitive to individual differences (e.g., gender, race, and ethnicity) of
supervisees. They also are comfortable with the authority and evaluative

140

functions inherent in the supervisor role, giving clear and frequent indications
of their evaluation of the counsellor's performance.
The supervisor of adult literacy programme works in coordination with the
instructors, the higher authorities, the resource persons and above all the community.
He is responsible for implementation and the evaluation of a literacy programme. It is
illustrated in the diagram below.
Figure No. 2.5: Role of the Supervisor in a Literacy Programme
Upper Level
of
Programme Administration

Programme
Implementation

Literacy Supervisor

Programme
Evaluation

Teachers
and
Learns
Source: Bhola, H. S. (1995). Functional literacy, workplace literacy and technical
and vocational education: interfaces and policy perspectives, Paris: Sectional of
Technical and Vocational Education, UNESCO.
Despite performing the above stated duties a supervisor should be a good
instructor and an excellent reporter. At the same time the supervisor should possess
the ability to work as the consultant, both for the adult learners and instructors.
Borders (1994) stresses upon these qualities of an adult education supervisor in the
following way:

141

Good supervisors also have the professional skills of good teachers (e.g.,
applying learning theory, developing sequential short-term goals, evaluating
interventions and supervisee learning) and good consultants (e.g., objectively
assessing problem situation, providing alternative interventions and/or
conceptualizations of problem or client, facilitating supervisee brainstorming
of alternatives, collaboratively developing strategies for supervisee and client
growth).
Moreover, it is important for the supervisors that they are well qualified and
able to conduct communicate in an effective way. They should be trained in guidance
and counselling skills so that they can also negotiate the problematic situations. In
addition to the above qualities managerial and administrative abilities can improve the
performance of supervisors. Lastly, a good supervisor should be humanistic and must
have the sense of humour which helps both the supervisor and supervisee get through
rough spots in their work together and achieve a healthy perspective on their work
ultimately enhancing the outcome of the programme.
In short, good supervisors should perform effectively the roles of teacher,
counsellor and consultant. They are the people responsible for smooth progress and
successful end of a literacy programme.

2.6.4 Writers
In literacy programme all the adult learners their instructors and the managers
along with the supervisors and evaluators are of no use if support of literacy writer is
not available. Writer of adult literacy material is trained and qualified person.
Similarly the writers must have experience in the relevant subjects to cater for the
needs and interests of adult learners. The writers have to write the text in a simple and

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understandable language avoiding the difficult words and phrases (Rashid, 1997, P.
24). While discussing the qualities of a good writer of adult literacy materials Pixie,
(1997) states:
Good writers must also structure their writing, organizing material logically in
order to present content in the most comprehensible way and thus facilitate
the reader's understanding. A writer's style is unique to him or herself, but will
incorporate the accepted conventions of 'good' writing for the particular genre.
In the same way a writer of the adult literacy materials should necessarily
possess the knowledge of the needs and requirements of adult learners. It will help in
the preparation of literacy materials that are interesting and innovative. To acquire the
interest of the adult learners the writer should also be aware of the psychology of
adults.
Moreover, the writer of the adult education materials has to follow a
systematic process while writing. Ford (1995) describes that the process of writing for
the adults comprises of following three steps.
i.

Purpose

ii.

Content Selection

iii.

Organization

At the first stage it is necessary for the writer that he/she keeps in mind the
purpose of the writing. If the purpose is not observed properly, the writing will lose its
effectiveness. Similarly, the selection of content is also an important task. The writer
has to take great care while selecting the content in accordance to the specified
objectives. In the same way good writers must also structure their writing, organizing
material logically in order to present content in the most comprehensible way and thus

143

facilitate the reader's understanding. Regarding the purpose of writing for adult
literacy and the selection of content Pixie (1997) sates:
To begin, the purpose of any writing is essentially its reason for existence. For
example, the purpose of (most) fiction is to entertain, that of journalistic prose
is to inform, advertising to persuade and so on. Content must be selected to
effectively fulfill the writer's purpose with support chosen and presented
appropriately. For example, plot and character development are essential to
good fiction, while use of ethos and pathos over logos characterize
advertising.
Despite the awareness about all the above aspects a writer needs cooperation
from the editor, illustrator, reviewer and the instructor.

2.6.5 Evaluators
Careful and continuous evaluation is an integral part of an effective literacy
programme. It enables the administrators to judge the performance of the programme.
Only through evaluation the success or the failure of the programme can be judged.
Moreover it enables the teachers to select the most appropriate teaching strategy, the
planners the most suitable time and place and the administrators the best possible
ways to make the programme successful. Hence, evaluation is the most important
stage of a literacy programme. It reflects the extent of the achievement of specified
objectives. Therefore, an evaluator is a person who determines the success or failure
of a literacy programme.
Along with the knowledge of technical aspects of evaluation, an evaluator has
to follow certain principals while conducting the evaluation of a literacy programme.

144

American Evaluation Association (2004) describes following basic principles for

evaluating a literacy programme:
i.

Evaluators should possess (or ensure that the evaluation team

possesses) the education, abilities, skills and experience appropriate to
undertake the tasks proposed in the evaluation.

ii.

Evaluators should practice within the limits of their professional

training and competence, and should decline to conduct evaluations
that fall substantially outside those limits.

iii.

Evaluators should seek a comprehensive understanding of the

important contextual elements of the evaluation. Contextual factors
that may influence the results of a study include geographic location,
timing, political and social climate, economic conditions, and other
relevant activities in progress at the same time.

iv.

Evaluators should abide by current professional ethics, standards, and

regulations regarding risks, harms, and burdens that might befall those
participating in the evaluation; regarding informed consent for
participation in evaluation; and regarding informing participants and
clients about the scope and limits of confidentiality.

Hence, the process of evaluation cannot prove successful unless the evaluators
are able to provide satisfactory answers to the above quarries. It is clear from the last
question that the process of evaluation is a systematic one and end point becomes a
need assessment process for the future programmes. Therefore, an evaluator has to be
active till the completion of the programme. Sometimes he/she has to work even after
the programme is accomplished for submitting the final evaluation report that will
further highlight the success or failure of the programme.

145

It is clear that all the personnel of a literacy programme play very vital roles
on their respective hierarchical positions. But, their all efforts cannot bear any fruit
unless they do not work with mutual cooperation. According to Rashid(1997) all the
personnel of a literacy programme have to work efficiently as well as collectively to
make it a successful one. The state of mutual cooperation among the literacy
personnel is shown in the figure below:
Figure No. 2.6: Literacy Personnel in Action

Evaluator

Writer

Manager/
Administrator

Instructor

Supervisor
Source: Gimburg, P. R. (2005). The literacy cycle, Delhi, Vikas Publishers. (p. 25)
The above diagram shows that for the success of a literacy programme it is
very essential that there is much of harmony and mutual help among all the personnel.
For example, the manager of any programme needs assistance both from supervisors
and the evaluators to know about the performance of instructors and the learners.
Moreover, the administrator needs writers for the development of literacy materials

146

and the instructors to teach these materials. In the same way instructors, evaluators,
writers and supervisors need each other help and cooperation.

2.7 CONCEPT OF LITERACY MODEL

Like many others concepts of the social sciences it is hard to specify a
universally accepted definition of a model. Nevertheless, different expert had made
efforts to streamline the concept. For example Ford (1998) states that a model can
come in many shapes, sizes, and styles. It is important to emphasize that a model is
not the real world but merely a human construct to help in better understand real
world systems. In general all models have an information input, an information
processor, and an output of expected results.
Similarly, a model is a representation of structure in a physical system and/or
its properties. A more comprehensive explanation of model specifies that it is a
theoretical construct used as thinking aid in the study of some physical system too
complex to be understood by direct inferences from observed data. A model is usually
designed with some specific scientific questions in mind, and researchers asking
different questions about a given physical system that come up in all legitimacy with
distinct model designs. A well designed model should be as complex as it needs to be
to answer the questions having motivated its inception.
As far as the concept of literacy model is concerned International Reading
Association (2005, p.25) describes that literacy model is the application of multiple
strategies to assist content area teachers/facilitators in developing active and
competent readers with in the respective discipline. While discussing the concept of
adult literacy model Demetrion (2005) states as model which identifies complexities
of researchers, administrators, adults and their thought. Its focus is on the functions

147

that grasp the politics of adults. But, Wasik (2004) stresses that a literacy model is one
that focus on school like academic activities that indicate parents lack of abilities to
prepare their children for schools so being an adult they attend literacy centres.
From the above discussion it becomes clear that a literacy model refers to an
intelligent organization of different elements. Whereas, environment is the main
element of literacy model as it takes in to consideration the cultural, social and
institutional activities. Moreover, environment is viewed as a context in which the
behaviour takes place and helps the people what to do and how to do (Crepeau and
Cohn, 2003, p.229). Hence, according to Wasik (2004) literacy models engage the
people in literacy activities through social aspects, cultural settings, and learning
within the context of changing societies following some specified procedure.

2.8 TYPES OF LITERACY MODELS

There are number of ways of looking at models for literacy programmes. A
model or approach may include the location or setting of the training, source of the
funding, relation to current job, employment objective, or the occupational focus of
training (Ivy, 1986, p.1). Following are the most common types of literacy models.
i. Intensive model

ii. Immediate model

iii. Integrated model
iv. Intervention model

Intensive model is a traditional style classroom delivery with an instructor.

Teaching strategies may be customized but the mode of delivery is the classroom
experience. This model allows easy measurement of pre- and post-testing. It has a
clear purpose, outcome, and path. Students entering the programme are tested and

148

then placed in levels according to their test results. As they progress, they can be
tested and moved to more challenging levels.
Immediate Model is the just-in time model. It features a traditional class
format, but focuses on a specific, immediate need. The immediate model is not
necessarily sequential in nature, and typically has a short life and planning cycle.
In the integrated model work and learning are interconnected. Basic skills
programmes analyze what is happening in the workplace and how the basic skills
training can support achieving the desired outcomes. This model uses a range of
strategies including peer tutors, learning centres, co-training, advising, and short
training sessions. The educational consultant works with trainers to make their
training sessions more effective. Peer tutors focus on individual and company needs.
Books, company materials on tape, and learning exercises are available for learners
and tutors in the learning centre. The consultant is available for basic skill assessment
and educational counselling.
The intervention model is also known as horizontal model. The instructor
can be at the workplace for one full day. In lieu of classes, short skill modules are
held, focusing on a concept, skill, or task. It is the responsibility of the individual
learners to carry themselves throughout the week with complementary learning based
upon a learning plan. A computer based learning lab, distance learning, resource
libraries, and/or tutors may support the programme.
There is another way of description of literacy models. It deals with the
functions of literacy and its components. In different periods of the history nature
and functions of literacy has been changing with the change in individuals needs and
requirements. Moreover, the change in national or local preferences has also forced

149

an amendment in the nature and functions of literacy. Therefore, models of literacy

had been undergoing changes with the passage of time.
The first model of this category is the Multi-Literacy Curriculum Model.
This model, according to Frechette (2002, p. 79), is best for adult education/literacy
as it is directly affected by the political and economical situation of the state. Thus it
has importance in the cultural, institutional and commercial perspectives. This model
comprises of the motives, conventions, conglomerations, visual modes, etc.
Multi-Literacy Curriculum Model for imparting literacy is illustrated below;
Figure No. 2.7: Multi-Literacy Curriculum
Model
Protein

Nutrition

Play

Milk
Grain

Safety

Exercise

Body parts
Health

Honest

Songs
Growth

My Body

My
room

Parts of
home

Things to do

Pets

My Home

Physical
DevelopmentKind
Helpful

MAGNIFICENT MEI

Funny

My Friend

What outside
Type of
home

Where I do

Occupations

My Family

Where we go

Growth up
Boys

Members

Language
Activities

Celebrations

Songs
Foods

Source:

Girls
Family

Things to do
Play

Vocations

Jackman (2004). Early education curriculum, Maxwell Drive Clifton

Park: Thomson Delmar Learning (p. 5).

150

Balance Literacy Model is a model that has its roots in the past as well as in
the present. According to Gambrell and Pressley (2003) it is one that has the elements
and components from competition of the past and the present which combine into the
efficient composite. This model stresses upon the practical aspect of the literacy in
instruction. Therefore, it has importance in the field of adult education as the adults
always desire to acquire a useful and profitable skill that can improve their living
standard. The model is presented in the diagram below.
Figure No. 2.8: Balance Literacy Model
Balance Literacy Model
The Interrelatedness of Reading Process
Context processor

Meaning Process

Orthocephalic Processor

Phonological processor

Panp

Speech

Source: Nunes (1999). Learning to read: An integrated view from research and
practice, Springer (p. 224)
The next model of this category is Evaluation Model. This model is simple
link between the ideology, technology and the methodology of evaluation. This
model describes the present achievements of the adult learners in comparison to their
past learning. Kallaghan and Slufflebeam (2000, pp. 287-288) state that the most

151

important aspect of any literacy programme is that how the evaluation is conducted
and what conclusions are drawn from it. This model shows that there is a continuous
flow of Management Information System data in to a system of information assuring
a never-ending making and updating MIS system. The two components Naturalistic
Evaluation and Rationalistic Evaluation are interactive. Evaluation studies in the NE
and RE mode can be undertaken as and when necessary to illuminate and enrich the
various aspects of the programme. The model is given in the figure below.

Figure No. 2.9: Evaluation Model

EVALUATION INFORMATION

Naturalistic
Evaluation
(NE)

Rationalistic
Evaluation
(RE)

Management
Information System
MIS-ISM

DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION
Source: Kallaghan and Slufflebeam (2000). Evaluation model, view points and human
services. p. 388
Precision Teaching and Competent Learning Model is another model that had
been applied in the past to impart literacy skills. Precision Teaching and Competent
Learning Model stresses upon the fact that once some thing is learnt then it is

152

important for learner to practice it, until the response is consistent and fluent, the
instructors are trained in this model as it is easily applicable in the field of adult
education (Moran and Mallot, 2004, p. 117).

In the Precision Teaching Model

process of measurement is designed in such a way that the attention of the educator is
focused on the frequency of rate of the change in behaviour, whereas, the component
learner model is designed as a teacher friendly approach for comprehensive transfer
and utilization of learnt material. This model incorporates the learners desires
demands and requirements in a friendly environment to yield maximum achievement
and active participation. The model is illustrated below.
Figure No. 2.10: Precision Teaching and Competent Learning Model
Geographical information

Place
Movements

Responses

The feature that make a location

Unique
Etymology
Middle English: open space
From Larian place: broad screed

Essentional
Attribute

Places defined
By cultural
Characteristics

Synonym
Name

Locations

Definition

Relationship
Within
places

Nonessentional
Attribute

Places defined
By natural
Physical
Characteristics

Antonym
Name

Examples

No example

Mr. Olympics
The bring Sen lake
The white house

Longitude

Source: Gore (2003). Successful inclusion strategies for secondary and middle school
teachers, Corwin Press (p. 37).

153

Despite these conceptual models there are certain organizational models

which were practiced by different countries to impart literacy on mass scale. These
models present the structure of the whole literacy programme along with its different
components, categories of the personnel involved and the administrative hierarchy.
Some of the models are discussed in the following section.
Burma is a small state of South Asian region with similar kind of literacy
problems being faced by other states of the region like Pakistan, India and other
neighbouring states. A literacy model adopted by Burma is presented below. It
consisted of a Central Literacy Committee with three main committees viz.
Organizing Sub-Committee, Reading Habits and Library Movement Sub-Committee
and Curriculum Development and Text Books Sub-Committee. All these SubCommittee were further extended to the Township Literacy Sub Committee, SubTownship Literacy Sub Committee and then to the Village Literacy Sub Committee.
To run the literacy programme Organizing Committees working at all levels of the
literacy model ensured smooth coordination among all the different level
committees.
Organization of literacy committees in Burma is shown in the diagram given
on the next page.

154

Figure No. 2.11: Organization of Literacy Committees in Burma

Central Literacy Committee

Organizing
Sub-Committee

Reading Habits and

Library Movement

Sub-Committee

Curriculum Development
and text Books Subcommittee

State/Divisional Library Committee

Organizing SubCommittee

Township Literacy
Sub Committee
Organizing
SubCommittee

Curriculum and
Text Books
Sub-committee

Sub-Township

Village Level

Curriculum
Development and Text
Books Sub-Committee

Township Literacy
Sub Committee
Organizing
SubCommittee

Curriculum
and text Books
Sub-Committee

Sub-Township

Village Level

Township Literacy
Sub Committee
Organizing
SubCommittee

Curriculum and
Text Books
Sub-committee

Sub-Township

Village Level

Source:UNESCO (2000). The national literacy campaign of Burma: A Case Study, in

the Struggle against Illiteracy in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok: No. 3 UNESCO
Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, (p. 35)
Benin adopted a unique type of literacy model to overcome her grim literacy
situation. Although this literacy model seems to be bit complex but it worked wonders
to reduce the illiteracy in the state. This model consisted of a National Literacy
Committee. A Directorate of Literacy and the Rural Press was constituted to run the
literacy programme under this committee which was followed by the establishment of

155

a Governing Committees. The Governing Committees had to provide the following

important services along with the supervision of the lower level committees.
i.

Programming and methodology,

ii.

Editorial and printing

iii.

Developing audio-visual materials and

iv.

Conducting animation, evaluation and research

Similar type of Committees for Literacy and the Rural Press and Service for
Literacy and the Rural Press were established at the Provincial, District,
Commune and the Local levels. In the Services sector, effort was made to develop
a bridge between the higher authorities and the volunteers by establishing Literacy
and the Rural Press Brigade. The main flaw of this model was the absence of a
clear and effective structure for the supervision and evaluation of the literacy
programme. This lit model is illustrated in the diagram on the next page.

156

Figure No. 2.12: Literacy Model of Benin

National Literacy

Directorate of
Literacy and the
Rural Press

Committee

Governing
Committees

Service I

Service II
Press
Editorial

Printing

Programming and
Methodology

Service III
Audio-Visual
Visual

Sound

Service IV
Animation - Evaluation and
Research

Provincial
Committees for
Literacy and the
Rural Press

District
Committees for
Commune
Committees for

Provincial
Service for Literacy
District
Coordination
Service for Literacy
and the Rural Press
Literacy
and the Rural Press
Brigade

Local

Voluntary
Literacy
Workers

Committees for

Source: Bhola, H. S. (1995). Functional literacy, workplace literacy and technical and
vocational education: interfaces and policy perspectives, Paris: Sectional of Technical
and Vocational Education, UNESCO. (p. 169)

157

Structure of literacy operations in Mali was a multi graded one. National

Directorate of Functional Literacy and Applied Linguistics was established under the
umbrella of National Ministry of Education. The National Directorate of Functional
Literacy and Applied Linguistics was further divided into four sub-divisions namely,
i.

Linguistics and pedagogic research

ii.

Functional literacy

iii.

Status of women

iv.

Production

Each division further consisted of different sections like,

i.

Linguistics

ii.

Pedagogy

iii.

Evaluation planning

iv.

Documentation

v.

Training

vi.

Material development

vii.

Illustration

viii.

Audio-visual

ix.
x.

Educational radio
Printing

At the lower level Regional Directorates of Education were responsible for

establishing the Functional Literacy Zones and running the literacy centres. The
model adopted in Mali is presented in the next coming Figure.

158

Figure No. 2.13: Structure of Literacy Operations in Mali

Ministry of
Education

Structures

Levels

National Directorate
of Functional Literacy
and
Applied Linguistics

Other National
Technical
Services

Printing

Educational Radio

Production

Illustration

Training

Material Development

Status of
Women

Evaluation

Material Development

Documentation

Evaluation Planning

Pedagogy

Linguistics

Sections

Functional
Literacy

Linguistics and
Pedagogic Research

Training

Divisions

Management Unit

Audio-Visual

Secretariat

Other National
Educational
Departments

Regional Directorate of
Education

Functional
Literacy Zone

Literacy Center

Literacy Center

Literacy Center

Source: Bhamko (1982) La direction distance education l alphabetaisation

fonctionnelle et da la linguistique appliquee-une institution malienne d education
pour la developpement, Bhamko, Ministry of Education, p.13)
Ethiopia is an African state that had been suffering a lot of problems in the
fields of economy, law and order and education. The situation of literacy in Ethiopia
is very poor. Government of Ethiopia established a National Literacy Coordinating

159

Committee to look after the literacy affairs in the state. It further devised a National
Literacy Coordinating Executive Committee that consisted of four sub-committees
namely
i. Educational Materials Procurement and Distribution Committee
ii. Procurement Training and Placement Committee
iii. Propaganda Aid Coordinating Committee
iv. Data Collecting Supervision and Certification Committee
In the same way Regional Literacy Campaign Coordinating and Executive
Central Committee, Provincial Literacy Campaign Coordinating and Executive
Committee and District Literacy Campaign Coordinating and Executive Committee
were also established under the umbrella of National Literacy Coordinating
Committee.
District Literacy Campaign Coordinating and Executive Committee was
responsible of supervising the Urban Dwellers Association Literacy Campaign
Coordinating and Executive Committee, Peasant Association Literacy Campaign
Coordinating and Executive Committee and Productive, Distributive and Servicegiving Organizational Literacy Campaign Coordinating and Executive Committee.
Each of these committees had to supervise the literacy officer, Teachers and Literacy
Participants. No doubt the model proved effective but too complicated organizational
structure and absence of a proper evaluation system created hurdles in meeting the
desired objectives of the literacy campaign.

160

Figure No. 2.14: Structure of the National Literacy Campaign of Ethiopia

National Literacy Coordinating
Committee
National Literacy Coordinating
Executive Committee

Education
al
Materials
Procurem

Procure
ment
Training
and

Propaga
nda Aid
Coordin
ating

Data
Collecti
ng
Supervi

Regional Literacy Campaign

Coordinating And Executive
Central Committee

Provincial Literacy Campaign

Coordinating And Executive
Committee

2
District Literacy Campaign
Coordinating And Executive
Committee

Urban Dwellers
Association Literacy.
Comp. Coord. and
Exec. Comm.

Productive, Distributive
andService-giving
Organizational Literacy.
Campaign Coord. and Exec.
Committee

Peasant Association
Literacy. Campaign
Coord. and Exec.
Committee

Literacy Campaign
Officer

Literacy Campaign
Officer

Literacy Campaign
Officer

Teachers

Teachers

Teachers

Literacy
Participants

Literacy
Participants

Literacy
Participants

161

India is the largest state of the South Asia. India is also facing the problem of
mass illiteracy since its inception in 1947. She had planned a number of schemes and
programmes to uplift the state of literacy in the country but could not be succeeded in
eliminating illiteracy completely. The below literacy model practiced in 1980s is
regarded as one of the most effective in the Indian history of literacy efforts.
In this model National Board of Adult Education is responsible for planning
and developing literacy programmes in India. This board comprises of two main
groups of organizing bodies. The first group consisted of Ministry of Education and
Social Welfare, Directorate of Adult Education, U.G.C, Sharmik Vidyapeeths, N.S.S.
Voluntary Organizations whereas second group comprises of Divisions of Ministries,
Departments, Agriculture, Labour, Information and Broadcasting, Cooperation,
Industry Homes, Etc.
At the state level State Board of Adult Education was established under the
supervision of National Board of Adult Education. Each State Board of Adult
Education also comprised of two statutory groups similar to the National Board of
Adult Education. In the same way at the district level District Adult Education
Committee was responsible for administering the literacy programme. District Adult
Education Committee enjoyed the cooperation of District Education /Adult Education
Officer and District Officer of Dev. Departments. The project officer deputed by the
District Adult Education Committee has to supervise the functions of supervisors, the
instructors and the other field functionaries.
It was an effective model which yielded good results. The main draw back of
this model was unnatural amalgam of ministries, departments and divisions to help
National Board of Adult Education. Instead of lending a hand these ministries,
departments and divisions created hurdles in the functioning of the literacy model.

162

Figure No. 2.15: National Adult Education Programme of India

National Board of
Adult Education

Ministry of Education and

Social Welfare, Directorate of
Adult
Education,
U.G.C,
Sharmik Vidyapeeths, N.S.S.
Voluntary Organizations

State Board Of Adult

Education

State Department of Education

(or Dept. Dealing with Adult
Education), Directorate of Edu/
Adult
Education,
State
Resource Centers, Universities,
Voluntary Organizations

Dev. Ministries, Departments,

Agriculture,
Labour,
Information and Broadcasting,
Cooperation, Industry Homes,
(Tribal Dev.), Etc.

State Department of Agriculture,

Animal Husbandry, Dairy, Labour,
Industry Information and Publicity,
Cooperation, Tribal and Harijan
Welfare, Community Department,
Etc.

District Adult
Education Committee

Dist. Edu/Adult
Education Officer

Dist. Officer of Dev.

Departments

Project Officer

Supervisor

Instructor

Field Functionaries

Source: Ramabrahmam, I. (1985). Training of adult education functionaries, No. 3,

Training of Supervisors, Delhi: Director of Adult Education (p. 77)

163

The National Adult Literacy Advisory Group (USA) is a multi-stakeholder

expert group established in 2002 with the aim of developing an implementation plan
for the adult literacy service based on priorities identified in the National Adult
Literacy Programme. The main features of the model are presented in the figure
below.
Figure 2.16: VEC/AE Literacy Model

164

2.9 ANALYSIS OF THE EXISTING LITERACY MODELS

Most of the literacy models being used in the developing world are of nonformal education type in which the learners have to physically present with the
teacher for teaching learning process. According to Frechette (2002} Multi-Literacy
Curriculum Model is best for adult education/literacy purposes as it can address most
of the requirements of the adult learners. But, it can not stand against any kind of
political pressure and looses al it goodness in the time of crises or political instability.
Thus it has importance only in the cultural, institutional and commercial perspectives.
Balance Literacy Model is a model which had previously been used in different parts
of the world and it is still in use now a days. Gambrell and Pressley (2003) are of the
view that this model stresses upon the practical aspect of the literacy in instruction.
Therefore, it has importance in the field of adult education as the adults always desire
to acquire a useful and profitable skill that can improve their living standard.
Evaluation Model of literacy is also an important one in the field of adult education.
This model is simple link between the ideology, technology and the methodology of
evaluation (Kallaghan and Slufflebeam, 2000). The most difficult thing in both the
models is that they focus upon ideology rather than the development of practical
skills. No doubt Precision Teaching and Competent Learning Model contributes
effectively in the literacy imparting process but its much focus on the practice of
learnt skills makes the learners bit frustrated and some times makes them to flee from
the literacy programme. Another fault of the model is its complexity of procedures.
Many procedures are working simultaneously which can again make the learners
worried.
Organization of Literacy Committees in Burma has contributed significantly to
raise the literacy in the state. This model is also much complex and difficult to

165

manage at the local level although some of its aspects are widely appreciated.
Similarly, Benin adopted a unique type of literacy model to overcome her grim
literacy situation. Although this literacy model seems to be bit complex but it worked
wonders to reduce the illiteracy in the state. This model consisted of a National
Literacy Committee. Specification of the preferences for the learners is the significant
problem for this model along with the administrative and structural problems. A
similar type of model was adopted in Mali. It worked under the umbrella of National
Ministry of Education. The National Directorate of Functional Literacy and Applied
Linguistics was the organizing authority of this model. It was an effective model but
at the local/community level its administration was flexible due to which it could not
meet its objectives. National Adult Education Programme of India is one of the
successful models of literacy in the world. According to Ramabrahmam (1985) the
structure of the programme was so designed that it can meet the impressing needs of
adult learners.
In the distance education the model used by China to reduce illiteracy in the
desert areas is the most significant example. Study material was used with the
broadcast programmes to teach the wide spread illiterates in the deserts.
So far as the structure of these models is concerned, most of them are lacking
one aspect or the other. If one model gives importance to the administration, the other
is much emphasizing upon evaluation. The element of balance is also missing in
almost all the models. In the same way both the conceptual and administrative aspects
of the models are not described properly. Usually they are overlapping one another.
Hence, some times it becomes difficult to grasp the actual function of the model.
Complexity and ambiguousness is another draw back of these models. The
structure of some models is too complex to be understood by a literacy worker or the

166

officials. In such cases it becomes difficult for the workers to follow the specified
guidelines. Therefore, they devise their own ways of action which consequently
damage the validity and reliability of the models.
Despite all these short comings these literacy models had played an important
role at their respective places but the need is to upgrade these models so that they can
meet the needs and interest of the adult learners in the technologically dominated
societies and can enable them to participate in social activities in a productive way.

2.10 LITERACY AND TECHNOLOGY

In the present time technology is affecting all the spheres of life including
education, especially adult education as adults are directly facing the technological
revolution. In the field of education technology is offering new styles of instruction,
management and administration. According to Turner (1993),
Technology offers privacy, control, individualization, immediate feedback, and
flexibility to the adult learner during the teaching-learning process. Furthermore,
technology can be used to motivate and encourage adult learners to participate
and complete the literacy programme (p.27).
That is why Ginsburg (1998, p. 37) presents four basic approaches through
which technology can be integrated to a literacy programme. These approaches
include technology as curriculum, delivery mechanism, complement to instruction,
and instructional tool.
According to Merriam and Brockett (1997) with the help of technology adult
learners can not only learn the content, but they can also learn about technology
Secondly, technology can be integrated into adult literacy as means for instructional
delivery. An example of this approach in basic skills instruction is the individualized

167

learning system (ILS). Other examples include televised instruction and instruction
delivered through video or audiotapes. Thirdly, technology supports the instructors
and learners to complement their activities during teaching and learning. Moreover,
this approach provides learners the opportunity to practice skills individually and it
can promote self-directed learning (Eastmond, 1998 and Ginsburg, 1998). Finally, the
use of technology in adult literacy is its adoption as an instructional tool. Here
technology is used to enrich and extend the theme.
No doubt, all these approaches have their own advantages and limitations but,
the fact is that technology has revolutionized the literacy imparting styles and
methods. Both the instructors and learners are being fully facilitated by the use of
technology in education. Furthermore, with the adoption of computers the process of
teaching adults has been geared up. It is helping in preparation and presentation of
learning materials in an attractive and interactive.
Technology can be used for a literacy programme in a variety of different ways
including both the traditional apparatus like charts, pictures, boards and other audiovisual aids, and the modern ones like, radio, television and computers. The first
category is known as the non-broadcast media while the second is recognized as
broadcast media.

2.10.1 Radio
Radio was invented at the beginning of the 20th century and now is considers a
mass means of conveying certain kinds of information. At present broadcast media,
including radio have been able to help in the development-process by establishing
climate for change by infusing mobility, widening horizons, focusing attention on the

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problems of development and by raising the general levels of aspirations (Rashid

1992, Verduin and Thommas 1991). According to Vyas and Sharma (2003)
i.

It is economical

ii.

It can cater to different categories of learners

iii.

It is easy to produce radio programmes at the institutional level or at

the learning centres

The effectiveness of teaching through radio becomes more evidence when it is

used in distance education. Using radio, geographical diverse people can be easily
taught at their places of residence. Australia, Germany, Great Britain, France, Japan,
Spain, Pakistan, India and even the underdeveloped countries have used radio for
distance education (Gerlach and Donald 1980).
In the present times another technique, most suitable for distance education, is
being utilized. It is the technique of radio-vision allows the subject matter to be
presented through two different channels including the audio and the visual. The
visuals are presented in the form of still filmstrips, charts, slides, models, etc, while
the explanation is given through recorded narration. Educational institutions use this
as a substitute for educational television.
Another revolution in radio broadcasting appeared with integrated use of radio
and computers i.e. radio-text technique. According to Vyas and Sharma (2003, p. 5)
Radio has been used along with textual data transfer via computer networks
simultaneously to create an environment. The teaching end is normally a FM
radio station having data broadcast facility through a computer network. The
main points of the radio broadcast are sent through textual mode to the
receiving end via a computer network. The learning end has radio listening
facility as well as a computer screen to receive the textual data. Since both

169

audio and text are broadcast simultaneously, the learner at the receiving end
gets high quality and low cost teaching.
Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) is another form of the use of radio for the
adult education. It turns a typically one-way technology into a tool for active learning
inside and outside the classroom. It requires that the learners stop and react to
questions and exercises through verbal response to radio characters, group work, and
physical and intellectual activities while the program is on the air. Short pauses are
provided throughout the lessons after questions. Interaction is also encouraged within
the learning environment among the teacher and learners as they work together. Some
of the potential advantages of the use of radio for education are summarized at
http://www.ictinedtoolkit.org/usere/p_page.php?section_id=14
i.

Stations may broadcast programs prepared by specialists in instructional

design and production.

ii.

Well-designed educational packages may use sound effects, drama, and other
audio-enhancement mechanisms.

iii.

Programs may be aired more than once without additional development costs.

iv.

Radio breaks the isolation of schools by offering educational news, directives,

pedagogical guidelines, etc.
In Pakistan, there is almost complete radio coverage, with some 93 percent of

the population being covered by Medium Wave Transmission. All stations of Pakistan
Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) regularly broadcast quality educational programmes
for school, colleges, and universities including AIOU.
Despite its limitations, radio is a very useful medium of instruction, especially
for distance teaching where the students do not find any one to guide or help them to
overcome their learning difficulties.

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2.10.2 Television
Television is a video medium and an important support service in distance
education. It is being employed for educational purposes in both distance and
conventional education in different ways. The development of motion pictures in
1884 and of talkies in 1926 led to the use of film in education after the Second World
War. Television invented in 1926, also blossomed as an educational medium in the
postwar era (Perraton, 1982).
The role to television as an educational institution is of real importance.. In
Pakistan, where most of the population is illiterate, promotion of education has always
been a priority. For many years adult education programmes were broadcasted
regularly, and adult education centres were established in rural areas quipped with
televisions.
Moreover, technological developments in the field of communication can be
adapted in the field of education. New technologies available in this field and the
advantages they provide, television can already be seen as an outdated tool. Yet as
long as the opportunities it provides still keep its validity, television technology is not
far from the new developments. Television in distance education fulfils the functions
mentioned below:
i.

Supporting and enhancing teaching

ii.

Instructing , explaining and clarifying

iii.

Summarizing

iv.

Motivation, encouragement and reinforcement

v.

Using as supplementary for the other materials

vi.

Presenting a reference to large masses (Hizal, 1983, p. 57).

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Television in distance education can be applied in the following ways

i.

Open Telecast

ii.

Cable television

iii.

Telecast with print and feedback

iv.

Teletext
An important example of instructional television for adult learners according

to Fleischman (1998, p. 83) is Guided Educational Development (GED) on TV. It is a

production of Kentucky Educational Television, USA, which is in use since 1982. It
was observed by Schwartz (1992) that the achievement of the adult learners who were
learning through participation with GED on TV was far better than who were being
taught through conventional methods. Similarly, State of Mississippi launched a
satellite-based education and training programme named LEAP (Learn, Earn, and
Prosper). In this programme adults were taught by tele-teachers and then facilitated
with instructional support (Fleischman, 1998, p. 83). Similarly, other examples from
India are Secondary School television project (1961), Satellite Instructional
Television Experiment (1975), and Gyan-Darshan Educational Channel (2000).
Television was introduced in Pakistan to promote awareness, to develop a
consciousness about the cultural heritage, social and economic growth of the country,
and to provide a protective linkage with the world around. Pakistan television initiated
educational programmes in 1973 (Pakistan Television Corporation, 1973, p. 4).
Allama Iqbal Open University also uses this medium for its mass education
programmes (Rashid. 1997a, p.37). Thus in Pakistan television has a wide potential
for its use in literacy and non-formal education field. In the past FEPRA and READ
projects had used television for imparting literacy.

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2.10.3 Computer
Computer is the latest addition to the instructional resources for adult learners.
It can be used to present educational materials and perform a number of other
instructional activities. According to (Fleischman, 1998, p. 84) computers "are
unparalleled in their ability to provide highly personalized and interactive learning".
Computers can be an interactive way of learning facilitating the learners in self
directed learning. The simulation and gaming becomes easier through the use of
computers. In the same way it can be effectively used for the programmed instruction.
Moreover, the use of computer with Internet can enhance the adult learning to a great
extent. It ensures the availability of high quality learning materials round the clock.
Moreover, the E-mail facility helps in effective coordination and fast communication
between the learners and the instructors or administrators.
Rachal (1984) observed that PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic
Teaching Operations) was the first example of the application of computer in the
process of adult instruction at the University of Illinois in 1960. It was a flexible
Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) system in which students were connected to a
central system by telephone and were taught at their own pace in their own settings..

2.10.4 Benefits of the use of Technology for Adult Literacy.

As far as the advantages of the use of technology for the adult literacy is
concerned it is beneficial both at the learner as well as at the programme levels. At the
individual level it is helpful in reaching learners who are unable to come to a
classroom. It helps in motivating the adult learners by effective use of learning time,
sustaining motivation, making the instruction individualized and helping them in
proper utilization of information. Whereas, at the programme level it helps the

173

administrators of the programme in the recruitment and retention of the learners,

meeting staff development challenges, improving curricula, enhancing assessment and
evaluation process, making administration and management more effective and
improving funding and coordination.
Moreover, at the individual level technology helps learners to learn while
remaining away from their class rooms as with the portable technology adults can
learn any where, any time and can use available time more efficiently. The technology
can take the instructions to the homes, workplace, prisons or the community places as
well. In the similar fashion, technology helps such helps in learning who otherwise
had left out due different barriers such as inconvenient class scheduling, household
responsibilities and child care.
The use of suitable technology also helps is sustaining the motivation of the
adult learners as novelty factor can attract the adult learners and retain them at the
study centre because technology is more engaging and interesting. The privacy and
the confidentiality of adult learners activities is also retained by the use of technology
for the literacy purposes. At the same time use of technology enables the adult
learners for intensive, drill and practice with the instantaneous feedback and
assessment. Similarly, through the use of technology the interaction and the schooling
can be individualized with out one-on-one staffing. Adults usually come to the
literacy centre to have new information that can improve their every day life and by
bringing into play the technology this objective can very easily be achieved by the
planners of literacy programme
Secondly, the use of technology also proves helpful and beneficial for the
literacy programmes along with the fulfilment of individual learning needs. In any
kind of literacy programme technology helps in attracting and retaining the learners in

174

that programme along with the enhancement of the teachers productivity. With the
help of technology programmes can broaden their reach to serve the learners of the
remote areas. The teachers and the counsellors can maintain their contact with the
learners. Curriculum for the adult literacy can also be reformed with the help of
technology as teachers can create individualized, engaging instructional materials
related to the needs and interests of the learners. Another advantage of the integration
of the technology in to the literacy is its use for the staff development purposes as
teachers, volunteers and administrators can be trained via video, distance learners and
self study computer modules. With the help of technology the administrative tasks can
be handled more effectively which helps in freeing the staff for better instruction and
comprehensive services to the clients. Computer based systems provide more
efficient, accessible records on attendance, scheduling, personnel, budgeting,
evaluation and client tracking.
In short,,, although it was possible in the past to ignore the application of
technology in the process of teaching and learning but that is no longer feasible in the
present era of science and technology. The technology can support and enhance the
process of adult learning in a commendable way. Therefore, it is necessary that the
adult educators become familiar with the effective use and application of technology
in the process of teaching. Unless they become proactive in developing opportunities
that will provide advantages for adult learners, they may end up watching the
exploitation of technologies from the sidelines (Field 1997). But, at the other hand it
is too important that technology is not the sole factor for learning. It should be given
due importance but primary role should be to ensure that the focus is on the learning
and not the technology.

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2.11

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS

Adult learners dominate the programmes for literacy in any type of

community. But, these learners are different from one another in a number of aspects.
Due to this difference the planning, implementation and administration of the adult
literacy programme becomes a challenge for the personnel involved. Therefore,
knowledge of differences becomes a prerequisite for the initiation of an adult literacy
programme. No satisfactory provision of adult education facilities can be made
without the full knowledge of the background and characteristics of the adult learners.
It is the first task of any adult education organizer to make sure that he knows as
much as he can about students he has to satisfy (Rashid, 1997a, p. 69).
In the same way Watkins and Hattie (1981 pp. 384) and Watkins (1983, p, 3)
observe that approaches to study the characteristics of adult learners resemble with
those of the approaches for formal teaching learning environment. Basically,
according to Harper and Kember (1986, p. 212), adult learners are more motivated as
compared to the younger learners. Moreover, adults learn with more understanding
than the kids who mainly depend on memorizing the facts. The reason behind it is that
adults are seeking to apply these facts in their every day life whereas the children are
not finding immediate use of them.
As far as the nature of characteristics of adult learners is concerned it is very
difficult to encircle them in a limited number of categories. They differ from one
another psychologically, demographically, economically, socially, intellectually, and
so on. Moreover, the age of adult learners, their needs and interests, attitudes all are
different. Some characteristics of adult learners regarding their age are categorized by
Newman (2002, p. 2) as under;

176

Older people slow up. They can learn as thoroughly as younger people but
they may take longer to do it. Older learners begin to sacrifice speed for
accuracy and many will move on to the next step only when they are sure that
they have mastered the last. Many peoples hearing and sight decline, as they
grow older, particularly after the age of 40. Similarly, Short-term memory
declines with age. This is the faculty that enables us to hold in mind, say, a
telephone number for a short period of time.
There are certain other characteristics of the adult learners irrespective of their
age, intellect and physical variation. They come from different cultures, races and
backgrounds. Similarly, some adult learners from the minority or ethnic groups can
find themselves at disadvantage because of their shyness of inhibited nature
Adults enter the study centres with a background enriched experiences from
their every day life. Much of this experience is active experience, in that each person
has lived it or actually done it her or himself. That is why they have developed their
own opinion and attitude towards specific problems and issues. All these experiences
come in to action results now. They consider that their time very precious and hence
avoid to waste it in useless activities.
The main characteristics of the adult learners as described by Stephen (1991,
p. 23) are autonomy, experience, goal orientation and practicability. The detail of
these characteristics is as under:
i.

Adults are autonomous and self-directed. They need to be free to direct

themselves.

ii.

Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and

knowledge

that

may

include

177

work-related

activities,

family

responsibilities, and previous education. They need to connect learning

to this knowledge/experience base.
iii.

Adults are goal-oriented. Upon enrolling in a course, they usually know

what goal they want to attain. They, therefore, appreciate a programme
that is organized and has clearly defined elements

iv.

Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning

something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other
responsibilities to be of value to them.

v.

Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to

them in their work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its
own sake.

As do all learners, adults desire to be respected. Usually they wish that the
instructors acknowledge their experiences that they had brought to the classroom from
their every day life and field of work. Therefore, these adult learners need a treatment
of respect and equality. Hence, the instructors should provide them such opportunities
that they can describe their experiences and use them in the learning of new skills. It
will make them more enthusiastic and active learners. Regarding psychology and
physical condition of adult learners their characteristics as described by James (1983,
p. 132) are:
i.

Adults maintain the ability to learn.

ii.

Adults are highly diversified group of individuals with widely

differing needs, preferences, backgrounds and skills.

iii.

Adults experience a gradual decline in physical/sensory capabilities.

iv.

Experience of the learner is a major resource in learning situation.

v.

Self-concept moves from dependency to independency.

178

vi.

Adults tend to be life-centred in their orientation to learning.

vii.

Adults are motivated to learning by a variety of factors.

viii.

A comfortable supportive environment is a key to successful learning.

In short, adult education is student-centred. There is a need to arrange such

courses in which priority is given to the students instead of the requirements and
demands of the discipline or the subject. To do this there would be need of trained
instructors who are able to understand the interests of adult learners and teach them
accordingly instead of keeping in mind the requirements of the subject being taught.
No doubt, this is easier said than done but it will benefit not only the adult learners but
also the cause of literacy programme.

2.12 DISCUSSION ON CHAPTER II

This chapter deals with the theoretical aspect of the literacy, its significance
and nature of the personnel involved in the literacy process. It is reflected from the
first section of this chapter that acquisition of the literacy is not only necessary for the
national development but it is also of much importance regarding the individual
perspectives. It is helpful in the development of human relations, the economy, the
political and social structure. But, the acquisition of the literacy skill differs from
person to person depending the age and purpose of its attainment. Adult learners,
being much different from their counterparts of early age, require special andragogical
methods and measures to be made literate. Therefore, the personnel who plan and run
the literacy programmes for adult literacy need awareness to the psychology of adult
learners along with the training to handle and teach them.
In the second section of this chapter the history of literacy efforts in Pakistan
along with significant problems in the provision of literacy is discussed. Since its

179

inception in 1947 Pakistan had been struggling hard due to the problem of illiteracy.
She had made several plans and developed number of policies to lift the literacy rate.
But, all these policies and plans remained unsuccessful to achieve the desired literacy
rates in their respective periods. The major hindrances to the propagation of literacy
had been the financial constraints, gender inequality, high drop-out rates, absence of
infrastructure, people s attitude toward literacy, untrained literacy personnel, etc,
Role of distance education in the promotion of literacy with special reference
to Pakistan is discussed in the third section. It unveils that distance education has
rendered significant services for the cause of literacy not only in Pakistan but
worldwide. In the improvement of literacy distance education has proved successful
especially in the economically poor countries and for those where there is much
diversity in the population and geographically it is very scattered. Moreover, distance
education has offered several alternative delivery modes and adult literacy needs to
incorporate, besides the classical 3R's, occupational learning, speaking and
articulation.
Different literacy models including the intensive model, immediate model,
integrated model and intervention model constitute the last section of this chapter.
Along with these theoretical models different operational literacy models are also
discussed in this ending section. These models make it clear that process of literacy
enhancement had not followed a single specific model. It had been and will be
adopting the model which well fit in the requirements and needs of a particular area or
the nation. Therefore, there is always a need to develop and practice new literacy
models so that illiteracy can be reduced from the face of the earth making it a more
pleasant place for living.

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CHAPTER 3
PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY
The emphasis of the study was upon the development of a distance education
model for the enhancement of literacy in Pakistan. For this purpose past literacy
efforts in Pakistan, existing situation of literacy in Pakistan along with its major
issues, approaches, different models of literacy, and related concepts was studied in
detail. The conceptual view of all these aspects has been reported in chapter II alongwith the references. The consolidated bibliography has been included at the end of the
dissertation. In the light of the literature review five research instruments, three
questionnaires and two interview schedules, were developed for the sake of data
collection. The detailed description of the research process is presented below.

3.1

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The study entitled Development of a Distance Education Model for

Enhancement of Literacy in Pakistan was descriptive in nature which according to

Sax (1979) describes currently existing conditions so that these could be modified
later on as a result of the research.
In order to achieve data for the study, survey was made which according to
Cohen and Manion. (1994) is the most commonly used method in educational
research. Talking about the nature of survey, Zinser (1984, pp.168-69) states that
survey research consists of conducting an interview in person or by phone or of
administering a questionnaire in person, by phone or through the mail.

In survey studies, the researcher sees the impact of one or more variables on a
sample to generalize it on population from which it was drawn. Researcher may use
one or more data collecting tools for the purpose. Gay (1992, p. 251) exposes that a
survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to
determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables.

3.2

POPULATION
Jennings (2001, p.136) defines population as "all the study subjects (tourists,

visitors, hosts, family, friends, employees, managers) or study units (attractions, transport
providers, accommodation facilities) that are the focus of the research project".
As the study focuses upon the survey of the existing literacy situation in
Pakistan and measures to overcome literacy problems by developing a distance
education literacy model, the population for the study comprises all the individuals
who were involved in any kind of literacy programme. The detail of the population is
given below.
i.

Personnel involved in the development of adult literacy programmes,

policies and/or material from;
a. The Department of Distance and Non-formal Education, and
Institute of Mass Education of Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad. Total number of these people was 13.
b. EFA Wing Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan. Total
population of this category comprised 8 officials.

ii.

All the 29 Executive District Officers literacy working in different

districts of Punjab province.

182

iii.

Instructors of ongoing literacy programmes in 2004-05 administered

by Executive District Officers literacy. There were 4,239 literacy
instructors working in the adult literacy programmes throughout the
Punjab province. But, target population was 1,028.

iv.

3.3

Adult male illiterates living in the rural areas of Punjab province

SAMPLING
The main purpose of sampling is to achieve representativeness. Therefore, the sample

should be assembled in such a way as to be representative of the population from which it is

taken (Gilbert, 1993; Jennings, 2001). To select a representative sample from the
population following sampling techniques were adopted.
i.

In case of the population listed above at i and ii, whole population was
taken as sample adopting the technique of census sampling. Summary
of the population and sample size is given in below Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Total population and sample size of the E D Os literacy, personnel of
DNFE, IME and EFA Wing.
Type of Population

Total Population

Sample Size

Executive District Officers Literacy

29

29

Personnel of DNFE and IME

13

13

Personnel of EFA Wing

08

08

ii.

Out of 1,028 instructors of ongoing literacy programmes administered

by the Executive District Officers Literacy during 2004-05 a sample
of 514 literacy instructors was taken. These literacy instructors were
183

selected by adopting the technique of proportionate stratified sampling

as the population was large and it was scattered widely. Population
was divided on the basis of literacy rate into four strata viz. districts of
very high literacy rate, high literacy rate, very low literacy rate and
low literacy rate. Then two districts with minimum and maximum
literacy rates from each stratum were selected. The two districts in the
region of very high literacy (literacy rate more than 57.90%) included
Lahore and Gujrat. Similarly two districts of Punjab from the region
of high literacy rate (From 43.92% to 57.90%) were Sahiwal and
Multan, two districts of Punjab from the region of low literacy rate
(From 29.96% to 43.92%) included Okara and Kasur whereas two
districts of Punjab from the region of very low literacy rate (Up to
29.96%) included Muzzafargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan (UNESCO,
2004a, p. 23). From all the 8 selected districts for the study 50% of
total instructors were randomly taken as sample. Thus 514 out of 1028
instructors, working in the selected districts, were taken as the sample.
Table 3.2 below shows the total population and sample size in each
district.

184

Table 3.2: Total population and sample size of the literacy instructors
Literacy Instructors
District Name

iii.

Total

Sample

Population

Size

Muzzafargarh

206

103

Dera Ghazi Khan

164

82

Okara

96

48

Kasur

158

79

Sahiwal

122

61

Multan

126

63

Lahore

88

44

Gujrat

68

34

Total

1028

514

As the population of adult male illiterates living in the rural areas of

the target districts of Punjab province was very large and
demographically scattered, the technique of convenient sampling was
used for the selection of sample. Hence a total of eight villages, one
each from the above mentioned districts, were selected and 25% of all
of the illiterates living in these villages constituted the sample for the
study. The detail of the illiterates was obtained from NADRA office of
respective districts. Summary of selected sample is shown in Table 3.3

185

Table 3.3: Total population and sample size of adult illiterates

Adult Illiterates
Total Population of Illiterates

Sample

in the Selected Villages

Size

Muzzafargarh

424

106

Dera Ghazi Khan

336

84

Okara

371

93

Kasur

221

55

Sahiwal

264

66

Multan

411

103

Lahore

233

58

Gujrat

259

65

Total

2519

630

District Name

3.4

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
To conduct the survey of the selected sample three questionnaire and two

interview schedules were developed. The first questionnaire developed was for the
literacy instructors. It consisted of 32 items of which 2 were open ended and the
remaining 32 were developed on five point rating scale with structured responses viz.
Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The second
questionnaire was for the Executive District Officers Literacy. It also consisted of 32
items of which 30 were structured whereas 2 were of open ended type. Similarly the
questionnaire for the academicians of the Department of DNFE and IME of Allama
Iqbal Open University Islamabad consisted of 22 items including 20 structured and 2
unstructured. For the personnel of the EFA Wing Ministry of Education government
186

of Pakistan a structured interview schedule was developed. The interview scheduled

was deliberately made structured for recording the views of the personnel EFA Wing
Ministry of Education Government of Pakistan in an analogous way. The last
instrument was another structured interview schedule for the adult illiterates. This
structured interview schedule was originally developed in English but, to facilitate
adult illiterates interviews were conducted in their native language.
Moreover, two discussion groups consisting of EFA and AIOU officials were
organized to discuss the role and effectiveness of distance education in adult literacy
programmes and the potential role of NGOs in such programme for the establishment
and management of literacy canters. The discussion focused upon the following
queries;
i.

What evidence is there, either from Pakistan or other countries, that distance
education actually works in raising the effectiveness of adult literacy
programmes?

ii.

What are the specific roles of distance education which can be shown to
enhance the effectiveness of adult literacy programmes?

iii.

What kind of responsibilities can be given to NGOs for effectively managing

literacy centres in the local community?
In the same way document analysis was also made to review the literacy

provisions of the government of Pakistan. For this purpose all the educational policies
report of education commission 1959 and five year development plans (1 to 9) were
critically reviewed.

187

3.5

VALIDATION OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Efforts were made to validate the instruments of study by incorporating the

opinion of experts and seniors, and focusing objectives defined for the study. For this,
certain ambiguities in different questions and items of each tool were removed and
complicated words were replaced by simple and usual words. Some necessary items
were added and / or some surplus items were deleted from certain questions on the
recommendations made by the experts.

3.6

ADMINISTRATION OF RESEARCH TOOLS

To collect data from literacy instructors the questionnaire were mailed at the

residential addresses of the literacy instructors. Their addresses were obtained from
the offices of the Executive District Officers Literacy. The researcher personally
contacted 103 literacy instructors living in Kasur and Okara districts. In the same way
25 literacy instructors of Sahiwal, 12 from Lahore and 08 from Gujrat were personally
approached. District wise summary of the responses is given in the below table
Table 3.4: District wise number and percentage of the responses of literacy instructors
Total

Sample

Population

Size

Muzzafargarh

206

103

51

49.51

Dera Ghazi Khan

164

82

53

64.63

Okara

96

48

33

68.75

Kasur

158

79

62

78.48

Sahiwal

122

61

36

59.02

Multan

126

63

39

61.90

Lahore

88

44

28

63.36

Gujrat

68

34

21

61.76

Total

1028

514

323

62.84

District Name

188

Responses

Percentage
of Responses

As far as the collection of data from the Executive District Officers Literacy is
concerned the researcher personally contacted 16 out of 29 Executive District Officers
Literacy whereas the remaining 13 were approached through the registered post. In
the same way personnel of DNFE and IME of Allama Iqbal Open University and
personnel of EFA Wing were personally approached by the researcher. A summary of
the responses from all the personnel is given below.

Table 3.5: Number and percentage of the responses of E D Os Literacy, personnel of

DNFE and IME and the personnel of EFA Wing
Total
Population

Sample
Size

Responses

Percentage of
Responses

29

29

24

82.76

Personnel of DNFE and IME

13

13

11

84.62

Personnel of EFA Wing

08

08

06

75

Type of Population
Executive District Officers
Literacy

To collect data from the adult illiterates their scheduled interviews were
conducted. Interviews of adult illiterates in four districts, i.e. Kasur, Okara, Lahore,
and Sahiwal were personally conducted by the researcher, whereas in the remaining
four districts i.e. Gujrat, Multan, Muzzafargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan, interviews
were conducted through the cooperation of friends and colleagues of the researcher.
An orientation session was arranged for the four people involved in the interviewing
process. Important aspects of the interview schedule along with the moral and ethical
consideration were discussed during the orientation session. For the further
understanding of the research assistants, the researcher conducted 5 sample interviews
in their presence. In order to conduct the interview of adult illiterates the interviewer
189

used to ask structured questions from them and noted down their respective responses
upon the response sheets, one each for the individual interviewees.
For the purpose of the focused group discussion, the researcher personally
approached both the groups i.e. officials from EFA and AIOU. The discussion
sessions were conducted at the offices of the chairman, Department of Distance and
Non-formal Education Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad and the deputy
secretary EFA wing Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan. Main points of
the focused group discussions were noted down by the researcher and were read out to
the participants at the conclusion of each discussion session.

3.7

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
To statistically analyze the collected data following types of the statistical tests

were applied.
i.

One sample t test was used to analyse the data collected through the
questionnaires of the literacy instructors and Executive District Officers
Literacy. The t test for a single mean allows us to test hypothesis about the
population mean when variance of the sampled population is unknown. In
one-sample t tests, the observed mean (from a single sample) is compared to
an expected (or reference) mean of the population (e.g., some theoretical
mean). (http://www.statplus.net.ua/eng/help_full/source/a_ttest.htm).

ii.

To analyze data collected through the questionnaire of the personnel of AIOU,

mean score of their responses was calculated. The following scale value was
assigned to each of five responses (Noll, 1965, p.535).

190

Statements

Scale Values

Strangely Agree

Agree

Uncertain

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

To calculate the mean score following formula was used.

Mean Score = 5(FSA) + 4(FA) + 3(FUND) + 2(FDA) + 1(FSDA)
N
The mean score could range from 1 to 5. Here 5 mean score stood for strong
agreement and mean score 1 indicated strong disagreement. Thus mean score
higher than 3 indicates agreement, the lower is disagreement.
iii.

To analyze the data collected through the scheduled interviews of the

personnel of EFA Wing, Ministry of Education Pakistan and the adult
illiterates, percentage of their responses was calculated. For the calculation of
percentage following formula was applied.
Percentage =

iv.

No. of Responses
X 100
Sample Size

Moreover, for analyzing the achievements of objectives of the study sum of

scores for all the items corresponding to an objective was calculated. These
items were selected from the quantitative data i.e. the data collected through
the questionnaires for the literacy instructors, E. D. Os literacy and personnel
of Allama Iqbal Open University. Depending upon the range of sum of scores
categories representing the achievement of objectives, viz. low, average, high,
passive and active, were devised. Documents analysis was also made to
191

evaluate the literacy provisions of Government of Pakistan. The qualitative

data was also consolidated in the analysis of achievement of objectives.

3.7.1 Rational for the Use of t Test

For the analysis of the responses of literacy instructors and E. D .Os literacy
application of t test has been made to verify the significance drawn on the basis of
Mean Scores of the data presented in the form of tables in Chapter IV. Actually, t test
is useful where the frequencies are not equally distributed. In the case of present
research, the five point rating scale used implies that frequencies are expected to be
distributed among five categories of responses such as i) Strongly Agree, ii) Agree,
iii) Uncertain, iv) Disagree and v) Strongly Disagree, at the rate of 20 percent each
which mean that it is hypothesized that 20% distance learners (population) are
strongly agreed, 20% agreed, 20% uncertain, 20% disagreed while 20% strongly
disagreed while responding to the items given in the questionnaires. Chi Square Test
is useful to interpret the significance of minor differences among five level of
responses but in the present study, much difference of frequency distribution (also
given in percentage) among five levels of response has been observed due to which t
test is much appropriate to measure and analyze the data instead of Chi Square Test.
The data is interpreted in percentage to measure the relative position of the level of
responses. Mean value was also calculated to measure the tendency of respondents
towards the level of response of each statement and t test is applied to measure the
degree of difference of expected (population mean) and observed (sample mean)
means against each item to reject or accept the statement.
The t value indicates the clear significance of the difficulty level which
ultimately shows the nature of learning difficulty (causes and their level) of distance

192

learners which is further substantiated by the Mean Scores by which a cause is

significant if mean score is equal or more than 3. If the t value (at .05 level of
significance) is less than the Mean Criteria/Test value, it means that the statement is
not supported and if t value is greater than the Test value, it means that there is a
significant difference between the means of observed (sample mean) and expected
(population/hypothesized mean) means i.e. statement is supported.
Furthermore, one sample t test is preferred upon Mean Score due to following
reasons:
i.

The one sample t test sets up a sampling distribution of means with a

mean that is specified by the null hypothesis.

ii.

The one sample t test is best suitable if sample mean is far in the tails
of the sampling distribution and far away from the population mean.

iii.

Thus, the difference may be too big to be chance. If the group was
really from the null hypothesis distribution, then the difference should
be close to zero (http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/special
_features/ext/workshops/t_testsample1.html).

Detailed analysis of data is reported in the next Chapter of this thesis.

193

CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
To analyze the data collected through questionnaire and the interviews
different statistical formula were applied. The data collected through questionnaires
for the literacy instructors and E. D. Os literacy were analyzed on the bases of the One
sample t test along with the calculation of Percentages of each response and the Mean
Score of the responses. In the same way the Mean Scores of the responses of the
AIOU personnel were calculated. The interview of the EFA officials was presented in
descriptive form. Finally, the interview of the adult illiterates was analysed on the
basis of the percentage of the responses. The position of scores in terms of different
items of the questionnaires and the interviews has been presented in the tables below.

4.1

ANALYSES OF THE DATA COLLECTED THROUGH

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LITERACY INSTRUCTORS
The questionnaire for the literacy instructors consisted of 33 items out of

which two items were open ended whereas other 31 structured. The detail description
of the analysis of each item is given below.
Table 4.1.1:

Description of the responses of literacy instructors

Total Population
1028

Sample Size
514

Responses

Percentage of responses

323

62.8

It is reflected from Table No. 4.1.1 that there were 514 instructors taken as
sample from the population of 1014 instructors out of which 323 instructors
responded to the questionnaire. Thus the percentage of responses is 62.8.

Table 4.1.2:
Item No.
01

Literacy instructors' opinion about the punctuality of adult learners

Statement

Level

The adult learners

Strongly Agree

are punctual

Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

Frequency

Percentage

76

23.5

28

8.7

10

3.1

145

44.9

64

19.8

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.2 reflects that there exists a tendency of
disagreement among 64.7% literacy instructors that the adult learners are punctual
whereas 32.2% literacy instructors are in favour of this statement.

Table 4.1.3: Attitude of literacy instructors about adult learners interest in the literacy
activities

Item No.
02

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The adult learners

Strongly Agree

92

28.5

take interest in the

Agree

82

25.4

literacy activities

Undecided

31

9.6

Disagree

86

26.6

Strongly Disagree

32

9.9

It is clear from the analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.3 that 53.9% literacy
instructors agree to the statement that the adult learners take interest in the literacy
activities. 36.5% literacy instructors show their disagreement toward the statement.
195

Table 4.1.4: Literacy instructors' views about presence of adult learners at literacy
centre
Item No.
03

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The adult learners

Strongly Agree

64

19.8

remain at literacy

Agree

55

17.0

centre full time

Undecided

14

4.3

Disagree

114

35.3

Strongly Disagree

76

23.5

Table No. 4.1.4 shows that there exists a disagreement among 58.8% literacy
instructors that the adult learners remain at literacy centre full time. But, 36.8%
literacy instructors think that adult learners stay at the literacy centre for the full time.

Table 4.1.5:

Opinion of literacy instructors about adult learners rate of completing

the duration of literacy programme

Item No.
04

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Learners complete

Strongly Agree

49

15.2

the duration of

Agree

36

11.1

literacy

Undecided

12

3.7

programme

Disagree

146

45.2

Strongly Disagree

80

24.8

Table No. 4.1.5 reflects a disagreement of 70.0% literacy instructors to the

statement that the adult learners complete the duration of literacy programme whereas
26.3% literacy instructors consider that adult learners complete the duration.
196

Table 4.1.6:

Literacy instructors' observation regarding the hesitation among adult

learners in join literacy programme

Item No.
05

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Adult learners

Strongly Agree

45

13.9

hesitate to join

Agree

59

18.3

literacy

Undecided

13

4.0

programme.

Disagree

94

29.1

Strongly Disagree

112

34.7

In Table No. 4.1.6 the analysis of data makes it clear that 63.8% literacy
instructors disagree to the statement that adult learners hesitate to join literacy
programme whereas 32.2% are of the views that the adult learners show hesitation
before joining literacy programme.
Table 4.1.7: Literacy instructors' views about interest of adult learners in literacy class
Item No.
06

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Adult learners

Strongly Agree

105

32.5

take interest in

Agree

79

24.5

literacy class

Undecided

41

12.7

Disagree

75

23.2

Strongly Disagree

23

7.1

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.7 makes it clear that 57% literacy instructors
agree to the statement that the adult learners take interest in literacy class. 30.2%
literacy instructors disagree about taking interest in literacy class by adult learners.

197

Table 4.1.8: Literacy instructors' attitude about the satisfaction of adult learners
regarding the facilities at literacy centre
Item No.
07

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Adult learners are

Strongly Agree

76

23.5

satisfied with the

Agree

28

8.7

facilities at

Undecided

10

3.1

literacy centre.

Disagree

145

44.9

Strongly Disagree

64

19.8

It is shown in Table No. 4.1.8 that there exists a disagreement among 64.7 %
literacy instructors about the statement that adult learners are satisfied with the
facilities at literacy centre whereas 32.2% literacy instructors consider that adult
learners are satisfied with the facilities at literacy centre.

Table 4.1.9:
Item No.
08

Literacy instructors' views about the easiness of literacy material

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Literacy courses

Strongly Agree

91

28.2

are easy to

Agree

81

25.1

understand.

Undecided

40

12.4

Disagree

62

19.2

Strongly Disagree

49

15.2

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.9 makes it clear that 53.3% literacy
instructors agree to the statement that the literacy courses are easy to understand,
whereas 34.4% do not consider the material easy.
198

Table 4.1.10: Literacy instructors' opinion about the relationship of literacy material
to the every day life of adults
Item No.
09

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Literacy courses

Strongly Agree

91

28.2

relate to every day

Agree

81

25.1

life of adults.

Undecided

40

12.4

Disagree

62

19.2

Strongly Disagree

49

15.2

The analysis of data given in Table No. 4.1.10 reflects a disagreement of

45.2% literacy instructors about the statement that the literacy courses relate to every
day life of adults. 36.4% literacy instructors are in favour of the statement.

Table 4.1.11: Literacy instructors' opinion about the element of interest in literacy
material
Item No.
10

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The material used

Strongly Agree

62

19.2

for literacy is

Agree

52

16.1

interesting

Undecided

34

10.5

Disagree

99

30.7

Strongly Disagree

76

23.5

Table No. 4.1.11 reflects a disagreement of 54.2% literacy instructors about

the statement that material used for literacy is interesting, whereas 35.3% literacy
instructors consider that material used for literacy is interesting.
199

Table 4.1.12: Literacy instructors views about teaching functional literacy in

literacy programme
Item No.
11

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Teaching

Strongly Agree

47

14.6

functional literacy

Agree

63

19.5

is a part of literacy

Undecided

30

9.3

programme

Disagree

102

31.6

Strongly Disagree

81

25.1

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.12 represents that 56.7% literacy
instructors rejected the statement that teaching functional literacy is a part of literacy
programme but 34.1% literacy instructors agreed to the statement.

Table 4.1.13: Opinion of literacy instructors about broadcast media support during
literacy programme
Item No.
12

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Broadcast media

Strongly Agree

1.2

supports literacy

Agree

26

8.0

programmes

Undecided

48

14.9

Disagree

131

40.6

Strongly Disagree

114

35.3

It is shown in the analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.13 that 75.9 % literacy
instructors not in favour of the statement that broadcast media supports literacy
programmes whereas 9.2% agreed to the statement.
200

Table 4.1.14: Literacy instructors' views about the use of tape recorder at literacy
centre
Item No.
13

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Teacher uses tape

Strongly Agree

34

10.5

recorder to teach

Agree

52

16.1

adult learners at

Undecided

57

17.6

literacy centre

Disagree

135

41.8

Strongly Disagree

45

13.9

It is shown in the analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.14 that 55.7% literacy
instructors disagreed to the statement that teacher uses tape recorder to teach adult
learners at literacy centre whereas 26.6% literacy instructors supported the statement.

Table 4.1.15: Literacy instructors' views about the use of VCP/VCR at literacy centre
Item No.
14

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

VCP/VCR is used

Strongly Agree

26

8.0

to teach adult

Agree

45

13.9

learners at literacy

Undecided

36

11.1

centre

Disagree

140

43.3

Strongly Disagree

76

23.5

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.15 reflects a disagreement of 66.8% literacy

instructors to the statement that VCP/VCR is used to teach adult learners at literacy
centre whereas 21.9% of them agreed to the fact.

201

Table 4.1.16: Literacy instructors' opinion about the use of chart/flash cards at literacy
centre
Item No.
15

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Flip chart/Flash

Strongly Agree

18

5.6

cards are used by

Agree

17

5.3

the instructors at

Undecided

60

18.6

literacy centre.

Disagree

165

51.1

Strongly Disagree

63

19.5

In the analysis of data given in Table No. 4.1.16 it comes out that 70.6%
literacy instructors disagree to that Flip chart/Flash cards are used by the instructors at
literacy centre but 10.9% literacy instructors agreed to the statement.

Table 4.1.17: Opinion of literacy instructors about the use of computer for teaching
adults
Item No.
16

Statement

Level

Computer is

Strongly Agree

applied to teach

Agree

literacy skills

Undecided

Frequency

Percentage

2.8

Disagree

137

42.4

Strongly Disagree

177

54.8

In the analysis of data given in Table No. 4.17 it comes out that there exist a
unanimous disagreement among literacy instructors (97.2%) that computer is applied
to teach literacy skills to adult learners at the literacy centres.
202

Table 4.1.18: Attitude of literacy instructors about motivation for peer study
Item No.
17

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Teacher motivates

Strongly Agree

32

9.9

the adult illiterates

Agree

67

20.7

for peer study

Undecided

55

17.0

Disagree

114

35.3

Strongly Disagree

55

17.0

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.18 reflects that 52.3% literacy instructors
are of the view that teachers do not motivate the adult illiterates for peer study at the
literacy centres whereas 30.6% favour the statement.

Table 4.1.19: Literacy instructors opinion regarding the provision of telephonic

guidance to the adult illiterates by them
Item No.
18

Statement
Literacy

Level
Strongly Agree

instructors provide Agree

Frequency

Percentage

43

13.3

76

23.5

telephonic

Undecided

49

15.2

guidance to the

Disagree

122

37.8

adult illiterates.

Strongly Disagree

33

10.2

The analysis of data given in Table No. 4.1.19 indicates that 48.0% literacy
instructors disagreed that they provide telephonic guidance to the adult illiterates
whereas 35.8% stated that they provide telephonic guidance to the adult illiterates.

203

Table 4.1.20: Views of literacy instructors' about training for teaching adult
Item No.
19

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

49

15.2

trained to teach

Agree

31

9.6

adult illiterates

Undecided

17

5.3

Disagree

149

46.1

Strongly Disagree

77

23.8

It is evident from the analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.20 that 69.9% literacy
instructors had an attitude of disagreement about the s that instructors are trained to
teach adult illiterates whereas, 24.8% agreed to the statement.

Table 4.1.21: Opinion of literacy instructors about their difficulties in handling adult
learners

Item No.
20

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructor faces

Strongly Agree

74

22.9

difficulties in

Agree

108

33.4

handling adult

Undecided

39

12.1

learners

Disagree

57

17.6

Strongly Disagree

45

13.9

In the analysis of data given in Table No. 4.1.21 there exist an attitude of
agreement among 56.3% literacy instructors that they face difficulties in handling the
adult learners but 31.5% showed disagreement about the statement.

204

Table 4.1.23: Literacy instructors' judgment about relating the literacy work to the
every day life of adult learners
Item No.
21

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors relate

Strongly Agree

33

10.2

the literacy work

Agree

33

10.2

to the every day

Undecided

21

6.5

life of adult

Disagree

168

52.0

learners

Strongly Disagree

68

21.1

The analysis of data given in Table No. 4.1.23 indicates that 73.1% literacy
instructors shows disagreement about the statement that they relate the literacy work
to the every day life of adult learners whereas 20.4% indicates an agreement.

Table 4.1.24: literacy instructors' views regarding the appointment of instructors

from the local community
Item No.
23

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

54

16.7

appointed from

Agree

44

13.6

the local

Undecided

1.2

community

Disagree

88

27.2

Strongly Disagree

133

41.2

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.24 reflects that 68.4% literacy instructors
disagreed that the instructors are appointed from the local community but 30.3%
instructors favour the statement.
205

Table 4.1.25: Literacy instructors' judgment for being familiar with the needs of
adult learners
Item No.
24

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

35

10.8

familiar with the

Agree

58

18.0

needs of adult

Undecided

16

5.0

learners

Disagree

136

42.1

Strongly Disagree

78

24.1

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.25 reflects that reflects that 66.2%
literacy instructors had an attitude of disagreement about the statement that they are
familiar with the needs of adult learners but 28.8% of them showed an attitude of
agreement.
Table 4.1.26: literacy instructors' opinion about the evaluation of literacy programme
Item No.
25

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The literacy

Strongly Agree

43

13.3

programmes are

Agree

50

15.5

evaluated

Undecided

25

7.7

Disagree

128

39.6

Strongly Disagree

77

23.8

It is shown in the analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.26 that 63.2% literacy
instructors disagreed that literacy programme are evaluated whereas 28.8% think that
the literacy programme are evaluated.

206

Table 4.1.27: Attitude of literacy instructors' about facilitation in teaching and

learning process by the administrators
Item No.
26

Statement

Level

The administrators Strongly Agree

Frequency

Percentage

23

7.1

facilitate teachers

Agree

47

14.6

in teaching and

Undecided

20

6.2

learning process

Disagree

101

31.3

Strongly Disagree

132

40.9

Table No. 4.1.27 reflects that 72.8% literacy instructors had an attitude against
the statement that administrators of literacy programme facilitate teachers in teaching
and learning process. But, 21.7% of the instructors are in favour of the statement.

Table 4.1.28: Literacy instructors' opinion regarding visit of the administrators to

literacy centre
Item No.
27

Statement

Level

The administrators Strongly Agree

Frequency

Percentage

26

8.0

of literacy

Agree

70

21.7

programme visit

Undecided

25

7.7

literacy centre

Disagree

148

45.8

Strongly Disagree

54

16.7

It is shown in the analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.28 that 62.5% literacy
instructors disagreed to the statement that the administrators of literacy programme
visit literacy centre where as 29.7% of them agreed to the statement.

207

Table 4.1.29: Views of literacy instructors' about the attitude of administrators

toward the teacher
Item No.
28

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The attitude of

Strongly Agree

22

6.8

administrators is

Agree

66

20.4

friendly with

Undecided

15

4.6

teacher

Disagree

148

45.8

Strongly Disagree

72

22.3

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.29 reflects that 68.1% literacy instructors
disagreed to the statement that the attitude of administrators is friendly with teacher
but, 27.4% agreed to the statement.

Table 4.1.30: Attitude of literacy instructors' toward administrators role in solving

the problems of teacher
Item No.
29

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The administrators

Strongly Agree

12

3.7

solve the teachers

Agree

55

17.0

15

4.6

problems regarding Undecided

the teaching and

Disagree

144

44.6

learning process

Strongly Disagree

97

30.0

Table No. 4.1.30 reflects that there exists disagreement among 74.6% literacy
instructors that the administrators solve the teachers problems regarding the teaching
and learning process whereas, 20.% literacy instructors agreed to this statement.

208

Table 4.1.31: Views of literacy instructors about the access to literacy centre
Item No.
30

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Literacy centres

Strongly Agree

148

45.8

are established at

Agree

77

23.8

easy access of

Undecided

2.8

learners

Disagree

60

18.6

Strongly Disagree

29

9.0

It is shown in the analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.31 that 79.6% literacy
instructors agreed to the statement that the literacy centres are established at easy
access of learners whereas 27.6% of them disagreed with the statement.

Table 4.1.32 Literacy instructors views about the availability of furniture at literacy
centres
Item No.
31

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Furniture is

Strongly Agree

64

19.8

available at

Agree

93

28.8

19

5.9

literacy centres for Undecided

teacher and

Disagree

90

27.9

students

Strongly Disagree

57

17.6

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.1.32 reflects that 48.6% literacy instructors
had an attitude of agreement about the statement that furniture is available at literacy
centres for teacher and students whereas 45.5% of them disagree to the statement.

209

Table 4.1.33: Significant problems while teaching adults as viewed by adult

instructors
Sr. No.

Problems

Frequency

01

Adult learners are short of time

121

02

Adult learners want to learn more in less time

269

03

Variation of interests and demands create problematic

situation a the literacy

04

195

Early experiences of Adult learners forces instructors to give

adult learners due respect

05

258

Social status of Adult learners some times divides the

literacy class in to different groups.

06

Adult learners hesitate to study through the conventional

teaching methodology.

07

70

They find it difficult to learn a new language during the

classroom instruction

08

159

245

Adult learners are frustrated if the do not find the literacy

programme fulfilling their specific needs.

165

Note: the total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one problem.

210

Table 4.1.34: Suggestions of literacy instructors for improving literacy programmer

in Pakistan
Sr. No.

Problems

Frequency

01

The literacy instructors should be given proper training

123

02

Literacy material should be developed in accordance with the

local demands and the interests of adult learners

03

Literacy centres should be properly renovated so that the

adult learners find it comfortable to acquire literacy.

04

96

Timing of the literacy programme should be convenient to

the l adult learners

05

185

197

Literacy programme should be properly advertised so that

more and more people can join it

85

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion

211

Table No. 4.1.35: Application of One-Sample t Test on the questionnaire for instructors
Test Value = 3
Statements
1. The adult learners are punctual
2. The adult learners take interest in the literacy activities
3. The adult learners remain at literacy centre full time
4. Learners complete the duration of literacy programme
5. Adult learners hesitate to join literacy programme
6. Adult learners take interest in literacy class
7. Adult learners are satisfied with the facilities at literacy centre
8. Literacy courses are easy to understand
9. The literacy courses relate to every day life of adults
10. The material used for literacy is interesting
11. Teaching functional literacy is a part of literacy programme
12. Broadcast media supports literacy programmes
13. Teacher uses tape recorder to teach adult learners at literacy centre
14. VCP/VCR is used to teach adult learners at literacy centre
15. Flip chart/Flash cards are used by the instructors at literacy centre
16. Computer is applied to teach literacy skills
17. Instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes.
18. Literacy instructors provide telephonic guidance to the adult illiterates
19. Instructors are trained to teach adult illiterates
20. Instructor faces difficulties in handling adult learners
21. Instructors relate the literacy work to the every day life of adult learners
22. Instructors are appointed from the local community
23. Instructors are familiar with the needs of adult learners
212

Mean

df

Sig

323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323
323

2.7121
3.3591
2.7430
2.4706
2.4768
3.5139
2.7121
3.3189
2.9288
2.7678
2.6687
1.9938
2.6749
2.3963
2.2632
1.4799
2.7121
2.9195
2.4613
3.3375
2.3653
2.3746
2.4923

-3.494
4.643
-3.115
-6.933
-6.412
6.843
-3.494
3.973
-1.004
-2.860
-4.218
-18.67
-4.842
-8.931
-13.06
-49.36
-4.143
-1.161
-7.151
4.427
-9.393
-7.347
-6.903

322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322
322

.001
.000
.002
.000
.000
.000
.001
.000
.316
.005
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.246
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

Mean
Difference
-.28793
.35913
-.25697
-.52941
-.52322
.51393
-.28793
.31889
-.07121
-.23220
-.33127
-1.00619
-.32508
-.60372
-.73684
-1.52012
-.28793
-.08050
-.53870
.33746
-.63467
-.62539
-.50774

24. The literacy programmes are evaluated

25. The administrators facilitate teachers in teaching and learning process
26. The administrators of literacy programme visit literacy centre
27. The attitude of administrators is friendly with teacher
28. The administrators solve the teachers' problems regarding the teaching and
learning process
29. Literacy centres are established at easy access of learners
30. Furniture is available at literacy centres for teacher and students

323
323
323
323

2.5480
2.1579
2.5851
2.4365

-5.991
-11.69
-6.091
-8.231

322
322
322
322

.000
.000
.000
.000

-.45201
-.84211
-.41486
-.56347

323 2.1981

-12.51

322 .000

-.80186

323 3.7895 10.035

323 3.0526 .658

322 .000
322 .511

.78947
.05263

Application of one sample t test shows that the mean difference of all the statements is significant except the statements No 9, 18 and
30. Mean scores and t values of statement No 2, 6, 8, 30 and 29 show that the statements are accepted at 0.05 level of significance i.e. the
adult learners take interest in the literacy activities and literacy class, literacy courses are easy to understand, instructor faces difficulties in
handling adult learners and literacy centres are established at easy access of learners. While mean scores and t value of statements
1,3,4,5,7,10,11,12,13,14,15,16, 17,19,21,23,24,25,26,27 and 28 show that the statements are rejected at 0.05 level of significance i.e. the
adult learners are punctual, the adult learners remain at literacy centre full time, learners complete the duration of literacy programme, adult
learners hesitate to join literacy programme, adult learners are satisfied with the facilities at literacy centre, broadcast media supports literacy
programmes, teaching functional literacy is a part of literacy programme, the material used for literacy is interesting, teaching functional
literacy is a part of literacy programme, broadcast media supports literacy programmes, teacher uses tape recorder to teach adult learners at
literacy centre, instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes, VCP/VCR is used to teach adult learners at literacy centre, flip
213

chart/Flash cards are used by the instructors at literacy centre, computer is applied to teach literacy skills, instructors are trained to teach
adult illiterates, instructors relate the literacy work to the every day life of adult learners, instructors are familiar with the needs of adult
learners, the administrators facilitate teachers in teaching and learning process, the literacy programmes are evaluated, the administrators of
literacy programme visit literacy centre, the attitude of administrators is friendly with teacher and the administrators solve the teachers'
problems regarding the teaching and learning process.

214

4.1.1 Discussion on the Analyses of Data Collected through the

Questionnaire for Literacy Instructors.
The analysis of data collected through questionnaire for literacy instructors
supports that literacy is given due importance by the adult learners but, they had not
been motivated properly nor they are provided adequate facilities at the literacy
centres (Objectives 1 & 3). There is no use of audio visual aids at the literacy centres
and rarely any kind of broadcast media is applied to teach adult learners. The
instructors are untrained and face difficulties in handling the adult learners. The
courses taught to adult learners are easy and do not relate to every day work of the
adult learners. Similarly, it was also not accepted by the literacy instructors that the
literacy programmes were evaluated and properly funded.

4.2

ANALYSES OF THE DATA COLLECTED THROUGH THE

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR E. D. OS LITERACY.

Table 4.2.1:

Percentage of E. D. Os literacy responses

Total No. of
E. D. Os literacy
29

Selected Sample

Responses

29

24

Percentage of
Responses
82.76

Table No. 4.2.1 above reflects that 24 out of 29 E. D. Os literacy responded to

the questionnaire delivered to them. Thus the percentage of the responses is 82.76.

215

Table 4.2.2:

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about the need assessment surveys

Item
Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

No.
01

Community surveys are

Strongly Agree

16

66.7

conducted for need

Agree

20.8

assessment before

Undecided

launching a literacy

Disagree

8.3

programme

Strongly Disagree

4.2

It is obvious from Table No. 4.2.2 that 87.5% E. D. Os literacy agreed to the
statement that community surveys are conducted for need assessment before
launching a literacy programme whereas 12.5% of them deny the statement.

Table 4.2.3: Views of E. D. Os literacy regarding the approach to literacy centres

Item No.
02

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The literacy

Strongly Agree

14

58.3

centres are

Agree

25.0

approachable for

Undecided

8.3

the adult illiterates

Disagree

4.2

Strongly Disagree

4.2

Table No. 4.2.3 shows that 83.9% E. D. Os literacy showed an attitude of

agreement toward the statement that literacy centres are approachable for the adult
illiterates but 8.4% of the E. D. Os literacy disagreed.

216

Table 4.2.4

E. D. Os literacy views about the availability of furniture at literacy

centres
Item No.
03

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Furniture for adult

Strongly Agree

25.0

illiterates and

Agree

4.2

instructors is

Undecided

4.2

available at the

Disagree

20.8

literacy centres

Strongly Disagree

11

45.8

It is shown in Table No. 4.2.4 that 46.6% E. D. Os literacy denied the

statement that furniture for adult illiterates and instructors is available at the literacy
centres whereas 29.2% agreed to it.

Table 4.2.5:

E. D. Os literacy opinion regarding the instructors attitude toward

adult illiterates
Item No.
04

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The instructors

Strongly Agree

14

58.3

attitude toward the

Agree

16.7

adult illiterates is

Undecided

4.2

polite

Disagree

8.3

Strongly Disagree

12.5

Table No. 4.2.5 shows that 75% E. D. Os literacy possessed an attitude of

agreement toward the statement that instructors attitude toward the adult illiterates is
polite but 20.8% of them denied the statement.
217

Table 4.2.6:

Views of E. D. Os literacy about reporting instructors performance to

higher authorities
Item No.
05

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The instructors

Strongly Agree

20.8

performance is

Agree

15

62.5

reported to higher

Undecided

authorities

Disagree

12.5

Strongly Disagree

4.2

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.6 shows that the opinion of 83.3% E. D. Os
literacy is in favour of the statement that the instructors performance is reported to
higher authorities but 16.7% do not think so.

Table 4.2.7:

E. D. Os literacy judgment of the instructors ability to build up

teamwork environment
Item No.
06

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructor is able to

Strongly Agree

8.3

build up teamwork

Agree

8.3

environment during

Undecided

the teaching and

Disagree

13

54.2

learning process

Strongly Disagree

29.2

Table No. 4.2.6 shows that 83.4% E. D. Os literacy disagreed to the statement
that instructor is able to build up teamwork environment during the teaching and
learning process.

218

Table 4.2.8:

Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about instructors training to teach adult

illiterates
Item No.
07

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

20.8

trained to teach

Agree

8.3

adult illiterates

Undecided

8.3

Disagree

15

62.5

Strongly Disagree

In the above Table No. 4.2.8 analysis of data shows that 83.3% E. D. Os
literacy had an attitude against the statement that the instructors are trained to teach
adult illiterates but 8.3% of them accepted this statement. teach adult illiterates.

Table 4.2.9

E. D. Os literacy opinion about capability of creating pleasant teaching

learning environment
Item No.
08

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

20.8

capable of

Agree

20.8

creating pleasant

Undecided

teaching learning

Disagree

10

41.7

environment at

Strongly Disagree

16.7

literacy centres

Table No. 4.2.9 shows that 58.4% E. D. Os literacy disagreed to the statement
that the instructors are capable of creating pleasant teaching learning environment at
literacy centres whereas 41.6% agreed to the statement.
219

Table 4.2.10: Views of E. D. Os literacy about the evaluation of adult learners

progress
Item No.
09

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The progress of

Strongly Agree

20.8

learners is

Agree

12.5

regularly

Undecided

evaluated

Disagree

14

58.3

Strongly Disagree

8.3

In Table No. 4.2.10 analysis of data shows that 64.6% E. D. Os literacy are of
the view that the progress of learners is regularly evaluated whereas 33.3% of them do
not think so.

Table 4.2.11: Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about the use of tape recorder

Item No.
10

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Tape recorder is

Strongly Agree

8.3

used during

Agree

8.3

teaching

Undecided

Disagree

13

54.2

Strongly Disagree

29.2

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.11 reflects that 89.4% E. D. Os literacy

disagreed to the statement that tape recorder is used during teaching but 16.6% of
them agreed to the statement.

220

Table 4.2.12: E. D. Os Literacy views about the provision of VCP/VCR for teaching
adult learners at literacy centre.
Item No.
11

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

VCP/VCR is

Strongly Agree

provided at

Agree

literacy centre to

Undecided

teach adult

Disagree

29.2

learners

Strongly Disagree

17

70.8

In the above Table No. 4.2.12 the analysis of data shows that there existed a
unanimous disagreement among all the E. D. Os literacy that VCP/VCR is provided at
literacy centre to teach adult learners.

Table 4.2.13: Views of E. D. Os literacy regarding facilitation by supervisor

Item No.
12

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Supervisors

Strongly Agree

facilitate the

Agree

instructors at

Undecided

8.3

literacy centre

Disagree

15

62.5

Strongly Disagree

29.2

In the above Table No. 4.2.13 the analysis of data reflects that 91.7% E. D. Os
literacy did not agreed Supervisors facilitate the instructors at literacy centre.

221

Table 4.2.14: E. D. Os literacy opinion about the consistency of literacy programmes

Item No.
13

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Literacy

Strongly Agree

programmes are

Agree

launched on

Undecided

regular basis.

Disagree

16.7

Strongly Disagree

20

83.3

0
0

0
0

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.14 shows that there is unanimous a

disagreement among all the 100% E. D. Os literacy that literacy programmes are
launched on regular basis.

Table 4.2.15: Judgment of E. D. Os literacy about instructors role in highlighting

the importance of literacy in the society
Item No.
14

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors

Strongly Agree

20.8

highlight the

Agree

8.3

importance of

Undecided

literacy in the

Disagree

11

45.8

Strongly Disagree

25.0

society

In the above Table No. 4.2.15 the analysis of data shows that 70.8% E. D. Os
literacy disagreed to the instructors highlight the importance of literacy in the society
whereas 31.7% agreed to the statement.

222

Table 4.2.16: E. D. Os literacy attitude toward the punctuality of instructors

Item No.
15

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

10

41.7

punctual

Agree

37.5

Undecided

Disagree

16.6

Strongly Disagree

4.2

Analysis of data given in Table No. 4.2.16 reflects an agreement among 79.2%
E. D. Os literacy about the statement that the literacy instructors are punctual whereas
20.8% thinks that they are not punctual.

Table 4.2.17: Opinion of E. D. Os literacy regarding instructors need for training

Item No.
16

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The instructors

Strongly Agree

33.3

need training in

Agree

11

45.8

how to deal with

Undecided

the illiterate

Disagree

20.8

Strongly Disagree

persons

Table No. 4.2.17 indicates that 79.1% E. D. Os literacy agreed to the statement
that the instructors need training in how to deal with the illiterate persons whereas
20.8% E. D. Os literacy are not in favour of the statement.

223

Table 4.2.18: E. D. Os literacy attitude toward the cost of learning material provided
to the adult learners
Item No.
17

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The administration

Strongly Agree

33.3

provides learning

Agree

12

50.0

material to the

Undecided

adult learners free

Disagree

16.7

of cost

Strongly Disagree

Table No. 4.2.18 indicates that 83.3% E. D. Os literacy agreed that

administration of the literacy programme provides learning material to the adult
learners free of cost but 16.7% showed disagreement.

Table 4.2.19: E. D. Os literacy views about the cooperation of local community with
the personnel literacy programme.
Item No.
18

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Local community

Strongly Agree

16.7

shuns from

Agree

16.7

literacy personnel

Undecided

Disagree

12

50.0

Strongly Disagree

16.7

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.19 reflects that 66.7% E. D. Os literacy

disagreed that local community shuns from literacy personnel during literacy
programme but 33.4% E. D. Os literacy think that local community cooperates.
224

Table 4.2.20: E. D. Os Literacy views about the appointment of instructors from

local community
Item No.
19

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors are

Strongly Agree

10

41.7

appointed from

Agree

33.3

local community

Undecided

Disagree

25.0

Strongly Disagree

Table No. 4.2. shows that 75% E. D. Os literacy agreed that the literacy
instructors are appointed from local community but 25% of them disagreed.
Table 4.2.21: E. D. Os Literacy opinion about instructors role for motivation of
people
Item No.
20

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructor

Strongly Agree

13

54.2

motivates the

Agree

25.0

people to join

Undecided

literacy

Disagree

12.5

programmes

Strongly Disagree

8.3

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.21 reflects 79.2% E. D. Os literacy agreed

that literacy instructors motivate the people to join literacy programmes whereas
20.8% disagreed to the statement.

225

Table 4.2.22: Views of E. D. Os literacy about the support of broadcast media in

literacy programmes
Item No.
21

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Broadcast media

Strongly Agree

4.2

provide

Agree

4.2

supplementary

Undecided

support to the

Disagree

15

62.5

29.2

literacy programme Strongly Disagree

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.22 reflects that 92.7% E. D. Os literacy
disagreed that broadcast media provide supplementary support to the literacy
programme but, 8.4% of the E. D. Os literacy supported the statement.
Table 4.2.23: E. D. Os literacy opinion regarding the availability of audio-visual
material at literacy centres
Item No.
22

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Audio-visual

Strongly Agree

8.3

material is

Agree

8.3

available at

Undecided

literacy centres

Disagree

16.7

Strongly Disagree

16

66.7

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.23 reflects that 83.4% E. D. Os literacy

disagreed that audio-visual material is available at literacy centres but, 16.6% agreed
to the statement.

226

Table 4.2.24: Views of E. D. Os literacy about relevance of literacy learning

materials to the every day life of adults
Item No.
23

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Literacy learning

Strongly Agree

8.3

materials relate to

Agree

the every day life

Undecided

of adults

Disagree

12

50.0

Strongly Disagree

10

41.7

It is reflected from the analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.24 that 91.7% E. D.
Os literacy disagreed that the literacy learning materials relate to the every day life of
adults whereas 8.3% of the E. D. Os literacy agreed to the statement.

Table 4.2.25: E. D. Os literacy observation regarding the sufficiency of funds

provision by the government for literacy programmes
Item No.
24

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Government

Strongly Agree

12.5

funding for

Agree

8.3

literacy

Undecided

programmes is

Disagree

13

54.2

sufficient.

Strongly Disagree

25.0

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.25 reflects that 79.2% E. D. Os literacy

disagreed to the statement that government funding for literacy programmes is
sufficient but 20.8% favoured the statement.
227

Table 4.2.26: Opinion of E. D. Os literacy about community attitude toward the

literacy programmes
Item No.
25

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Community

Strongly Agree

37.5

welcomes the

Agree

12

50.0

literacy

Undecided

programmes

Disagree

12.5

Strongly Disagree

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.26 reflects that there was an agreed among
87.5% E. D. Os literacy about the statement that community welcomes the literacy
programmes. 12.5% E. D. Os literacy disagreed to the statement.

Table 4.2.27: E. D. Os Literacy views about the cooperation of political leadership in

the literacy programme
Item No.
26

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Political

Strongly Agree

4.2

leadership

Agree

12.5

cooperates in the

Undecided

literacy

Disagree

17

70.8

programme

Strongly Disagree

12.5

The analysis of data shown in Table No. 4.2.27 above reflects that 83.3% of
the E. D. Os literacy disagreed to the statement that political leadership cooperates in
the literacy programme whereas, 16.8% E. D. Os literacy agreed.
228

Table 4.2.28: E. D. Os literacy opinion about the difficulty level of literacy material
Item No.
27

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The material

Strongly Agree

37.5

developed for

Agree

12

50.0

literacy is easy to

Undecided

understand

Disagree

12.5

Strongly Disagree

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.28 reflects that 87.5% E. D. Os literacy

agreed that material developed for literacy is easy to understand but, 12.5% of them
disagreed.

Table 4.2.29: E. D. Os literacy opinion about the element of interest in literacy

material
Item No.
28

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

16.7

The material used

Strongly Agree

for literacy is

Agree

interesting

Undecided

Disagree

16

66.7

Strongly Disagree

16.7

The analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.29 shows that 83.4% E. D. Os literacy
disagreed that the material used for literacy is interesting. 16.7% E. D. Os literacy
favoured the statement.

229

Table 4.2.30: E. D. Os literacy views about the sufficiency of supervisory staff

Item No.
29

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The supervising

Strongly Agree

21

87.5

staff of literacy

Agree

12.5

programmes is

Undecided

sufficient

Disagree
Strongly Disagree

0
0
0

0
0
0

It is shown in Table No. 4.2.30 that there was a unanimous agreement among
100% E. D. Os literacy that the supervising staff of literacy programmes is sufficient.

Table 4.2.31: E. D. Os literacy opinion about the attitude of adult learners regarding
the use of AV Aids at literacy centre
Item No.
30

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Financial

Strongly Agree

10

41.7

incentives are

Agree

10

41.7

given to adult

Undecided

illiterates

Disagree
Strongly Disagree

0
4

0
16.7

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.2.31 reflects that the 83.4% E. D. Os literacy
agreed that the learners like to study in a literacy centre with the support of A.V. Aids.
16.7% of the E. D. Os literacy disagreed to the statement.

230

Table 4.2.32: Problems of literacy programme as viewed by E. D. Os literacy

Sr. No.
01

Problems
The funds allocated for literacy programme are not sufficient

02

Making the people aware of the literacy programme is a

difficult job

03

Frequency
22

14

Adult learners do not participate in the literacy activities until

they are highly motivated but, literacy programme lack of

21

motivational aspects.
04

Literacy material being used is out dated

18

05

Instructors are untrained to handle the adult learners properly

20

06

Remuneration for the literacy personnel is very small

10

07

Supervisory staff of the literacy programmes is unaware of

the techniques needed to supervise an adult literacy
21
programme.

08

Evaluation of literacy programme is not made in way that it

10
can improve the coming programmes.

09

Literacy programmes are inconsistent in Pakistan/

11

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion

231

Table 4.2.33: Suggestions from E. D. Os literacy for the improvement of literacy in

Pakistan
Sr. No.

Problems

01

The programme should properly be funded

02

Literacy material should be developed in accordance with the

Frequency
20

local demands and the interests of adult learners

12

03

Literacy programmes should be consistent and regular

10

04

Timing of the literacy programme should be convenient to

the l adult learners

05

10

Literacy programme should be properly advertised so that

more and more people can join it

09

06

The literacy instructors should be given proper training

08

07

Literacy centres should be properly renovated so that the

adult learners find it comfortable to acquire literacy

07

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion

232

Table No. 4.2.34: Application of One-Sample t Test on the questionnaire for Executive District Officers Literacy
Test Value = 3
Statements
1. Community surveys are conducted for need assessment before launching a
literacy programme
2. The literacy centres are approachable for the adult illiterates
3. Furniture for adult illiterates and instructors is available at the literacy
centres
4. The instructors' attitude toward the adult illiterates is polite
5. The instructor's performance is reported to higher authorities
6. Instructor is able to build up teamwork environment during the teaching
and learning process
7. Instructors are trained to teach adult illiterates
8. Instructors are capable of creating pleasant teaching learning environment
at literacy centres
9. The progress of learners is regularly evaluated
10. Teaching aids are used during teaching.
11. VCP/VCR is provided at literacy centre to teach adult learners
12. Flip chart/Flash cards are used by the instructors at literacy centre
13. Supervisors facilitate the instructors at literacy centre.
14. Instructors highlight the importance of literacy in the society
15. Instructors are punctual
16. The instructors need training in how to deal with the illiterate persons
17. The administration provides learning material to the adult learners free of
cost
18. Local community shuns from literacy personnel
233

Mean

df

Sig

Mean
Difference

24

4.3750

5.935

23

.000

1.37500

24

4.2917

5.845

23

.000

1.29167

24

2.4167

-1.689

23

.105

-.58333

24
24

4.0000
3.8333

3.323
3.890

23
23

.003
.001

1.00000
.83333

24

2.12500

-3.599

23

.002

-.875000

24

2.8750

-.485

23

.632

-.12500

24

2.8750

-.413

23

.684

-.12500

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24

2.7917
2.1250
1.2917
1.7917
1.1667
2.5417
3.9583
3.9167

-.738
-3.599
-18.025
-10.063
-23.592
-1.494
3.808
4.082

23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23

.468
.002
.000
.000
.000
.149
.001
.000

-.20833
-.87500
-1.70833
-1.20833
-1.83333
-.45833
.95833
.91667

24

4.0000

4.796

23

.000

1.00000

24

2.6667

-1.163

23

.257

-.33333

19. Instructors are appointed from local community

20. Instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes
21. Broadcast media provide supplementary support to the literacy
programme
22. Audio-visual material is available at literacy centres
23. Literacy learning materials relate to the every day life of adults
24. Government funding for literacy programmes is sufficient
25. Community welcomes the literacy programmes
26. Political leadership cooperates in the literacy programme
27. The material developed for literacy is easy to understand
28. The material used for literacy is interesting
29. The supervising staff of literacy programmes is sufficient
30. Financial incentives are given to adult illiterates.

24
24

3.9167
4.0417

3.703
3.734

23
23

.001
.001

.91667
1.04167

24

1.9167

-5.715

23

.000

-1.08333

24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24

1.7500
1.8333
2.2917
4.1250
2.2500
4.1250
2.3333
4.8750
3.9167

-4.615
-5.243
-2.666
5.820
-3.715
5.820
-2.563
27.190
3.181

23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23

.000
.000
.014
.000
.001
.000
.017
.000
.004

-1.25000
-1.16667
-.70833
1.12500
-.75000
1.12500
-.66667
1.87500
.91667

Application of one sample t test reflects in the above Table 4.2.34 the mean difference of all the statements is significant except the
statements No. 3, 7, 8, 9, 14 and 18 whereas, mean scores and t values of statement No 1, 2, 4, 5, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 25, 27, 29 and 30 show
that the statements are accepted at 0.05 level of significance i.e. community surveys are conducted for need assessment before launching a
literacy programme, the literacy centres are approachable for the adult illiterates, the instructors' attitude toward the adult illiterates is polite,
the instructor's performance is reported to higher authorities, the supervising staff of literacy programmes is sufficient, financial incentives
are given to adult illiterates, instructors are appointed from local community, instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes,
community welcomes the literacy programmes, the material developed for literacy is easy to understand, instructors are punctual, the
instructors need training in how to deal with the illiterate persons and the administration provides learning material to the adult learners free
234

of cost. But, mean scores and t value of statements 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26 and 28 show that the statements are rejected at 0.05
level of significance i.e. instructor is able to build up teamwork environment during the teaching and learning process, the material used for
literacy is interesting, teaching aids are used during teaching, VCP/VCR is provided at literacy centre to teach adult learners, flip chart/Flash
cards are used by the instructors at literacy centre, supervisors facilitate the instructors at literacy centre, broadcast media provide
supplementary support to the literacy programme, audio-visual material is available at literacy centres, literacy learning materials relate to
the every day life of adults, government funding for literacy programmes is sufficient and political leadership cooperates in the literacy
programme.

235

4.2.1 Discussion on Analyses of the Data Collected through

Questionnaire E. D. Os literacy
The analysis of the responses of E. D. Os literacy showed that the literacy
programmes in Pakistan are poorly funded with inadequate facilities for the adult
learners as well as the literacy instructors. There is no support material available at the
literacy centres. The aspect of evaluation and feedback was almost missing in these
programmes although it was agreed by the E. D. Os literacy that there is sufficient
staff available for this purpose. Despite the local appointment of the instructors they
are unable to motivate the people to join literacy programmes because there is no
cooperation available from the politicians and the community.

4.3 ANALYSES OF THE DATA COLLECTED THROUGH

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE PERSONNEL OF AIOU
Table 4.3.1:
Sr. No

Department-wise distribution of the personnel of AIOU

Department

Responses Percentage

Distance and Non-Formal Education

54.54

Institute of Mass Education

45.46

11

100

TOTAL

It is evident from Table 4.3.1 that there were total 11 persons who responded to
the questionnaire. The percentage of responses from the department of distance and
non-formal education and the institute of mass education was 54.54% and 45.46%
respectively.

236

Table 4.3.2:

Views of AIOU personnel about the knowledge level of literacy

instructors
Item No.
01

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Instructors of

Strongly Agree

00

00

literacy programme

Agree

02

18.18

have appropriate

Undecided

00

00.00

knowledge of

Disagree

06

54.55

adults psychology

Strongly Disagree

03

27.27

It is reflected in Table No. 4.3.2 that 81.82% AIOU personnel disagreed that
instructors of literacy programme have appropriate knowledge of adults psychology
whereas 18.18% were in favour of the statement.

Table 4.3.3:
Item No.
02

Opinion of AIOU personnel about feed back in literacy programmes

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Feedback is

Strongly Agree

00

00.00

provided to

Agree

02

18.18

learners in

Undecided

00

00.00

existing literacy

Disagree

06

54.55

programmes

Strongly Disagree

03

27.27

Table 4.3.3 shows that there was a tendency of disagreement among 81.82%
AIOU personnel regarding the fact that feedback is provided to learners in existing
literacy programmes. 18.18% AIOU personnel were in favour of the statement.

237

Table 4.3.4
Item No.
03

AIOU personnels views about literacy materials

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Present literacy

Strongly Agree

01

09.09

materials are

Agree

01

09.09

interesting for

Undecided

00

00.00

adult learners

Disagree

02

18.18

Strongly Disagree

07

63.64

Table 4.3.3 shows that there was disagreement among 81.82% AIOU personnel
that present literacy material are interesting for adult learners whereas 18.18% of the
respondents were in favour of the statement.

Table 4.3.5:
Item No.
04

Opinion of AIOU personnel about evaluation of literacy programmes

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Evaluation of

Strongly Agree

00

00.00

literacy

Agree

00

00.00

programmes is

Undecided

00

00.00

made

Disagree

08

72.73

Strongly Disagree

03

27.27

Analysis of data in Table No. 4.3.5 shows that 100% AIOU personnel disagreed
to the statement that evaluation of literacy programmes is made.

238

Table 4.3.6:
Item No.
05

Views of AIOU personnel regarding feedback for the adult learners

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Continuous

Strongly Agree

08

72.73

feedback is

Agree

03

27.27

necessary for the

Undecided

00

00.00

adult learners

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Analyses of data in Table No. 4.3.6 indicate that 100% AIOU personnel agreed
that continuous feedback is necessary for the adult learners.
Table 4.3.7: AIOU personnels views about potential of IME for supervising literacy
programme
Item No.
06

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

IME can supervise

Strongly Agree

04

36.37

nationwide

Agree

06

54.55

literacy

Undecided

01

09.08

programme

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

It is evident from Table No.4.3.7 that there is agreement among 90.92% AIOU
personnel about the statement that IME can supervise nationwide literacy programme.
09.09% respondents were Undecided regarding the statement

239

Table 4.3.8:
Item No.
07

Opinion of AIOU personnel about telephonic feedback

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Telephonic

Strongly Agree

02

18.18

feedback is

Agree

05

45.45

helpful for solving

Undecided

02

18.18

problems of

Disagree

01

09.09

illiterates

Strongly Disagree

01

09.09

According to the data shown in Table No. 4.3.8 it was agreed by 63.63% AIOU
personnel that telephonic feedback is helpful for solving problems of illiterates
18.18% responses were against the statement. Here the mean score is 3.45.
Table 4.3.9: Remarks of AIOU personnel about cooperation between IME and NGOs
Item No.
08

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

IME and NGOs

Strongly Agree

02

18.18

can work

Agree

00

00.00

collaboratively to

Undecided

00

00.00

run a literacy

Disagree

06

54.55

programme

Strongly Disagree

03

27.27

In above Table No. 4.3.9 analysis of data shows that 81.82% AIOU personnel
disagreed that adult learners use telephone for the solution of their literacy problems.
18.18% respondents were Undecided about the statement.

240

Table 4.3.10: Views of AIOU personnel about the utilization of early experiences of
adult learners
Item No.
09

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Early experiences

Strongly Agree

06

54.55

of adult learners

Agree

04

36.37

are utilized to

Undecided

01

09.08

make them literate

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Table No. 4.3.10 reflect that there exists agreement among 90.92% about the
statement that early experiences of adult learners are utilized to make them literate.
09.08% AIOU personnel were Undecided about the statement.

Table 4.3.11: AIOU personnels views about launching of literacy programme

through distance education.
Item No.
10

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

It is possible to

Strongly Agree

06

54.55

launch literacy

Agree

05

45.45

programme

Undecided

00

00.00

through distance

Disagree

00

00.00

education mode

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

It is clear from Table No. 4.3.11 that there exists agreement among 100% AIOU
personnel about the statement that it is possible to launch literacy programme through
distance education mode.
241

Table 4.3.12: Opinion of AIOU personnel about television assistance for teaching
writing
Item No.
11

Statement

Level

Television assisted Strongly Agree

Frequency

Percentage

06

54.55

teaching proves

Agree

03

27.27

helpful to teach

Undecided

02

18.18

writing skills

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

In Table No. 4.3.10 it is shown that an agreement exists among 82.82% AIOU
personnel that television assisted teaching proves helpful to teach writing skills.
18.18% AIOU personnel were Undecided.
Table 4.3.13: Opinion of AIOU personnel about television assistance for teaching
reading
Item No.
12

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

The skill of

Strongly Agree

06

54.55

reading can be

Agree

03

27.27

taught through

Undecided

00

00.00

television

Disagree

02

18.18

programmes

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

In the analysis of data shown in Table No. 4.3.13 it was agreed by 82.82%
AIOU personnel to the statement that the skill of reading can be taught through
television programmes. 18.18% AIOU personnel were Undecided.
242

Table 4.3.14: AIOU Personnels opinion about mutual cooperation of adult learners
Item No.
13

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Adult learners are

Strongly Agree

06

54.55

cooperative to

Agree

03

27.27

their fellow

Undecided

00

00.00

learners

Disagree

02

18.18

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

It is shown in Table No. 4.3.14 that 82.82 AIOU personnel agreed and 18.18%
disagreed to the statement that adult learners are cooperative to their fellow learners.
The mean score is 4.18.
Table 4.3.15: Opinion of AIOU personnel regarding the role of distance education in
reducing the administrative problems of literacy programme
Item No.
14

Statement

Level

Literacy programmes through Strongly Agree

Frequency

Percentage

06

54.55

distance education reduce

Agree

03

27.27

administrative problems

Undecided

02

18.18

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Data presented in Table No. 4.3.15 above shows that 81.82% AIOU personnel
agreed that literacy programmes through distance education reduce administrative
problems. 18.18% respondents were Undecided about the statement.

243

Table 4.3.16: Views of AIOU personnel about economy of distance education

literacy programme
Item No.
15

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Distance

Strongly Agree

04

36.37

education literacy

Agree

04

36.37

programme are

Undecided

02

18.18

economical

Disagree

01

09.09

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Analyses of data in Table No. 4.3.16 shows that there was an agreement among
72.74% AIOU personnel about the statement that distance education literacy
programme are economical.

Table 4.3.17: AIOU Personnels opinion about the success of distance education
literacy programme in Pakistan
Percentag
Item No.

Statement

Level

Frequency
e

16

Literacy programmes

Strongly Agree

04

36.37

through distance education

Agree

06

54.55

can prove successful in

Undecided

01

09.08

Pakistani situation

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Table No. 4.3.17 shows 90.92% AIOU personnel agreed and that literacy
programmes through distance education can prove successful in Pakistani situation.
244

Table 4.3.18: Opinion of AIOU personnel about the role of causal meetings between
instructors and adult learners for the solution of literacy problems
Item No.
17

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

04

36.37

Casual meetings between Strongly Agree

adult learners and

Agree

05

45.45

instructors are necessary

Undecided

00

00.00

to solve literacy

Disagree

02

18.18

problems

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

It is evident from the above Table No. 4.3.18 that 81.82% AIOU personnel
agreed and 18.18% disagreed that casual meetings between adult learners and
instructors are necessary to solve literacy problems.

Table 4.3.19: V1iews of AIOU personnel about the role of mass media in literacy
programme
Item No.
18

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Mass media

Strongly Agree

04

36.37

motivates adult

Agree

04

36.37

illiterates to join

Undecided

02

18.18

literacy

Disagree

01

09.09

programme

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Table No. 4.3.19 shows that 72.74% AIOU personnel strongly agreed and
18.18 are Undecided to the statement that mass media motivates adult illiterates to
join literacy programme.
245

Table 4.3.20: Opinion of AIOU personnel about role of radio for creating awareness
about literacy
Item No.
19

Statement
Radio helps in

Level
Strongly Agree

creating awareness Agree

Frequency

Percentage

03

27.27

05

45.46

about literacy

Undecided

03

27.27

programmes

Disagree

00

00.00

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Data shown in Table No. 4.3.20 reflects that 72.73% AIOU personnel agreed
whereas 27.27% were Undecided about the fact that radio helps in creating awareness
about literacy programmes.

Table 4.3.21: AIOU Personnels Views about the Use of Computer for Teaching
Literacy
Item No.
20

Statement

Level

Frequency

Percentage

Computer can be

Strongly Agree

04

36.37

applied to teach

Agree

03

27.27

literacy skills

Undecided

02

18.18

Disagree

02

18.18

Strongly Disagree

00

00.00

Analyses of data in Table No. 4.3.22 shows that 63.64% AIOU personnel
agreed whereas18.18% were Undecided to the statement that computer can be applied
to teach literacy skills.

246

Table 4.3.22: Suggestions of the academicians of AIOU for employing distance

education to promote literacy in Pakistan
Sr. No.
01

Suggestions

Frequency

Material for literacy should be developed keeping in view the

demands of the system of distance education.

09

02

Activity oriented literacy programme should be launched

08

03

The timing of literacy programme through broadcast media

should feasible to adult learners.

04

07

There should be provisions for repeat broad cast of literacy

programme.

07

05

Online literacy programme should be launched

06

06

Literacy programme through distance education should be

run by the experts of the field of distance education.

07

Stress should be upon the functional aspect during the

distance education literacy programme.

08

05

05

Group work should be encouraged during the casual

meetings of the adult learners and literacy instructors.

05

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion

247

Table No. 4.3.23: Application of one-sample t test on the questionnaire for AIOU personnel
Test Value = 3
Statements
1. Instructors of literacy programme have a knowledge of adult's psychology
2. Feedback is provided to learners in existing literacy programmes
3. Present literacy materials are interesting for adult learners
4. Evaluation of literacy programmes is made
5. Continuous feedback is necessary for the adult learners
6. IME can supervise nationwide literacy programme
7. Telephonic feedback is helpful for solving problems of illiterates
8. IME and NGOs can work collaboratively to run a literacy programme
9. Early experiences of adult learners are utilized to make them literate
10. It is possible to launch literacy programme through distance education
mode
11. Television assisted teaching proves helpful to teach writing skills
12. The skill of reading can be taught through television programmes
13. Adult learners are cooperative to their fellow learners
14. Literacy programmes through distance education reduce administrative
problems
15. Distance education literacy programme are economical
16. Literacy programmes through distance education can prove successful in
Pakistani situation
17. Casual meetings between adult learners and instructors are necessary to
solve literacy problems
18. Mass media motivates adult illiterates to join literacy programme
19. Radio helps in creating awareness about literacy programmes
20. IME is capable of training the literacy personnel.
248

df

Sig

-2.887
-2.887
-2.797
-9.037
12.264
7.016
1.491
-1.698
7.016
9.815

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

.016
.016
.019
.000
.000
.000
.167
.120
.000
.000

Mean
Difference
-.90909
-.90909
-1.18182
-1.27273
1.72727
1.45455
.54545
-.72727
1.45455
1.54545

5.590
3.357
3.357
5.590

10
10
10
10

.000
.007
.007
.000

1.3636
1.18182
1.18182
1.36364

11
11

4.0000 3.317
4.1818 4.485

10
10

.008
.001

1.00000
1.18182

11

4.1818 5.221

10

.000

1.18182

11
11
11

4.0000 3.317
4.0000 4.282
3.8182 2.324

10
10
10

.008
.002
.042

1.00000
1.00000
.81818

Mean

11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11

2.0909
2.0909
1.8182
1.7273
4.7273
4.4545
3.5455
2.2727
4.4545
4.5455

11
11
11
11

4.364
4.1818
4.1818
4.3636

The mean difference of all the statements is significant except the statements No. 2 and 8. Mean scores and t values of statement No.
5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 show that the statements are accepted at 0.05 level of significance i.e. continuous
feedback is necessary for the adult learners, IME can supervise nationwide literacy programme, early experiences of adult learners are
utilized to make them literate, it is possible to launch literacy programme through distance education mode, television assisted teaching
proves helpful to teach writing skills, the skill of reading can be taught through television programmes, adult learners are cooperative to their
fellow learners, literacy programmes through distance education reduce administrative problems, distance education literacy programme are
economical, literacy programmes through distance education can prove successful in Pakistani situation, casual meetings between adult
learners and instructors are necessary to solve literacy problems, mass media motivates adult illiterates to join literacy programme, radio
helps in creating awareness about literacy programmes, IME is capable of training the literacy personnel. But, mean scores and t value of
statements No. 1, 3, and 4 show that the statements are rejected at 0.05 level of significance i.e. present literacy materials are interesting for
adult learners, evaluation of literacy programmes is made and instructors of literacy programme have appropriate knowledge of adult's
psychology.

249

4.3.1 Discussion on Analyses of the Data Collected through

Questionnaire for E. D. Os Literacy
It is reflected from the analysis of data for the questionnaire of AIOU
personnel that despite the importance of feedback and availability of instructors at
telephone the adult learners are not properly guided. Moreover AIOU personnel
agreed that the distance education mode for the provision of literacy is best alternative
for the developing countries as it reduces the administrative problems and saves
funds. Similarly, it was agreed by the AIOU personnel that through the use of
broadcast media, especially radio and television, literacy skills like reading and
writing can be imparted. Therefore, through the use of broadcast media and casual
meetings between adult learners and the literacy instructors literacy programmes can
be easily launched in Pakistan.

250

4.4

ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED THROUGH THE

INTERVIEWS OF PERSONNEL OF EFA WING

Table 4.4.1: Analysis of interviews of personnel from EFA Wing Ministry of

Education
Item No
1

Statements
Are need assessment surveys conducted
before launching literacy programme?

Yes

NO

33.33%

66.67%

66.67%

33.33%

33.33%

66.67%

66.67%

33.33%

100%

33.33%

66.67%

100%

100%

100%

66.67%

33.33%

100%

100%

Do the instructors of literacy programme

have appropriate knowledge about adult
literacy?

Are the instructors able to deal with the

illiterate persons properly?

Is any kind of training provided to the

literacy instructors?

Are

the

literacy

programmes

properly

supervised?
6

Are literacy programme regularly evaluated?

Who conducts the evaluation of literacy

programme?

Are the literacy materials locally prepared in

accordance with the environment of learners?

Does government provide sufficient funds

for the literacy programmes?

10

Is the progress of literacy programmes

continuously reported to the central office?

11

Is broadcast media used to create awareness

about the literacy programmes?

12

Is any kind of financial assistance provided

to the adult learners during the literacy
programme?

251

13

Are the Pass-outs of literacy programmes

certified?

14

Is any kind of audio-visual material provided

at literacy centres?

15

Are the adult learners provided literacy

learning materials free of cost?

16

Do the local administrators have powers to

resolve problems locally?

17

100%

33.33%

66.67%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Are proper arrangements made for the

mobilization of community for literacy
programme?

18

Did the new coming governments continue

the on-going literacy programme of the
previous governments?

19

Do the local people cooperate in launching

literacy programmes?

20

Is any kind of feedback is provided after

evaluation of literacy programmes?

21

Do the provinces cooperate with literacy

programme of federal government?

22

Is it possible to teach adult illiterates through

television?

It is evident from table 4.4.1 that There was disagreement among 66.67% EFA
officials that need assessment surveys are conducted before launching literacy
programmes and instructors of literacy programmes have appropriate knowledge
about adult literacy. Similarly, 66.67% EFA officials stated that training is provided
to the literacy instructors after their appointment where as other two people claimed
that trained individuals are selected as instructors. It was a unanimous disagreement
that the literacy programmes are not properly supervised and literacy materials are
locally prepared in accordance with the environment of learners. They stated that the
252

literacy material is prepared in the central office for the entire literacy programme
which is launched by the Federal Government. In the same way none of the EFA
personnel was in favour of the statement that the government provides sufficient
funds for literacy programmes. Similarly no body was in favour of the statement that
broadcast media is used to create awareness about the literacy programmes and any
kind of audio-visual material is provided at literacy centres where as the remaining
two showed their favour for the statement. It was rejected that proper arrangements
made for the mobilization of community for literacy programme and the new coming
governments continued the on-going literacy programme of the previous
governments. In some cases the literacy programme were abandoned despite the fact
that these were running very successfully.
Table 4.4.2:

Major problems of literacy programmes as viewed by EFA personnel

Sr. No.

Problems

Frequency

01

Inconsistent of literacy programmes

04

02

Shortage of funds

04

03

Absence of proper evaluation system of the literacy

03

programme
04

Absence of infrastructure for literacy programme at the local

03
level

05

Corruption

03

06

Wastage of funds in irrelevant fields

03

07

Lack of interest in literacy programmes from female

02
illiterates

08

Ineffective administration at the lower level

02

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion
253

Table 4.4.3: Suggestions of EFA personnel to improve literacy situation in Pakistan

Sr. No.

Suggestions

Frequency

01

Development of infrastructure for literacy at local level

06

02

Proper allocation of funds

05

03

Training of literacy personnel, especially the instructors and

05

the supervisory staff.

04

Provision of incentives for the illiterates of the backward

04

areas
05

Development of literacy material in accordance with the

requirements of local community

03

06

Need oriented literacy programmes should be developed

02

07

Proper advertisement of literacy programme should be made.

02

Note: The total of responses my exceed 100% as one respondent can describe
more than one suggestion.

4.4.1 Discussion on Analyses of Data Collected through Interview of

the EFA Personnel.
The analysis of the responses gathered through the interview of EFA
personnel reflected that the literacy programmes are centrally organized and there is
no consistency in these programmes. These are either abandoned or replaced by the
new coming governments. Local administrators have powers to resolve problems of
local nature but, they are not given free hand to deal the key issues like the
appointment of literacy instructors, their training and expansion of literacy
programme to other areas. Preparation of material is centrally organized with no care
of local needs and demands. Literacy instructors are given short period training after
their recruitment due to which they find it hard to deal with the adult learners in a
proper and beneficial way and feel difficulties in motivating the new ones to join the

254

literacy programme. Moreover proper arrangements are not made for the mobilization
of community for literacy programme.

4.5

ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED THROUGH THE

INTERVIEWS OF ADULT ILLITERATES

Table 4.5.1:

Opinion of adult illiterates about attending the school

S. No
01

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Have you ever attended a

Yes

487

77.30

school?

No

143

22.70

The analysis of data gathered from the interview of adult illiterates reflects that
77.30% adult illiterates attended the formal school in the past whereas 22.70% never
joined the school. It is shown in Table 4.5.1.

255

Table 4.5.2:

Reason of leaving the school after joining it

S. No
02

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

190

39.02

Lack of interest in studying

36

7.39

Teachers punishment

84

17.26

Teachers method of teaching

12

2.46

Inappropriate home environment

35

7.19

Helping parents

39

8.00

Difficult approach to school

85

17.45

Any other reason

06

1.23

If yes, why did you leave the school?

Poverty

Table 4.5.2 above shows that 39.02% illiterates left the school after taking
admission because of their poverty whereas 17.46% ran off due to the difficult
approach to school and 17.26% were forced to abandoned their studies because of the
teachers punishment
Table 4.5.3:
S. No
03

Illiterates views about becoming literate

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Do you want to become literate?

Yes

490

77.78

No

140

22.22

It is evident from Table 4.5.3 that 77.78% of the illiterates were desirous of
becoming literate whereas 22.22% did not want to be literate.

256

Table 4.5.4:

Illiterates opinion about getting permission from employer/family to

attend the literacy centre

S. No

Statements

04

Would your employer/family allow you

Frequency

Percentage

Daily

50

10.20

On alternate days

99

20.20

Twice a week

266

54.29

Weekly

75

15.31

to attend the literacy centre?

Analysis of data shown in Table 4.5.4 reflects that 54.29% illiterates were
hopeful about gaining permission from their employer/family to attend the literacy
centre twice a week. 20.20% thought they can be allowed to go to literacy centre on
alternate days but, 15.31% anticipated that they gain permission once a week.
Table 4.5.5:

Opinion of illiterates about the timing of literacy centre

S. No

Statements

Frequency

05

At what time would you prefer to attend

Percentage

the literacy centre?

Morning

29

5.92

Noon

351

71.64

Evening

110

22.44

Data given in table 4.5.5 above shows that 71.64% illiterates preferred to attend
the literacy centre in the noon whereas 22.44% desired to go to literacy centre in the
evening.
257

Table 4.5.6:

Illiterates attitude toward literacy class as compared to the daily

business
S. No
06

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Would you give importance to

Yes

410

65.08

literacy class than daily business?

No

220

34.92

Table 4.5.6 shows the 65.04% illiterates stated that they will prefer literacy
class than their business whereas the remaining 34.92% preferred their every day
work.
Table 4.5.7:
S. No
07

Illiterates propensity of watching literacy programme on TV

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Have you watched any literacy

Yes

423

67.14

programme on TV?

No

207

32.86

It is reflected in Table 4.5.7 that 67.14% illiterates had watched a literacy

programme on TV whereas 32.86% had not watched any such programme.
Table 4.5.8:
S. No
08

Illiterates attitude toward liking the literacy programme

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Did you like that TV programme

Yes

409

64.91

of literacy enhancing?

No

221

35.09

Table 4.5.8 reflects that 64.91% illiterates liked the TV literacy programme but
35.09% did not like the programme.

258

Table 4.5.9:

Cause of abandoning the literacy programme

S. No

Statements

Frequency

09

If yes, why did you leave that literacy

Percentage

programme?
Unavailability of time

198

48.41

Unavailability of TV

59

14.43

Household responsibilities.

87

21.27

Irrelevant literacy programme to every

55

13.45

10

2.44

day usage
Any other reason

It is reflected from analysis of data in Table 4.5.9 that 48.41% illiterates left the
TV literacy programme because of the unavailability of time whereas other 21.27%
abandoned it due to household responsibilities and 14.43% did so because of the
unavailability of TV set.

259

Table 4.5.10

Illiterates views about the place of literacy class

S. No

Statements

Frequency

10

Where would you like to attend literacy

class?

Percentage

In community centre

228

55.75

In school

33

8.07

In mosque

108

26.41

In near by village literacy centre

10

2.44

At any other place

30

7.33

It is shown in Table 4.5.10 that 55.75% illiterates suggested that they will prefer
to attend a literacy class in the community centre whereas other 26.41% illiterates
desired to set up a literacy centre in a mosque.

Table 4.5.11 Illiterates views about approach to the literacy centre

S. No
11

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Is there any literacy centre near

Yes

85

17.35

your residence?

No

405

82.65

It is evident from the Table 4.5.11 that 82.65% illiterates denied that thee is any
literacy centre near their residence whereas 17.35 agreed.

260

Table 4.5.12: Illiterates views about the availability of proper furniture at the
literacy centre
S. No

Statement

12

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Can you afford to purchase

Yes

192

39.18

literacy material?

No

298

60.82

Data presented in Table 4.5.12 shows that 60.82% illiterates negated that they
afford to purchase literacy material 39.18% accepted that they can afford to purchase
literacy material.

Table 4.5.13 Illiterates opinion about staying at literacy centre

S. No
13

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

For how much time you can stay at

literacy centre
1 Hour

71

14.49

2 Hours

305

62.15

3 Hour

105

21.43

More than 3 hours

09

1.83

Table 4.5.13 denotes that 62.15% illiterates can stay at the literacy centre for
two hours whereas 21.43% can remain there for three hours.

261

Table 4.5.14: Illiterates views about the kind of skill learnt at literacy centre
S. No

Statements

Frequency

14

What do you desire to learn at literacy

Percentage

centre?
Reading

30

6.12

Writing

57

11.63

Reading and writing

296

60.41

Professional skill

107

21.84

It is evident from Table 4.5.14 that 60.41% illiterates want to be proficient in

reading and writing at the literacy centre whereas 21.84% illiterates wanted to learn
some professional skill.
Table 4.5.15: Cause of illiterates desire for becoming literate
S. No
15

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

Why do you desire to be literate?

To read newspaper

30

6.12

To make sign after reading documents

49

10.00

To write a letter

69

14.08

208

42.45

To study further

89

18.17

Any other reason

45

9.18

To maintain the records of income and

expenditures

Analysis of data in table 4.5.15 shows that 42.45% illiterates desired to become
literate for maintaining the records of their income and expenditures. Similarly
18.17% stated that they desire to be literate as they like to study further and 14.08%
were desirous to be literate for acquiring the ability of letter writing.
262

Table 4.5.16: Illiterates opinion about information about literacy programme

S. No
16

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Did some body ever told you

Yes

141

28.76

about any literacy programme?

No

349

71.24

As far as the nature of literacy material is concerned 71.24% illiterates stated

that the literacy material is not interesting whereas 28.26% accepted the statement. It
is shown in the Table 4.5.16.
Table 4.5.17 Illiterates opinion about Quranic literacy
S. No

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

423

86.32

No

67

13.68

17
Can you read the Holy Quran?

Analysis of data in Table 4.5.17 indicates that 86.32% illiterates can read the
Holy Quran but 13.68% could not.
Table 4.5.18: Opinion of illiterates about feeling hesitation
S. No
18

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Do you feel any hesitation for

Yes

189

38.57

attending literacy programme?

No

301

61.43

It was stated by 61.43% illiterates that they feel no hesitation for attending
literacy programme 38.57% feel hesitation .It is shown in Table 4.5.18 above.

263

Table 4.5.19: Illiterates views about sending their children to school

S. No
19

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Would you like to send your

Yes

457

93.36

children to school?

No

33

6.64

Table 4.5.19 shows that 93.36% illiterates declared that they would like to send
their children to school but 6.64% refused to do so.

Table 4.5.20: Illiterates views about cooperation with fellow learners

S. No
20

Statement

Responses

Frequency

Percentage

Would you cooperate with your

Yes

289

58.97

No

201

41.03

fellow illiterates at literacy

centre?

Analysis of data in Table 4.5.20 indicates that 58.97% illiterates will cooperate
with fellow illiterates at literacy centre but 41.03% denied.

264

Table 4.5.21: Opinion of illiterates about the teaching source

S. No

Statements

Frequency

21

From whom do you desire to be literate

By a school teacher

Percentage

85

17.37

45

9.18

65

13.35

202

41.22

93

18.98

By radio and audio cassettes/tape

recorder
By TV, video cassettes and VCR
By self learning using learning kit
(non-broadcast media)
By a friend with the use of above
described electronic media

It was preferred by 41.22% illiterates that they want to be literate through self
learning method using learning kit (non-broadcast media) and 18.98% decided to be
study from a friend with the use of electronic media but 17.37% illiterates favoured
the idea of studying from a regular school teacher. The analysis of data is presented in
Table 4.5.21.

265

Table 4.5.22: Opinion of illiterates about the type of learning material

S. No
22

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

Which kind of learning material you

prefer?
Only print

45

9.18

Print and illustrations

145

29.60

Print and audio

104

21.22

Print and video

196

40.00

Analysis of data regarding the opinion of illiterates about preferred learning

material shows that 40.00% preferred print material with video, 29.60% preferred
print with illustrations and 21.22% showed their favour for the print with audio. It is
reflected in the Table 4.5.22 above.
Table 4.5.23: Illiterates opinion about language of teaching and learning process
S. No
23

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

In which language you would like to

study?
National language

90

18.36

Local language

190

38.78

Mother tongue

200

40.82

Any other language

10

2.04

It is reflected from the Table 4.5.23 that 40.82% illiterates want to study in their
mother tongue, 38.78% want to adopt local language whereas 18.36% illiterates wish
to study in the national language.
266

Table 4.5.24: Illiterates response about purchasing the support material

S. No
24

Statements

Frequency

Percentage

Is it possible for you to arrange?

A radio set

195

39.80

tape recorder

120

24.49

A TV set

105

21.43

VCP/VCR

41

8.36

All the above

29

5.92

Analysis of data shown in Table 4.5.24 reflects 39% illiterates can arrange a
radio set, 24% tape recorder and 21.49 % a television.
Table 4.5.25: Illiterates views about way of approaching their teacher for guidance
S. No

Statements

Frequency

25

How would you like to approach your

Percentage

teacher for seeking guidance in your

study?
Through personal contact

205

41.84

Through telephone

270

55.10

Through some one other

15

3.06

Data analysis in Table 4.5.25 shows that 55.10% illiterates stated that for
guidance they will approach their teacher through telephone and 41.84% said that
they will contact the teacher through personal contact.

267

Table 4.5.26: Illiterates responses about getting help in their studies

S. No

`Statements

Frequency

26

Is there some body that can help you in

Percentage

reading and writing?

Father

68

13.88

Mother

22

4.49

Brother

260

53.06

Sister

80

16.33

Friend

60

12.24

It was stated by 53.06% illiterates that they can get help in studying from their
brothers, 16.33% can get help from their sisters, 13.88% from their fathers and
12.24% from their friends. Analysis of data is presented above in Table 4.5.26

4.5.1 Discussion on Analyses of the Data Collected through the

Interview of Adult Illiterates.
It is clear from the analysis of data obtained through the interviews of adult
illiterates that there exist positive attitude among them toward the acquisition of
literacy. Previously most of them joined the formal schooling but were unable to
continue because of the financial problems, difficult approach to school, teachers
punishment and helping their parents in their every day life. Now they consider that
they can stay at the literacy centre for two to three hours in the noon for the
acquisition of literacy skill. Instead of mare reading and writing they preferred to
learn the skills which can add to their living. Most of the adult illiterates desired to
study through the self directed learning material in their native language with the help
268

of some kind of broadcast media as there existed an attitude among them that they can
arrange radio and television. Adult illiterates show an attitude of likingness about
studying from a trained teacher who is ready to help them in the literacy centre as well
as telephonically. They can also get assistance in literacy work from their homes.

4.6 ANALYSIS OF THE DISCUSSIONS SESSIONS

Two different discussion sessions were arranged by the researchers with the
officials of EFA wing Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan and the
academicians of AIOU. Following is the detailed description of both the discussion
sessions.

4.6.1 Analysis of the Discussions Session Organized with AIOU Staff

Discussion with the AIOU academicians focused on effectiveness of distance
education in raising the literacy and different roles of distance education which can be
streamlined to improve the literacy condition in Pakistan. More over the potential role
of the NGOs was also a point of discussion during the discussion.
As far the role of distance education is concerned, it was considered of much
importance for making adult literacy activities effective. It was unanimously agreed
that distance education can work for providing literacy to those people who can not
attend an institution of adult literacy on regular basis due to scarcity of time and
household tasks. Distance education can facilitate such illiterates to become literate by
paying casual visits to the literacy centres and availing television and radio broadcasts
along with the use of different types of audio visual aids like the print material,
recorded programmes, different types of charts and cards. Moreover, there was an
agreement that distance education can also help illiterates to become literate with
269

relatively in a way as this mode accommodates the characteristics of adults more than
any other mode. Hence it can work as a motivational agent. During their visits to the
literacy centres, they can seek guidance from the instructors and with their assistance
can also avail the latest materials available at the internet.
As far as the management of the literacy programme through distance was
concerned, the AIOU officials agreed that Department of Distance and Non-Formal
Education with the support of Institute of Mass Education and Institute of Educational
Technology is capable of handling the planning, need analysis, material development
and media support aspects of such programme. Help from the Regional Directorates
can also be sought during the training and evaluation phases of the programme.
The second point of discussion was about the role of distance education
methods for enhancing effectiveness of adult literacy programmes. Different roles of
distance education were agreed upon by the staff members of AIOU. Some of these
are summarized below.
i. Distance education can be useful in the training of different personnel needed
to run the literacy programme. Literacy instructors as well as the supervisors
can be effectively trained through television and interactive CDs. Computer
and Internet facility can also be utilized for simulation and up to date
information.
ii. In resolving the students problems telephonic feedback, face to face
interaction and the correspondence can be of signifivant use. The adult
learners can select the most appropriate one to get answer to their queries. Email can also prove helpful in this regard for the learners of post literacy
classes.

270

iii. Distance education literacy can also be supported through different type of
media, including radio, television, teleconferencing and the press.
iv. The motivational aspect is the most vital among different roles of distance
education. Its cheapness, flexibility and at home availability can attract the
adult illiterates to join the distance education literacy programme.
Finally, the role of NGOs in distance education literacy model for the
management and administration of literacy centres at the local level came under
discussion. The discussion group was bit reluctant in assigning any type of role to
NGOs at the top level for the planning and administrative phases. But, an agreement
was reached in seeking their services during the need analysis and social mobilization
process. Moreover, it was also agreed that NGOs can also be involved in the training
of instructors and the supervisors along with Institute of Mass Education (IME) and
Regional Directorates (RDs). The key task for NGOs, as recognized by the discussion
group, was the establishment and running of literacy centres at the local level.
Furthermore the responsibility of bringing the adult literates to the literacy centres and
their retention can also be assigned to NGDs, the discussion group proposed.

4.6.2 Analysis of the Discussions Session Organized with the EFA

Officials
The discussion with the officials of EFA wing Ministry of Education,
Government of Pakistan also focused on the effectiveness of distance education
methods and its role in enhancing the literacy. The role of NGOs for the promotion of
literacy was discussed. Following is the brief description of the discussion.

271

In the opinion of EFA officials distance education is no doubt much cheaper and
flexible but there are certain limitations for its application in adult literacy
programmes. These limitations were about;

i.

the casual meetings between the adult learners and the instructors

ii.

the supervision and the monitoring process

iii.

the evaluation of the learners

iv.

feedback to the EFA wing for future programmes, and

v.

mutual interaction of class mates

Regarding the role of distance education methods which can be shown to

enhance effectiveness of the adult literacy programmes the EFA officials were
optimistic in applying distance education for the training of instructors and the
supervisors. In the same way consensus was reached in the effectiveness of media
support, telephonic feedback, usefulness of print material, face to face interaction and
instructors and supervisors responsibilities for the guidance and counseling of adult
learners. They regarded the role of instructors vital for guidance of the learners
through the telephone, correspondence and face to face meetings. The significant role
was to be played by the supervisor. He is the person responsible for coordination,
management of literacy centres, instructors support and reporting.

The EFA officials were much enthusiastic about the potential role of NGOs in
the distance education literacy model. They stressed upon the participation of the
NGOs in the planning, implementation and evaluation phases of the literacy model.
Moreover, they insisted on the participation of NGOs in the recruitment and of
training instructors and supervisors. The establishment and management of literacy
272

centres were considered the key responsibility of NGOs. There was an agreement
about the point that adult illiterates can only be persuaded to join literacy programme
if they properly encouraged and motivated by the NGOs through awareness
generating campaigns, advertisements, and provision of incentives. For this purpose
NGOs can launch door to door campaign for enhancing adult illiterates willingness to
join the adult literacy programme. NGOs can manage the literacy centres properly as
in the local settings they can arrange the place, location and the equipments for the
literacy centre in a better way, the EFA officials argued. In the same way NGOs can
work for the facilitation of the adult learners by arranging material for them and
providing them the necessary help.

4.7 ANALYSIS OF THE ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES

Objective wise analysis of the achievement of objectives if give in the
following pages. To analyze the objectives sum of scores for each item corresponding
to an objective was calculate. On the basis of the range of the sum of scores categories
representing the achievement of objectives, viz. low, average, high, passive and
active, were devised. Document analysis was also made for the analysis of literacy
provisions of the government of Pakistan.

273

4.7.1 Assessment of the Need of Literacy among Pakistan Illiterates

Table No. 4.6.1: Views of E. D. Os literacy about literacy need among Pakistani
illiterates
Categories of literacy needs
Frequency Percent
Lowest Literacy Need

33.3

Average Literacy Need

13

54.2

Highest Literacy Need

12.5

Total

24

100.0

Table 4.6.1shows that 54.2% E. D. Os literacy consider that there is need of

literacy among Pakistani illiterates whereas 33.3% states that the need for literacy is
high. It is shown in the graph below.

Fig: 4.1 Views of E. D. Os literacy about literacy need in among Pakistani illiterates

274

Table No. 4.6.2: Literacy instructors views about need of literacy among illiterates
Frequency Percent
Low

87

26.9

Average

213

65.9

High

23

7.1

Total

323

100.0

It is shown in Table 4.6.2 that according ton 59.9 % literacy instructors need for
literacy is there but 7.12% regard literacy instructors this need as high. The graph
below reflects the same.

Fig: 4.2 Literacy instructors views about need of literacy among illiterates

275

4.7.2 Evaluation of the Literacy Provision by the Government of

Pakistan
Table No. 4.6.3: E. D. Os views about literacy provisions
Frequency Percent
Lowest Literacy Provision

4.2

Average Literacy Provision

17

70.8

Highest Literacy Provision

25.0

Total

24

100.0

Table No. 4.6.3 reflects that 70.8% E. D. Os views are of the view that the
literacy provisions of the government of Pakistan are average whereas according to
25.0% these are high. It is shown in the graph below.

Fig: 4.3 E. D. Os literacy views about literacy provisions

276

Table No. 4.6.4: Literacy instructors views about provision of literacy

Frequency Percent
Low

139

43.0

Average

18

5.6

High

166

51.4

Total

323

100.0

Table No. 4.6.4 reflects that 51.4% literacy instructors are of the view that the
literacy provisions of the government of Pakistan are high whereas according to 43%
these are low. It is shown in the graph below.

Fig: 4.4 Literacy instructors views about provision of literacy

277

Table No. 4.6.5: Views of AIOU personnel about literacy provisions

Frequency Percent
Low Literacy Provisions

45.5

High Literacy Provisions

54.5

Total

11

100.0

It is evident from Table No. 4.6.5 that 54.5% literacy instructors are of the
view that the literacy provisions of the government of Pakistan are high whereas
according to 45.5% these are low. It is shown in the graph below.

Fig: 4.5 Views of AIOU personnel about literacy provisions

278

4.7.3 Document Analysis for Literacy Provisions in Educational

Policies and Plans of Government of Pakistan
Educational policy is the description of a states interests and aspirations
regarding the importance of education. A policy provides a conceptual framework for
the type of education to be implemented in the country. Ghaffar (2002, p. 69)
describes the nature of policy as under;
An education policy is an initiative, a statement, a directive, or a document
issued from time to time by the government for the development in the
country. It is a brief, succinct in content but broad in concept and deep in the
spirit.
In subsequent years many efforts were made to develop and promote
education sector in Pakistan through formulation of different policies. Following
attempts were made since independence:
i.

The Pakistan Educational Conference 1947

ii.

Commission on National Education 1959

iii.

New Educational Policy 1970

iv.

New Educational Policy 1972-80

v.

National Educational Policy And Implementation Programme 1978

vi.

National Educational Policy 1991

vii.

National Educational Policy 1998-2010

viii.

Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-2004

ix.

National Plan of Action on Education for All 2001-15

279

In all these educational policies, literacy had been a point of attention.

Therefore, all educational policies contained considerable recommendations regarding
literacy provisions. A brief analysis of these provisions is being presented here.

4.7.3.1

The Pakistan Educational Conference 1947

Few days after the creation of Pakistan all Pakistan educational conference
was convened in Karachi from 27th November to 1st December 1947. The conference
aimed at helping the Education Division of the Ministry of Interior in determining the
future dimensions for framing educational policy for Pakistan.
Despite numerous problems priority was given to education and a firm
determination was shown to provide educational opportunities for the masses of the
state as the conference proceedings elaborates:
Our first and foremost concern most inevitably determined and vigorous attack
on the formidable problem of illiteracy and its evil consequences. It goes
without saying that the existence of a large bulk of illiterate population
constitutes a grave menace to the security and well-being of the state. (Govt. of
Pakistan 1947, p. 9)
In this conference many subcommittees were set up to consider and report on
the relevant items of agenda. To under take the affairs of literacy a subcommittee was
also set up (Govt. of Pakistan 1947, p. 22). It was assigned following agenda for
consideration (Govt. of Pakistan 1947, p. 14);
i.

To consider the contents of adult education.

ii.

To suggest means for surveying the existing facilities of adult

education in the Dominion of Pakistan.

iii.

To consider the inter-relation of basic and adult education.

280

iv.

To consider the medium of adult education.

v.

To consider the staffing of adult education centres.

The subcommittee on adult education put forward several recommendations

for initiating efforts to organize literacy programmes. The recommendations of the
committee (Govt. of Pakistan 1947, pp. 22-23) can be summarized as under;
i.

The masses should be provided literacy supplemented with devices like

broadcasting and other scientific devices.

ii.

Existing facilities of adult education should be surveyed.

iii.

Adult school teachers should be properly trained and the college

students should be encouraged to take part in mass literacy campaign.

iv.

Adult education material should be prepared.

v.

The existing school buildings, their equipment and staff should be used
for adult education centres.

This conference was a preliminary effort for the organization of educational

system in Pakistan. Although most of the recommendations focused on most pressing
issues in the field of education, yet the conference provided a sound foundation for
the future educational policies in general and adult education/literacy in specific (Isa
Khan, 1987, p. 263). Most of the recommendations of this conference regarding
literacy could not be entertained in the following years because of the lack of proper
textual material, un-identification of strategies and non-specification of target
population (Govt. of Pakistan 1993, p. 17).

4.7.3.2

Commission on National Education 1959

Commission on National Education 1959 is one of the important endeavours

ever made by the government of Pakistan. The commission thoroughly reviewed the

281

existing system of education in the country and suggested measures for the
improvement of its different aspects including adult education. Summary of the
Commissions recommendations regarding provisions for literacy (Govt. of Pakistan,
1959, pp. 204-5) is given below:
i.

The development of a literate population must be the immediate

primary objective of adult education in Pakistan.

ii.

The programme to eliminate illiteracy must be based upon economic

motivation, carried out by teachers specially trained to teach illiterates,
and provided with sufficient suitable literature both for teachers and
for the use of newly literate.

iii.

The major effort in eradicating illiteracy in rural areas should continue

to be made through present programme in which Village AID provides
the organizational and technical arrangements, and the education
section trains adult literacy teachers and supervises the production of
teaching aids and reading materials. The number of both the specially
trained adult literacy workers and part-time literacy teachers from the
villages should be increased, and greater use should be made of
women and Imams as part-time literacy teachers. An education wing
for the training of adult literacy workers, similar to the one now
operating in West Pakistan, should be established in East Pakistan.

iv.

The Ministry of Education should establish pilot projects to

experiment with the possibility of (a) using school children to make
their parents literate, (b) using undergraduate college students as parttime literacy teachers in fulfilling their requirement for compulsory

282

work experience, and (c) using literate adults in a system of each

one teach one.
The commissions recommendations regarding the eradication of illiteracy and
launching adult education campaign in Pakistan were truly comprehensive, but stress
on higher and secondary education was comparatively more as compared to that upon
the elementary and adult education (Govt. of Pakistan, 1969, p. 20). Similarly, the
induction of filial for teaching parents was not a realistic step because of the presence
of a natural hesitation among the parents and the children. Above all, the absence of
the proper strategies to implement the recommended measures reduced this document
only to a fruitless paper exercise.

4.7.3.3

The New Educational Policy 1970

Pakistans first educational policy was formulated in 1970. Although this

policy was presented amid great politically tense situation, yet it suggested several
important measures for the improvement of literacy in Pakistan. Summary of the
measures adopted for the improvement of literacy is as following;
i.

The provinces should adopt suitable measures for providing functional

education to adults and school leavers. The aim should be to cover 5
million people by 1975.

ii.

All employers (including the government) should provide work

oriented basic education to all of their employees who lack such
education in order to enable them to perform their duties efficiently.

iii.

Suitable institutional arrangements, including the establishment of a

National Education Corps on a feasible basis, should be made for

283

implementing the programme as a complement to the programme of

the elementary education.
iv.

Special attention be given to the development of non-formal

programmes

of

adult

education

to

supplement

the

formal

arrangements.
It was the first educational policy put forward by any government in Pakistan
since its independence. Unfortunately this policy could also not be implemented
because of the political crises in Pakistan. Before complete implementation of the
policy Pakistan was divided into two parts i.e. Pakistan and Bangladesh on December
16, 1971 (Rashid 1997a, p. 43).

4.7.3.4

The Education Policy 1972-80

Eradication of illiteracy from Pakistan within the shortest possible time

through the universalization of elementary education and a massive adult education
programme was regarded as the main objective of this educational policy 1972 (Govt.
of Pakistan, 1972, p.1). It was anticipated that the primary education up to class V will
become universal for boys by 1979 and for girls by 1984. Moreover, it was aimed to
make education free up to class X for all the children throughout the country (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1972, p. 3).
This policy suggested several innovative ways to combat the wide spread
illiteracy in the country. These measures included the establishment of Factory
Schools, Form Schools, Special Women Education Centres and Out-of-School Youth
Centres. Summary of the proposed number of such school/centres is given below;

284

Table 4.6.6: Number of schools with proposed capacity

Sr. N.

Type of School/Centre

i.

Factory Schools

ii.

Form Schools, including comilla type thana

No of Schools/
Centres
500

Capacity per
School/Centre
40

3500

40

and Tehsil Centres in association with

agrovillae scheme
iii.

Special Women Education Centres

5000

40

iv.

Out-of-School Youth Centres

300

40

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1972). The education policy 1972-80, Islamabad: Ministry
of Education, (p. 22).

Despite the above features of Education Policy 1972 regarding the efforts for
the improvement in literacy another distinguishing aspect of the educational policy
was the setting up of Peoples Open University. It was primarily established to
provide the opportunities of continuing education for such people who are on the job
or unable to leave their homes and do not have any provisions to uplift their existing
standard of education. Such people were proposed to teach through correspondence
courses, tutorials, seminars, workshops, laboratories, television and radio broadcasts
and other mass communication media (Govt. of Pakistan, 1972, p. 22). The Peoples
Open University was renamed as Allama Iqbal Open University in the later years. It
was used for the training of teachers and members of National Literacy Corps.

4.7.3.5

National

Educational

Policy

and

Implementation

Programme 1978
Although the main stress of the educational policy 1978 was upon the
Islamization of education in the country, yet it recommended a number of important
285

measures for the enhancement of literacy and adult education in Pakistan. This policy
aimed to make the people functionally literate despite making them mere literate
(Rashid, 1997, p. 43).
To provide a minimum acceptable level of functional literacy and fundamental
education to all citizens of the country particularly the young, irrespective of
their faith, caste and creed in order to enable them to participate productively
in the total national effort (Govt. of Pakistan, 1972, p. 1).
This policy suggested several non-formal ways as it was realized that the
eradication of illiteracy is very difficult through the formal system. Hence the
programme for the initiation of a literacy campaign consisted of both the formal and
non-formal modes. These measures included (Govt. of Pakistan, 1978, p. 26):i.

Community resources will be harnessed to promote literacy in country

ii.

Organization of 10000 literacy centres including 5000 centres of the

Ministry of Education and other 5000 by the following agencies:a.

Community Viewing Centres of PTVC,

b.

Markaz of IRDP,

c.

Study Centres of Allama Iqbal Open University,

d.

Social Welfare Centres,

e.

Infrastructure of the Population Planning Division.

iii.

Using radio and television programmes with the coordination of

Allama Iqbal Open University and UNESCO.

Moreover, it was planned to establish 5000 Mosque Schools, 5000 Mohallah

Schools and 1000 Village Workshop Schools along with the establishment of 13000
primary schools during 1978-83 (Govt. of Pakistan, 1979, p. 6). Main features of all

286

these Schools along with there objectives and the implementation strategies are
discussed below:-

Mosque Schools: According to the policy main purpose of the establishment

of Mosque Schools was the utilization of the potential already existing in the
communities. The policy stated (Govt. of Pakistan, 1979, pp. 8-9);
Schools will be opened only in those villages where normal primary schools
do not exist or where a primary school is not available in the vicinity.
Backward areas of the country will be allocated more schools.
Originally Mosque Schools were opened for formal primary education, but it
was also planned to use these schools for complementary programme of adult
education for the out of school adolescent youth and adults as per following schedule;
i.

A two hour elementary course between Zohr and Asr prayers for out
of school youth of age group 10-15 who normally work during the day
time in the fields or other professions to help their parents or for
earning their living.

ii.

A two-hour learning programme for adults after ishaa prayers (Govt.

of Pakistan, 1979, p. 11).

The Mosque Schools were to be provided with a trained PTC teacher in

addition to the Imam of the mosque to teach 20-30 students. The Imams were to be
given adequate honorarium for their help. Provision of text books and the copies of
Holy Quran were to be made by the government. Students qualifying from the
Mosque Schools were eligible for admission to the Secondary Schools in the formal
system (Govt. of Pakistan, 1978, p. 2-3). Year-wise summary of the establishment of
Mosque Schools is given below;

287

Table 4.6.7.: Year-wise summary of the establishment of mosque schools

Sr.
Area
No
i. Punjab

No. of
Schools
2000

1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

100

400

500

500

500

ii.

Sind

1000

50

150

200

250

350

iii.

N.W.F.P.

900

50

150

200

250

250

iv.

Baluchistan

700

40

100

150

200

210

200

20

40

40

50

50

100

10

20

20

25

25

100

10

20

20

25

25

5000

280

880

1130

1300

1410

v.

Northern
Areas

vi.
vii.

F.A.T.A.
Azad
Kashmir

viii.

TOTAL

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1972). The education policy 1972-80, Islamabad: Ministry
of Education.

Mohallah Schools: The policy suggested establishing Mohallah Schools for

the education of female illiterates of the country. It was noted that purdah observing
ladies who are able to read and write teach the Holy Quran, islamiat, and selected
skills of home management such as embroidery etc. to young girls in the mohallas.
The National Education Policy intended to recognize, institutionalize and strengthen
the Mohallah Schools (Govt. of Pakistan, 1979, p. 13). In the same way main purpose
behind this effort was to motivate womenfolk for education as the policy states (Govt.
of Pakistan, 1979, p. 13); Utilization of the potential existing in the form of
Mohallah Schools may provide a fillip to the spread of education among females in
general and among the primary school age girls in particular.

288

Setting up of 5000 Mohallah Schools was proposed in those rural areas where
no primary school for girls is available. Year-wise summary of the tentative
establishment of the Mohallah Schools is given below;
Table 4.6.8: Year-wise summary of the establishment of Mohallah schools
Sr.
No.

Area

No. of
Schools

1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

i.

Punjab

2000

100

400

500

500

500

ii.

Sind

1000

50

150

200

250

350

iii.

N.W.F.P.

900

50

150

200

250

250

iv.

Baluchistan

700

40

100

150

200

210

200

20

40

40

50

50

100

10

20

20

25

25

100

10

20

20

25

25

5000

280

880

1130

1300

1410

v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

Northern
Areas
F.A.T.A.
Azad
Kashmir
TOTAL

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1972). The education policy 1972-80, Islamabad: Ministry
of Education.

The emphasis of the Mohallah Schools was upon the imparting of literacy
skills to the girls of school going age. The elder girls were also allowed to participate
in the literacy classes. There was flexibility in timing of such schools to ensure
maximum participation (Govt. of Pakistan, 1979, p. 14).

Village Workshop Schools: This policy also proposed the establishment of

1000 Village Workshop Schools. The main purpose of establishment of such schools
was to capture the drop-outs of the primary schools (Govt. of Pakistan, 1972, p. 17).
A specially trained teacher capable of teaching skills needed by the community was to
be appointed there. It was planned to set up Village Workshop Schools in such
289

villages where space is available and the community is interested. Year-wise

summary of the tentative establishment of the Village Workshop Schools is given
below:
Table 4.6.9: Year-wise summary of the establishment of village workshop schools
Sr. No

Area

1978-79

1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

No. of
Schools

i.

Punjab

50

75

110

140

170

545

ii.

Sind

25

35

42

50

60

212

iii.

N.W.F.P.

12

22

25

30

33

122

iv.

Baluchistan

11

15

17

59

28

17

Azad

v.

Kashmir
Northern

vi.

Areas

vii.

F.A.T.A.

17

viii.

TOTAL

100

150

200

250

300

1000

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1972). The education policy 1972-80, Islamabad: Ministry
of Education, (p. 22).

The Education Policy 1978 was a revolutionary policy, which introduced

several unique measures to combat the problem of illiteracy in Pakistan, especially
attacking it through the mode of non-formal education. But, a critical review of the
policy shows that, just like the previous policies, it also possessed many unrealistic
objectives, targets and the implementation strategies.
4.7.3.6

Education Policy 1992

This policy contains many unique ways of improving literacy in Pakistan. The
main features of policy regarding improvement of the literacy in Pakistan (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1992, pp. 13-14) are as under:
290

i.

Primary education shall be made compulsory and drop out rate will be
drastically reduced.

ii.

A massive campaign will be launched to raise the level of literacy

among such people who are able to read Quran so that they may be
able to read and write.

iii.

As far as possible literacy programme will be integrated with skillbased competency development programme.

iv.

Greater attention will be focused on deprived segments of society in

rural areas and urban slums, with special emphasis on female
population.

v.

Public representatives, regardless of political affiliation, will be

motivated to support the literacy effort in their respective
constituencies.

vi.

The potential of electronic and print media will be fully utilized for
public motivation for supporting literacy effort and for delivering
literacy programmes.

vii.

Adult literacy classes will be an integral component of the evening

shifts of primary schools.

The policy also proposed to establish a separate department under the

umbrella of Ministry of Education to promote literacy rate in the country along with
provision of financial incentives to the neo-literates through the help of NGOs. The
policy (Govt. of Pakistan, 1992, p. 14) states:
i.

A National Institute of Training and Research for Literacy (NITRL)

will be established under the NETCOM for providing service to
agencies engaged in literacy work. Appropriate legislation will be
291

enacted to provide incentives for acquiring literacy and to make the

funds allocated for literacy, non-transferable and non-lapsable.
ii.

The literacy rate of the country will be raised to 70% by the year 2000
with the help of provincial governments, NGOs and local institutions.

iii.

Allocations for adult literacy programmes will be substantially

enhanced.

Once more, like the previous policies, the policy had to be abandoned because
of the change of government in 1995 due to the political instability. Hence, Education
policy 1992 proved only a paper exercise wasting a lot of national resources, both the
financial and human.

4.7.3.7

National Educational Policy 1998-2010

National Educational Policy 1998-2010 was announced on 27th March 1998 at

100th death anniversary of great Muslim scholar and educationist Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan. The objectives of the policy regarding literacy (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, p. 20)
are as under:
i.

To achieve the global objective of Education for All.

ii.

To complement and supplement the formal system to achieve the

target of Universal Primary Education (UPE) through community
involvement in the shortest possible time.

iii.

To impart functional literacy for adolescents (10-14) who missed out

the chance of primary education.

iv.

To provide lasting functional literacy programme and income

generating skills for rural women of 15 to 25 age group.

292

For the achievement of the specified objectives the policy recommended

several innovative measures (Govt. of Pakistan, 1998, pp. 20-23). These measures
and strategies are summarized below:
i.

Both formal and non-formal modes of education will be adopted to

expand the literacy and functional literacy programmes. For this
purpose a massive Non-Formal Education Programme will be
launched on war footing to absorb 5.5 million primary school age (5-9
year old) children.

ii.

Prime Ministers Literacy Commission will prepare a plan of action to

launch National Literacy Movement on emergency basis in every
village, tehsil and district.

iii.

The

existing

Non-Formal

Basic

Education

Community

Schools/Centres will be increased to 82000 by the year 2002.

iv.

In far-flung areas 25000 NFBE Community schools will be gradually

upgraded to middle schools.

v.

Literacy Corps comprising of College/University students/teachers

shall be established for literacy programmes during vacations.

vi.

Radio and television will play a crucial role for mobilizing community
and for post-literacy programmes.

The implementation of the Education Policy 1998-2010 is in progress under

different plans and reform projects. Education Sector Reforms, Ten Year Perspective
Development Plan and Nation Plan of Action on Education for All, 2001-2015 are
different aspects of the policy implementation. Moreover Ninth Development Plan
1998-2003 also rendered significant support in realizing the targets of the policy.

293

4.7.3.8 Education Sector Reforms: Action Plan 2001-2004

The Education Sector Reforms i.e. Action Plan 2001-2004 is not a new policy
but an Action Plan to address the most pressing issues of education in Pakistan.
Education Sector Reforms (ESR) programme was actually launched to achieve the
objectives of the National Education Policy (1998-2010) and the Ten Year
Perspective Development Plan. The plan reflects that even if the sector wide strategies
are adopted, the overall approach should be holistic and integrated with in the macro
framework (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002, p. xiii).
ESR is a comprehensive sector-wide program for increased access, enhanced
equity and improved quality at all levels of education. The main objective of ESR is
to develop an educated citizenry in which every person has completed at least a
minimum level of education such as universal primary education (Govt. of Pakistan,
2002, p. xi).
A comprehensive approach is adopted in ESR to resolve the problem of
illiteracy as the report states (Govt. of Pakistan, 2002, p. xi):
For those who missed the first chance, new opportunities are being created on
mass scale through non-formal basic education and adult literacy
programmes. These programmes would cater for three different age groups
viz.; 5-9, 10-14, and 15+ using appropriate strategies and instructional
materials.
Main objective of ESR is the improvement in literacy rate and universalization
of the primary education. It aims at making 13.5 million males and females (10+ age
group) literate in order to increase literacy rate from 47% to 62% during 2001-2004

294

(Govt. of Pakistan, 2002, p. 21). Following strategies are proposed to achieve the
specified targets:
i.

Setting up the Presidents Task Force on Human Development an

initiative of Expatriate Pakistanis for integrated human development

ii.

Implementation by the District and Provincial Governments,

iii.

Targets will be district specific

iv.

Each literacy cycle of 6 8 months

v.

Mass Media Mobilization Campaign

Following Table 2.6 elaborates the year wise summary of ESR targets and
budgetary provisions:
Table 4.6.10: Targets and budget for ESR

Literacy Centres

Year I

Year II

Year III

Total

45,000

90,000

135,000

270,000

2.25

4.50

6.75

13.5

million

million

million

million

2%

5%

8%

15%

1.5 billion

3.00 billion

4.5 billion

9.0 billion

Enrolment

Increase Literacy Rate

Cost in Rs.

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (2002). Education sector reforms: Action Plan 2001-2004,
Islamabad: Ministry of Education.

Major programmes proposed in ESR to achieve the above mentioned targets

include:

295

i.

The Accelerated Community Primary Schools Project targeting age

group 10-14 years is a non-formal primary programme over three
years.

ii.

The Literacy for Empowerment Project targeting age group 15+ is of

one year duration combining literacy with functional skills for income
generation.

Education Sector Reforms as reports Smith (2002, pp. 28-29) are

conceptualized in the Education for All framework and have the same goals of
increased enrolment, retention and learning achievement. They refer not only to
provision of improved facilities but also to increased, locally delivered in-service
training for teachers, a new pre-service curriculum for trainee teachers and improved
curriculum materials. For the first time education sector reforms are being linked to
the Interim Poverty Alleviation Strategic Plan and afford education a key role in the
improvement of the economic base of the poorest people in Pakistan. Community
involvement through the establishment and training of SMCs or similar bodies,
intends to make education accountable at the grass roots level. These plans are
coherent with the political agenda for reconstruction through District, Tehsil and
Union Council Governments.

4.7.3.9

Nation Plan of Action on Education for All, 2001-2015

The World Conference on Education for All was held at Jomtien (Thailand)
from March 5-9, 1990. Some 1,500 participants, comprising delegates from 155
governments, policy-makers and specialists in education and health, social and
economic development from around the World, met to discuss major aspects of EFA

296

(Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p. 1). The participants of this conference agreed to improve
the existing situation of education throughout the world.
In order to review the progress made by the world toward the achievement of
these goals the World Education Forum was held in Dakar, Senegal from 26-28 April
2000. The Forum convened by UNESCO, UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF and the World
Bank brought together 1,500 participants from 182 countries, as well as major
development agencies. The participants of the Forum agreed upon (UNESCO, 2000a,
pp. 15-17) the following targets,
i.

Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and

education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged
children.

ii.

Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in

difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have
access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of
good quality.

iii.

Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are
met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills
programmes.

iv.

Achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,

especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing
education for all adults.

v.

Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by

2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a

297

focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in

basic education of good quality.
vi.

Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring

excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes
are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life
skills.

Pakistan being the signatory of both the decelerations was bound to develop a
national plan of action on Education for All to develop a strategy to meet the
requirements of the international community. Thrust areas of the National Plan of
Action on Education for All includes primary education, adult literacy and early
childhood education. It has been focused to achieve the following main objectives
(Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p. 46):
i.

Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are
met through equitable access to appropriate learning, life skills and
citizenship programmes;

ii.

Achieving 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,

especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing
education for all adults;

iii.

Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring

excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes
are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life
skills.

Government of Pakistan has developed different strategies and programmes to

meet the targets of the plan. These strategies include new initiatives to achieve
accelerated literacy rate, universal primary education, the expanded early childhood
298

education and quality assurance at all levels. For this purpose it was planned to
implement the plan in three phases of five years each. These are shown in the table
below:

Table 4.6.11: Phases of the National Plan of Action on Education for All 2001-15
Phases
Phase-I:

Years
2001-02 to 2005-06

Duration
5 Years

Phase-II:

2006-07 to 2010-11

5 Years

Phase-III:

2011-12 to 2015-16

5 Years

Source: Govt. of Pakistan (2003). National plan of action on Education for All (2001-

2015), Islamabad: Ministry of Education (p. 19).

As far as financial resources concern phase-wise total cost for literacy
inputs/programmes comes out to be Rs. 53,439, 58,021 and 68,516 million for the
phase I, II and III respectively. The total cost for the plan period (2001- 2015) would
be around Rs.180 billion. Out of it, Rs.51 billion (28 %) will be the development cost
and Rs.129 billion (72 %) the recurring cost (Govt. of Pakistan, 2003, p. 53).

4.7.3.10 Literacy and Five Year Development Plans

Five Year Development Plans in Pakistan were actually prepared to stream
line developmental measures in different fields of life including education. Therefore,
these plans also contain suggestions and recommendations for the improvement of
literacy along with the allocation of funds for literacy purposes. These provisions are
discussed in the following section.
The First Five Year Plan was developed for the period of 1955-60. In the first
Five Year Plan no separate funds were allocated for literacy or adult education rather
it was regarded as a part of the total education programme. Anyhow in the First Five

299

Year Plan a total of Rs. 580 million were allocated for the education sector (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1960, p. 340). There was a direct decision about literacy in the Second Five
Year Plan that emphasized to launch an economically motivational literacy
programme both for the adult illiterates and the adult literacy instructors. It was
proposed to provide special training to the adult literacy instructors along with the
provision of suitable literacy materials. In spite of developing a new programme or
strategy for literacy it was decided to continue the literacy work through the Basic
Democracies and Village Aid Programme. In this Five Year Plan although Rs. 1323
million were allocated for the education sector (Govt. of Pakistan, 1960, p. 340) yet
no amount was separately fixed for the purpose of literacy enhancement.
As far as the contributions of Fourth Five Year Plan for literacy are
concerned, it was decided that all the industrial establishments employing 200 or
more workers will run part-time intensive programmes for literacy. Classes will meet
at least three times a week for one hour. Services of Pakistan Army will be hired to
create National Educational Corps to support literacy campaign. Measures, like
employing NGOs for literacy work, for the provision of functional literacy to 5
million people were also included in the plan (Govt. of Pakistan, 1970, pp. 154-155).
To achieve the targets set in the Fourth Five Year Plan an amount of Rs. 2.3
million were allocated by the government (Govt. of Pakistan, 1970, p. 171). Thus it
was the first ever direct allocation for the literacy in Pakistan.
It was aimed in the Fifth Five Year Plan 1978-83 that 8.5 million adults will
be made literate. It was estimated that the existing literacy rate of 19.8% will rise to
24.9% during the Fifth Five Year Plan (Govt. of Pakistan, 1978, pp. 338-339). For
this purpose 10,281.3 million rupees were allocated. At the same time it was
estimated that additional 18.617 million rupees will be required to meet the recurring
300

budget (Govt. of Pakistan, 1978, p. 346). Out of all these amounts the allocation for
literacy was Rs. 5.0 million. The target age group for this plan was 12-45 years of
adult illiterates living in different parts of Pakistan. Moreover, there was a suggestion
to use television for starting literacy programme in the state. While commenting upon
the expenditures in the field of education during the first five plans Yasir (2001)
states:
The first five year plan (1955-60) allocated 20 percent of the total educational
budget (Rs.50m) to primary education, out of which 37 percent could be
utilized. The second plan (1960-65) allocated 6 percent (Rs.65.4m) out of
which 27 percent could be utilized. The third plan (1965-70) provided a small
increase (Rs.68.5m) out of which 61 percent could be utilized - out of a target
of 215,000 primary schools 4,000 were actually opened. The fifth plan (197075) was disturbed by internal turmoil, but the period in question saw the
nationalization of the private sector and free education up to secondary level.
The education expenditure as part of annual plans rose from Rs.700m to
Rs.1740m. in 1974-75.
Regarding the literacy efforts in Pakistan Sixth Five Year Plan 1983-88 was a
unique one in its nature as it consisted of the conventional as well as new ways of
launching literacy programme. The literacy centres established during the first half of
the Sixth Five Year Plan were replaced by Nai Roshni Schools. In addition Iqra Pilot
Project was also started in Islamabad/Rawalpindi districts on experimental basis.
Despite all these measures only 0.8 million illiterates were made literate (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1988, p. 252). The main strategies utilized for the achievement of the
targets of Sixth Five Year Plan included establishment of LAMEC, involving NGOs
and the local governments.
301

For the improvement of literacy rates in the country Government of Pakistan

promised to adopt the following strategies in the Seventh Five Year Plan 1988-93
(Govt. of Pakistan, 1988, p. 252):
firstly, through improvement and expansion of primary education,
retention power of the primary schools will be improved. Secondly, a strong
programme of adult education will be launched by the NGOs, the mass media
and political parties as socio-political campaign.
In

Seventh

Five

Year

Plan

1988-93

strategies

adopted

included

universalization of primary education and launching non-formal education

programmes by NGOs. For this purpose 23.1 billion rupees were allocated (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1988, p. 254).
At the start of the Eighth Five Year Plan 1993-98 the literacy rate in the
country was about 35% and it was planned to raise it up to 48% till the end of the plan
in 1998 (Govt. of Pakistan, 1994, p. 315). Following approaches were adopted by the
Government of Pakistan to combat the bleak literacy situation during the Eighth Five
Year Plan (Govt. of Pakistan, 1994, p. 315):
i.

Eliminating the early drop-out through various measures including

legislation and launching strong motivational campaign

ii.

Encouraging the NGOs to develop and launch community-based

literacy programmes.

iii.

Encouraging publication and circulation of special newspaper and

reading materials for the neo-literates.

To achieve these targets government allocated 69.031 billion rupees. In

addition to this it was estimated that about 159 billion rupees will be required to meet
the recurring expenditure (Govt. of Pakistan, 1994, p. 320)
302

The Ninth Five Year Plan 1998-2003 has allocated the biggest amount in the
educational history of Pakistan for improvement of literacy. It sanctioned an amount
of Rs. 12455.00 Million. This plan recommends achieving the literacy rate of 55%
literacy by 2003.

4.7.4 Discussion on Document Analysis

In all the educational policies government had focused the provision of
literacy.in this regard the National Education Conference 1947 provided a platform
for the future literacy initiatives. The first important effort in this regard was the
National Commission on Education 1959. this commission provided a blueprint for
the coming literacy provisions in the country. Education Policy 1972 bears significant
in the history of literacy provisions in Pakistan as this policy first time initiated nonformal approach to the provision of literacy. Similarly, education policy 1978
continued the non-formal approach by establishing Mohallah and Mosque schools.
But, the most significant policy provisions for literacy are that of education policy
1998. To implement these provisions National Plan of Action was formulated and
ESR was devised. Presently the second phase of the ESR is being implemented.
Considerable man power and financial resources had been reserved to achieve the
objectives of National Educational Plan 2001
Similarly in the five years plans literacy was considered a core issue.
Government has made sufficient allocations for the provision of literacy but the
problem had been with the actual expenditure. A picture of allocations for literacy and
actual expenditure is shown in the table below.

303

Table 4.6.12: Allocations for adult literacy, non-formal and mass education (Million
Rupees)

Plan

Total
Educational
Allocations

Allocations
for Literacy

Percentage
of total
Allocations

Actual
Expenditure

15577.67

18830

750

4.0 %

724.00

1st. Plan to 5th

Plan (1955-83)
6th Plan
(1983-88)
7th Plan
(1988-93)

22684.8

300

1.32 %

510.308

8th Plan
(1993-98)

20232.8

1750

8.6 %

409.164

% of Actual
Expenditure
to Total
Allocations
96.53 %
(0.038%)
170.10 %
(0.022%)
23.34 %
(0.02%)

9th Plan (1998133500

1000
0.74 %
2003)
Source: Govt. of Pakistan (1998): National Education Policy (1998-2010), Islamabad:
Ministry of Education (p.134).
It is clear from the table that there is gape between the allocations and actual
expenditures for literacy. The amount used for literacy is less as compared to the
allocations. Maximum of 0.038% of actual allocations was used during the sixth five
year plan (1983-88)
Table 4.6.13: Proposed and obtained literacy rates in the five year plans
Plan No.

Plan Period

Target Literacy Rate

Achieved Literacy Rate

1970-1975

25%

19.8%

1978-1983

24.9%

21%

1983-1988

35%

30%

1988-1993

40%

35%

1993-1998

48%

43.92%

1998-2003

60

51.6

304

It is clear from the Table 4.6.7 that the proposed literacy rate had never been
achieved during the implementation of five year plans. There had been a difference of
4% to 9% in the desired and achieved literacy rates.
In the same way in five year plans different approaches were adopted by the
Government of Pakistan to combat the bleak literacy situation during the plan periods.
Following approaches were suggested for the Eighth Five Year Plan (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1994, p. 315):
iv.

Eliminating the early drop-out through various measures including

legislation and launching strong motivational campaign

v.

Encouraging the NGOs to develop and launch community-based

literacy programmes.

vi.

Encouraging publication and circulation of special newspaper and

reading materials for the neo-literates.

A summary of such other approaches is given in the table below

305

Table 4.6.14: Summary of literacy provisions in the five year development plans
Plan

First Five Year 1955-60

Allocation
(Rupees. In
Million)
Nil

Target
(Million
Persons)
Nil

Strategies

Second Five Year 1960-65

Nil

Third Five Year 1965-70

Nil

Nil

Pilot projects of intensive nature on

experimental basis

Non-Plan Period

2.3

5.0

Advisory Council for Adult Literacy and

Adult Education recommended. National
Education Corps, Armed forces to play a
role. Industrial establishments to run
literacy classes for workers.

Fifth Five Year 1978-83

50.0

8.5

Population 12-45 years to be covered.

Pakistan Television Literacy Program
augmented.

Sixth Five Year

750.0

15.0

1983-88

834.0 (Actual
Expenditure

Population 10-24 years to be covered.

Establishment of LAMEC, NGOs and
local governments to be involved. Fresh
matriculates to take up literacy work for
one year. Debarring illiterates form
employment.

Seventh Five Year 1988-93

300.0

12.5

Universalization of Primary Education.

Non-formal Education Programs by
NGOs.

Eighth Five Year 1993-98

1750.0 (SAP)

8.05

Universalization of Primary Education.

NGOs to develop and launch community
based literacy programs. Integration of
literacy in Rural and Urban Community
Development programs.

Ninth Five Year 1998-2003

12455.00

55%
literacy
by 2003

Through Village Aid, School as a

community centre.
School as a community centre

1970-78

70%
literacy
by 2010

1. By providing a primary school

within a radius of 2.7 km and for
every settlement of 1500 persons
or more.
2. by entrusting the responsibility of
literacy to federal agencies like
WAPDA, PTV, PBC, etc.

Source: UNESCO (2003). United Nations Literacy Decade 2003-2012, Retrieved

December 25, 2004 from http://portal.unesco.org/education /ev.php?URL_ID
=5000&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201

306

4.7.5

Identification of Problems in Literacy Programmes of Pakistan

Table No. 4.6.15: E. D. Os Literacy views about problems in the planning of literacy
programme

Frequency Percent
Low Problems

37.5

Average Problems

10

41.7

High Problems

20.8

Total

24

100.0

It is clear from Table No. 4.6.15 that 41.5% E. D. Os Literacy consider that
literacy programmes in Pakistan had been suffering from problems of average
intensity in the planning stage whereas 37.5% regard these problems as high. The
graph below reflects the actual picture of the literacy problems.

Fig: 4.6 E. D .Os literacy views about problems in the planning of literacy
programmes

307

Table No. 4.6.16: Literacy instructors views about the problems in the planning of
literacy programme
Frequency Percent
Low

62

19.2

Average

241

74.6

High

20

6.2

Total

323

100.0

It is clear from Table No. 4.6.16 that 74.65% literacy instructors consider that
literacy programmes in Pakistan had been suffering from problems of average
intensity at the planning stage whereas 19.2% regard these problems as low. The
graph below reflects the actual picture of the literacy problems.

Fig: 4.7 Literacy instructors views about problems in the planning of literacy
programme
308

Table No. 4.6.17: E. D. Os views about problems in the implementation of literacy

programme

Frequency Percent
Low Problems

33.3

Average Problems

14

58.3

High Problems

8.3

Total

24

100.0

It is shown in Table No. 4.6.17 that 58.3% E. D. Os literacy consider that

literacy programmes in Pakistan had been suffering from problems of average
intensity at their implementation phase whereas 33.3% regard these problems as high.
The graph below presents the actual picture of the literacy problems.

Fig: 4.8 E. D. Os views about problems in the 0mplementation of literacy programme

309

Table No. 4.6.18: Literacy instructors views about problems in the implementation of
literacy programmes.
Frequency Percent
Low

107

33.1

Average

170

52.6

High

46

14.2

Total

323

100.0

Table No. 4.6.18 shows that 52.6% literacy instructors consider that literacy
programmes in Pakistan had been suffering from problems of average intensity at
their implementation phase whereas 33.1% regard these problems as high. The graph
below presents the actual picture of the literacy problems.

Fig: 4.9 Literacy instructors views about problems in the implementation of literacy
programmes.
310

Table No. 4.6.19: E. D. Os views about problems in the evaluation of literacy

Programme

Frequency Percent
Low Problems

15

62.5

Average Problems

29.2

High Problems

8.3

Total

24

100.0

It is reflected in Table 4.6.19 that 62.5% E. D. Os literacy are of the view that
literacy programmes in Pakistan suffered from low nature of evaluation problems
where 29.2% categorized these problems as high. The graph below reflects the
situation,

Fig: 4.10 E. D. Os views about problems in the evaluation of literacy Programme

311

Table No. 4.6.20: Literacy instructors views about problems in the evaluation of
literacy programmes

Frequency Percent
Low

199

61.6

Average

89

27.6

High

35

10.8

Total

323

100.0

It is reflected in Table No. 4.6.20 that 61.6% literacy instructors are of the
view that literacy programmes in Pakistan suffered from low nature of evaluation
problems where 27.6% categorized these problems as high. The graph below reflects
the situation,

Fig: 4.11 Literacy instructors views about problems in the evaluation of literacy
programmes
312

4.7.6 Specification of the Role of Distance Education for the

Provision of Literacy in Pakistan
Table No. 4.6.21: E. D. Os views about role of distance education in provision of
literacy
Frequency Percent
Low Problems

33.3

Average Problems

13

54.2

High Problems

12.5

Total

24

100.0

Table No. 4.6.21 reflects that 54.2% E. D. Os literacy consider that distance
education has played an average role in the provision of literacy in Pakistan whereas
33.3% consider this role as high. The pictorial form of data is shown in the graph
below,

Fig: 4.12 E. D. Os views about role of distance education in provision of literacy

313

Table No. 4.6.22: Views of literacy instructors about role of distance education in
provision of literacy

Frequency Percent
Low

103

31.9

Average

190

58.8

High

30

9.3

Total

323

100.0

Table No. 4.6.22 reflects that 58.8% literacy instructors consider that distance
education has played an average role in the provision of literacy in Pakistan whereas
31.9% consider this role as high. The pictorial form of data is shown in the graph
below,

Fig: 4.13 Literacy instructors views about role of distance education in provision of
literacy
314

Table No. 4.6.23: Views of AIOU personnel about role of distance education in
literacy provision

Frequency Percent
Passive role of Distance Education
Active role of Distance Education
Total

63.6

36.4

11

100.0

It is obvious from data analysis in Table 4.6.23 that according to 63.6% AIOU
personnel the role of distance education in the provision literacy had been passive
where as 36.4% thought it was active. It is also reflected in graph below.

Fig: 4.14 Views of AIOU personnel about role of distance education in literacy
provision

315

4.8

OVER ALL DISCUSSION ON DATA ANALYSIS

The focus of the present study was to develop a distance education literacy

model for the enhancement of literacy in Pakistan. To gather research based evidences
for the model data was collected through both the qualitative and quantitative ways
i.e. through the questionnaires, scheduled interviews and focused group interviews.
One sample t test, mean score and the percentage were calculated to analyze the
collected data.
As far as the achievement of the objectives is concerned to assess the need of
literacy among Pakistani illiterates (objective1) adult illiterates were directly
questioned. Moreover, the views of the instructors and EFA personnel were also
obtained in this regard. It was found that that there is need of literacy in the Pakistani
society and efforts are needed to fulfill this need.
To evaluate the programmes and policies of government of Pakistan regarding
literacy (Second Objective) intensive literature review was made. Moreover, E. D. Os
literacy, the personnel of EFA wing and AIOU were also asked during data collection
process to highlight the significant aspects of these programmes like political will,
administration, evaluation, and feedback etc. of different literacy programmes. In the
same way to identify the problems in the development, implementation and evaluation
of literacy programmes in Pakistan (Third Objective) were also classified with the
help of literature review and analysis of data collected from the EFA personnel and E.
D. Os literacy. A number of such problems were identified and are repotted in
different sections of this chapter. These problems were located to make the literacy
model effective and productive.

316

Different researches were studied along with getting information from AIOU
officials, EFA personnel to specify the role of distance education for the provision of
literacy in Pakistan (Fourth Objective). Moreover, during the discussion sessions the
potential role of distance education was focused so that it can be effectively
inculcated in the model. Researches on the topic helped to develop a comparative
perspective of the proposed model. In order to highlight the role of NGOs in a
distance education literacy programme discussion sessions were held with the
personnel of EFA wing and the officials of AIOU. It was found that instead of
allowing NGOs to work independently it would be better to involve them in the
literacy programme organized by GOs i.e. collaboration of GOs and NGOs was
preferred. Findings of the analysis of data are reported in Chapter v along with the
respective conclusions and recommendations.

317

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1

SUMMARY
Present study aimed at developing a distance education literacy model for the

enhancement of literacy in Pakistan. In the present era literacy has become more
important as compared to the past and there is need of literacy even to enjoy the basic
needs. But, throughout the third world the situation of literacy is very grim. Pakistan
is also suffering from the widespread illiteracy. About 46% of Pakistani adults are still
illiterate. Moreover, in the past conventional methods of education has failed to make
them literate. Therefore, through this research an effort is being made to provide an
alternate way of imparting literacy which matches the economic and social
environment of Pakistan.
To develop a theoretical framework and to construct the questionnaires along
with the interview schedules, related literature was studied. The review whereof has
been incorporated in this thesis as Chapter II.
The data was collected through the structured questionnaires from the literacy
instructors, E. D. Os literacy and AIOU academicians whereas to collect data from the
officials of EFA Wing, Ministry of Education, Pakistan and adult illiterates scheduled
interviews were conducted. Moreover, focused group discussion was also arranged
with AIOU academicians and officials of EFA Wing.
The collected data was put to statistical analysis. For this purpose One Sample
t test was applied to analyse the responses of literacy instructors, and E. D. Os literacy

and AIOU academicians. Whereas, responses of adult illiterates were analysed on the
bases of percentage. A descriptive analysis of data was made of the responses of the
EFA officials. The Findings thereof are reported below.

5.2

FINDINGS
The objective wise findings of the study are reported below,

5.2.1 Findings regarding the Assessment Needs for Literacy

i.

It was agreed by illiterates that they will prefer literacy class than their
business (4.5.6).

ii.

There was an agreement among adult illiterates that they want to become
literate and most of adult illiterates stated that they can attend the literacy
class twice a week in the noon (4.5.3, 4.5.4 & 4.5.5).

iii.

Adult illiterates stated that for two hours they can stay at literacy centre
(4.5.13).

iv.

Literacy instructors along with adult illiterates rejected that adults hesitate to
join literacy programme (4.1.6).

v.

Literacy instructors accepted that adult learners participate in literacy

activities and are interested in literacy class (4.1.3 & 4.1.7).

vi.

It was accepted by EFA officials and E. D. Os literacy that local people

cooperate with the literacy personnel and community welcomes the literacy
programmes (4.2.19, 4.2.26 & 4.4.19).

vii.

It was rejected by the literacy instructors that the adult learners are punctual
(4.1.2).

319

viii.

Literacy instructors did not accept that the adult learners remain at literacy
centre full time and all the adult learners complete the duration of literacy
programme (4.1.4 & 4.1.5).

ix.

AIOU academicians as well as adult illiterates themselves stated that they

can cooperate with fellow illiterates at literacy centre (4.3.14 & 4.5.20).

x.

Illiterates declared that they would like to send their children to school
(4.5.19).

xi.

According to adult illiterates the main purpose of becoming literate was to

maintain the records of income and expenditures (4.5.15).

xii.

It was confirmed by adult illiterates that they can arrange a radio set and tape
recorder (4.5.24)

5.2.2 Findings regarding the Literacy Provisions of Government of

Pakistan
i.

It was accepted by the literacy instructors that the literacy centres are
established at an easy access to the adult learners but adult illiterates denied
the statement (4.1.31 & 4.5.11).

ii.

Literacy instructors are of the views that the adult learners were not satisfied
with the facilities at literacy centre (4.1.8).

iii.

There was a disagreement among the literacy instructors and E. D. Os literacy

that furniture is available at literacy centres for teacher and students (4.2.3 &
4.1.32).

iv.

There was a tendency of agreement among E. D. Os literacy that incentives

are given to adult illiterates (4.2.31).

320

v.

There was a tendency of agreement among E. D. Os literacy and EFA officials

that the administration provides learning material to the adult learners free of
cost (4.2.18 & 4.4.15).

vi.

There was a rejection by the E. D. Os literacy and EFA officials that

government funding for literacy programmes is sufficient (4.2.25 & 4.4.9).

vii.

Community centre was preferred by adult illiterates as literacy centre (4.5.11).

viii.

Literacy instructors disagreed that they provide telephonic guidance to the

adult illiterates (4.1.19).

ix.

There was big gap between the allocations and actual expenditures for
literacy. The amount used for literacy was very less as compared to the
allocations (4.6.6).

x.

Proposed literacy rate had never been achieved during the implementation of
five year plans (4.6.7).

xi.

Government has proposed varied strategies, both in the formal and non-formal
education modes, to improve the literacy rates (4.6.7).

5.2.3 Findings regarding the Problems of Literacy Programmes in

Pakistan
Findings of the study about the problems in development, implementation and
evaluation of literacy programmes in Pakistan are listed below;
5.2.3.1 Problems regarding development of literacy programmes in Pakistan
i.

It was not agreed by the EFA officials that proper arrangements are made for
the mobilization of community for literacy programme and new coming
governments continued the on-going literacy programme of the previous
governments (4.4.17 & 4.4.18).

321

ii.

It was rejected by E. D. Os literacy and EFA officials that community

surveys are conducted for need assessment before launching a literacy
programme (4.2.2 & 4.4.1).

iii.

It was disclosed by EFA personnel that usually curriculum experts from the
Curriculum Wing of the Ministry of Education are involved in material
development for literacy programmes (4.4.23).

iv.

There was a disagreement among EFA personnel that literacy materials are
locally prepared in accordance with the environment of learners (4.4.8).\

v.

There existed a disagreement among literacy instructors that teaching

functional literacy is a part of literacy programme (4.1.12).

vi.

Adult illiterates preferred mother tongue as the language of instruction

(4.5.23).

vii.

There was a disagreement among E. D. Os literacy and literacy instructors

that the literacy courses relate to every day life of adults (4.1.10, 4.2.24)

viii.

It was collectively disagreed by E. D. Os, instructors and AIOU personnel

that the materials used for literacy is interesting (4.1.11, 4.2.29 & 4.3.4).

ix.

It was rejected by literacy instructors that they relate the literacy work to the
every day life of adult learners (4.1.23).

5.2.3.2 Problems about implementation of literacy programmes in Pakistan

i.

The literacy instructors and E. D. Os literacy rejected that the instructors are
trained to teach adult illiterates (4.1.20 & 4.2.8).

ii.

It was rejected by the E. D. Os literacy that instructor is able to build up

teamwork environment and create pleasant teaching learning environment
during the teaching and learning process at literacy centres (4.2.7 & 4.2.9).

322

iii.

It was accepted by the literacy instructors and EFA officials that instructor
faces difficulties in handling adult learners as they are unaware of the needs
of adult learners (4.1.21, 4.1.25, & 4.4.3).

iv.

It was rejected by AIOU academicians and EFA officials that instructors of

literacy programmes have appropriate knowledge about adult psychology
and adult literacy. Therefore, training is provided to them after their
appointment in handling adult learners according to their needs and interest
(4.3.2, 4.4.2, 4.4.4 & 4.4.23).

v.

It was accepted by the E. D. Os literacy that instructors need training in how

to deal with the illiterates (4.2.17)

vi.

The literacy instructors rejected that the administrators facilitate teachers in

teaching and learning process and they visit literacy centre (4.1.27 &
4.1.28).

vii.

It was stated by EFA officials that literacy instructors are appointed on merit
and occasionally volunteers are deputed to teach adult illiterates (4.4.24).

viii.

E. D. Os literacy accepted whereas literacy instructors rejected that the

instructors are appointed from the local community (4.1.22 & 4.2.20)

ix.

The E. D. Os literacy accepted that the instructors attitude towards the adult
illiterates is polite and the instructors performance is reported to higher
authorities (4.2.5 & 4.2.6).

x.

E. D. Os literacy accepted that instructors motivate adult illiterates to join

literacy class by highlighting the importance of literacy in the society (4.2.15
& 4.2.21)

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xi.

Literacy instructors and E. D. Os literacy rejected the statement that teaching

aids like tape recorder, Flip chart/Flash cards and VCP/VCR are used during
teaching (4.1.14, 4.1.15, 4.1.16, 4.2.11 & 4.2.12).

xii.

It was rejected by literacy instructors, E. D. Os literacy and EFA officials

that broadcast media supports literacy programmes (4.1.13, 4.2.22 &
4.4.11).

xiii.

The E. D. Os literacy denied that audio-visual material is available at

literacy centres (4.2.23).

xiv.

It was rejected by E. D. Os literacy that political leadership cooperates in the

literacy programme (4.2.27).

xv.

It was not accepted by the literacy instructors that the attitude of

administrators is friendly with teacher and the administrators solve the
teachers problems regarding the teaching and learning process (4.1.29 &
4.1.30).

xvi.

It was rejected by E. D. Os literacy that Supervisors facilitate the instructors

at literacy centre (4.2.13).

xvii.

Literacy programmes are not launched on regular basis (4.2.14).

xviii.

It was agreed by the EFA officials that the local administrators have powers
to resolve problems of local nature but, they are not given free hand to deal
the key issues like the appointment of literacy instructors and expansion of
literacy programme to other areas (4.4.16).

xix.

There was a unanimous agreement among EFA personnel that the provinces
cooperate with literacy programme of federal government (4.4.21).

324

5.2.3.3 Problems regarding evaluation of literacy programmes in Pakistan

i.

It was agreed by the E. D. Os literacy that the supervisory staff for literacy
programmes was sufficient (4.2.30).

ii.

The AIOU personnel and EFA officials did not agree that any kind of
feedback is provided after evaluation of literacy programmes (4.4.20 &
4.3.6).

iii.

The AIOU personnel showed disagreement that current literacy programmes

possess advisory structures (4.3.3).

iv.

There was an attitude of disagreement among E. D. Os literacy and EFA

officials that the literacy programmes are evaluated (4.2.10 & 4.4.6).

v.

It was unanimously stated that the literacy programmes are not properly
supervised and evaluation of literacy programme is conducted by the central
office with the help of district and local officials but final report of
evaluation is prepared by the central office (4.4.5 & 4.4.7).

vi.

There was a disagreement among the literacy instructors and AIOU

academicians that the literacy programmes are evaluated (4.1.26 & 4.3.5).

5.2.4 Findings about the Role of Distance Education for Provision of

Literacy
i.

There was a tendency of agreement among AIOU personnel that early

experiences of adult learners are utilized to make them literate (4.3.10)

ii.

AIOU academicians showed a tendency towards agreement that IME can

supervise nationwide literacy programme and is capable of training the literacy
personnel (4.3.7 & 4.3.21).

325

iii.

It was agreed by AIOU academicians that it is possible to teach adult illiterates

through television as television assisted teaching can prove helpful to teach the
skills of reading and writing to adult learners (4.3.12, 4.3.13 & 4.4.22).

iv.

The AIOU personnel agreed that literacy programmes through distance

education can be launched. Moreover it can reduce administrative problems
and financial expenditures. Therefore, these programmes can prove successful
in Pakistani situation as casual meetings between adult learners and instructors
reduce literacy problems (4.3.11, 4.3.15, 4.3.16 & 4.3.17 & 4.3.18).

v.

Instructors can facilitate the adult learners through telephonic feedback, face to
interaction and the correspondence.

vi.

There was agreement among EFA officials about the effectiveness of media
support, telephonic feedback, usefulness of print material, face to face
interaction with instructors and supervisors are helpful for the guidance and
counselling of adult learners.

vii.

It was accepted by adult illiterates that they can read the Holy Quran (4.5.18)

viii.

Distance education can work for providing literacy to those people who cannot
attend an institution of adult literacy on regular basis due to scarcity of time
and household tasks.

ix.

It was agreed by the AIOU academicians that Department of DNFE, IME and
IET can mutually cooperate for the need analysis, planning, development of
print materials and provision of media support to the adult learners.

x.

Regional Directorates can help the IME during the phases of training and
Evaluation.

xi.

Supervisors can play role in coordination, reporting and management services.

326

xii.

Department of DNFE and NGOs can work collaboratively to run a literacy

programme (4.3.9)

xiii.

It was supported by EFA officials that adult illiterates can properly be

encouraged and motivated by the NGOs through awareness generating
campaigns, advertisements, and provision of incentives.

xiv.

According to AIOU academicians and EFA officials NGOs can establish and
manage the literacy centres properly as in the local settings they can arrange
the place, location and the equipment for the literacy centre in a better way.

5.3
i.

CONCLUSIONS
There exists need for literacy among Pakistani illiterates and due importance is
given to literacy by them. Therefore, they;
a) desire to be literate if they are given a chance of attending a literacy
centre
b) do not hesitate in joining a literacy programme
c) prefer literacy class than their business
d) take interest in the literacy activities
e) like to send their children to school

ii.

Moreover, local people cooperate with the literacy personnel and community
welcomes the literacy programmes.

iii.

According to adult illiterates the main purpose of becoming literate was to

maintain the records of income and expenditures.

iv.

Although adult illiterates consider literacy important, yet they have certain
reservations about attending the literacy centre. These are;
a) They have limited time

327

b) They need flexibility in timing of literacy classes

c) They can attend literacy centre for maximum of twice a week
d) They prefer community centre as literacy centre
v.

Community surveys are not conducted for need assessment before launching a
literacy programme in Pakistan and no proper arrangements are made for the
mobilization of community.

vi.

New coming governments do not continued the on-going literacy programme

of the previous governments

vii.

Despite insufficient funding from the government for literacy programmes

free of cost learning material and financial assistance is provided to the adult
learners

viii.

Local administrators have powers to resolve problems of local nature but, they
are not given free hand to deal the key issues like the appointment of literacy
instructors and expansion of literacy programme to other areas.

ix.

Literacy materials for the literacy programmes in Pakistan are

a. not locally prepared
b. not prepared in accordance with the environment of learners
c. not self-learning aided by print and video
d. not interesting
e. do not relate to every day life of adults
f. prepared by curriculum experts from the Curriculum Wing of the
Ministry of Education and these are not in the mother tongue of the
adult illiterates

328

x.

Literacy instructors are appointed on merit from the local community.

Therefore, they highlight the importance of literacy in the society.
Occasionally volunteers are deputed to teach adult illiterates

xi.

literacy instructors are not trained to teach adult illiterates and because of the
absence of training they;
a. face difficulties in handling adult learners
b. do not motivate adult illiterates to join literacy class
c. never relate the literacy work to the every day life of adult learners
d. are not familiar with the needs of adult learners
e. do not show polite attitude towards the adult illiterates
f. are not punctual

xii.

There are no proper facilities at literacy centre as there is lack of furniture and
unavailability of A. V. Aids, like tape recorder, VCP/VCR teaching machines
and Flip chart/Flash cards. In the same way literacy centres are not established
at an easy access of learners.

xiii.

There is no use of broadcast media to supports literacy programmes in

Pakistan despite the fact that mass media motivates adult illiterates to join
literacy programme, television assisted teaching proves helpful to teach
writing skills and the skill of reading and radio helps in creating awareness
about literacy programmes. Moreover the adult illiterates like those literacy
programmes which are supported by the broadcast media.

xiv.

The administrators of literacy programme seldom visit literacy centre to

facilitate teachers in the teaching and learning process. But, at the time of their
casual visits their attitude is friendly with teacher and they try to resolve the
teachers problems

329

xv.

Despite the fact that the continuous evaluation of literacy programmes is

necessary, no proper measures are taken to evaluate literacy programmes in
Pakistan and if any kind of evaluation is made no feedback is provided on its
base

xvi.

Literacy programmes through distance education can prove successful in

Pakistani situation as;
a. basic infrastructure to launch such programme is available
b. literacy programmes through distance education reduce administrative
problems
c. literacy programmes through distance education are economical, and
d. casual meetings between adult learners and instructors can solve their
literacy problems

xvii.

Any distance education literacy programme can be made successful by the

effectiveness of media support, telephonic feedback, usefulness of print
material, face to face interaction and through the guidance and counselling of
adult learners instructors and supervisors

xviii.

Department of DNFE, IME and IET can mutually cooperate for the need
analysis, planning, development of print materials and provision of media
support to the adult learners moreover; Regional Directorates can help IME
during the phases of training and Evaluation

xix.

Although inclusion of NGOs at the higher level can cause administrative

problems yet they can manage the literacy centres properly as in the local
settings they can arrange the place, location and the equipment for the literacy
centre in a better way. Moreover, adult illiterates can be properly encouraged

330

and motivated by the NGOs through awareness generating campaigns,

advertisements, and provision of incentives.

2.5.4 DISCUSSION ON THE CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY

The study has made it clear that that there exists a need of literacy in Pakistan.
It is evident from the literature review regarding the need for literacy and the views of
all the concerned personnel along with the adult illiterates themselves. Adult learners
are interested in the acquisition of literacy and can spare some time to attend literacy
centre as well as for the viewing of television literacy programmes. Keeping in view
the importance of literacy government of Pakistan has developed several policies,
commissions and plans. But, despite a number of government initiatives the situation
of literacy in the State had remained unsatisfactory till the present day. None of the
objectives or targets regarding literacy were never achieved. The policies and plans
have proved nothing but merely the pleasant imaginations. There had been several
problems and hindrances in the achievement of these targets. The most significant one
are the inadequate funding, sloppy administration, centralized implementation,
careless evaluation, inconsistency in policies, lack of the trained personnel and
insufficient basic infrastructure for literacy. From the opinion of the experts of
literacy i.e. personnel from AIOU and EFA wing Ministry of Education along with
the E. D. Os literacy, it is concluded that the literacy campaign through distance
education fits well in the Pakistani environment due to its potential advantages and
economy. The campaign can prove more successful if the Ministry of Education and
EFA wing supports it technically and the services of reputed NGOs are sought out to
facilitate the administrators at the grass root level. Therefore, in the light of the

331

findings of the research a distance education model for enhancement of literacy in

Pakistan is being presented by the researcher.

2.5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
i.

To attract the adult illiterates towards literacy programme and to sustain them
in the programme there is need to;
a. advertise the literacy programme through broadcast media.
b. make the literacy programme need oriented and in accordance with the
interests of the adult learners.
c. make the literacy centre a place of interest for the adult learners so that
they can remain at the literacy centre for the assigned time on the day
of meeting with their literacy instructors..
d. provide some attractive incentives for the completion of literacy
programme
e. make them aware of their progress towards literacy on regular basis.
f. care for their busy hours so that they can attentively participate in the
literacy work at the literacy centre..

ii.

There is need to establish literacy centres at an easy approach of the adult

illiterates. These centres can be established in the village common or the house
of a local dignitary. It can be done by provision of audio-visual material from
the government and the self-contribution of the adult learners. For this purpose
funds are needed to make the literacy centre an attractive place for the
learners.

332

iii.

Literacy is awareness about the use of reading, writing and numeracy skills in
every day life and therefore, the development of active citizenship, improved
health and livelihoods, and gender equality should be an essential component
of any literacy programme. Hence, the goals of literacy programmes at
national level should reflect this understanding.

iv.

The material developed for the literacy programmes should:

a. be in the mother tongue of adult learners
b. be according to the needs and psychology of adult learners
c. match the programmes of broadcast media
d. be compatible with every day life of the adult learners

v.

Literacy should be seen as a continuous process that requires sustained

learning and application. There are no magic lines to cross from illiteracy into
literacy. All policies and programmes should be defined to encourage
sustained participation and celebrate progressive achievement rather than
focusing on one-off provision with a single end point.

vi.

Governments have to lead responsibility in meeting the right to adult literacy

and in providing leadership, policy frameworks, an enabling environment and
resources. They should:
a. ensure cooperation across all relevant ministries and linkages to all
relevant development programmes,
b. work in systematic collaboration with experienced civil society
organizations,
c. ensure linkages between all the relevant agencies, especially at the
local level, and ensure relevance to the issues in learners lives by

333

promoting the decentralization of budgets and of decision-making over

curriculum, methods and materials.
vii.

The Ministry of Education along with the EFA Wing should co-operate the
agencies and institutions who desire to contribute in the literacy enhancement
efforts.

viii.

Such NGOs should be encouraged who wish to work under the umbrella of an
established institution and supports the literacy efforts at the grassroot level.

ix.

The supervision of the literacy programme should be made more effective.

There should be a ratio of at least one facilitator to 30 learners and at least one
trainer/ supervisor to 15 learner groups (1 to 10 in remote areas), ensuring a
minimum of one support visit per month. Programmes should have timetables
that flexibly respond to the daily lives of learners but which provide for
regular and sustained contact (eg. twice a week for at least one year).

x.

Governments should take responsibility to stimulate the market for production

and distribution of a wide variety of materials suitable for new readers, for
example working with publishers / newspaper producers. They should balance
this with funding for local production of materials, especially by learners,
facilitators and trainers.

xi.

For effective literacy instruction trained literacy instructors are needed who
are expert in adult psychology and the teaching of adults.

xii.

It is needed to make the literacy programme consistent and regular. Even the
change of governments should not affect the literacy programmes.

xiii.

There is need to increase funding for the literacy programmes.

xiv.

There is need to involve the local community in the literacy programme to

make it acceptable by all sections of society.

334

5.6

PROPOSED

DISTANCE

EDUCATION

MODEL

FOR

ENHANCEMENT OF LITERACY IN PAKISTAN

AIOU
Programme Planning

IET

DNFE

IME

Need Analysis

Research

Material Development

RDs

Re-planning
of Programme

Training of
Literacy
Personnel

Media
Support

Literacy Centre
Learner

Decision
Making

Instructor

NGOs
Social
Mobilization

Writing
Word
Distinguishing
Word Building
Sentence
Structuring

Reading
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Fluency
Comprehension

Adult
Learner
Motivation
Engagement
Learning

Instructor

Supervisor

Assessment
Monitoring
Progress
Achievement

Performance
Capable of
Reading
Writing

The description of the model is given on the next page

335

Measures for
Feedback

The distance education model for enhancement of literacy runs as

i.

Allama Iqbal Open University is the mother institute for distance

education literacy model. Under the supervision of AIOU the problem of
discontinuity and abrupt stoppage will automatically be resolved as AIOU
will register adult illiterates according to its admission policy. The political
interference and interruption will die out due to institutionalization of
literacy programme. The Institute of Mass Education (IME) hoisted at
AIOU is the fundamental element of model which coordinates and controls
the literacy programme from need analysis to evaluation.

ii.

IME works in collaboration with IET for need analysis of the literacy
programme. This need analysis leads to the planning of the whole literacy
programme and development of print material to be used by the instructors
and the adult learners. The print materials consist of primers for adult
learners and training manuals for the instructors and the supervisors. With
the help of Regional Directorates IME is also responsible to looking after
the training procedure along with the process of evaluation.

iii.

The Regional Directorates of AIOU are key figure in the distance

education literacy model as at local level they have to look after the
monitoring while remaining in contact with the supervisor of the
programme and IME.

iv.

To facilitate the adult learners and instructors different types of media

programmes are developed by the Institute of Educational Technology
(IET) with the assistance of IME. These include the programmes to be
delivered through Radio and Television. In the same way IET develops
audio and video programmes in recorded form available in cassettes and

336

CDs along with other types of non-broadcast media including A. V. Aids

like Flip Charts and Literacy Cards. All these programmes focus upon
developing the skills of reading and writing.
v.

Recruitment of supervisors and instructors is made from local community

by the shared efforts of IME and RDs. Instructors are responsible for
teaching and managing teaching-learning activities along with the
students guidance and counselling. Instructors presence at the literacy
centres is ensured so that adult learners may approach them at the time of
their need. The supervisors, on the other hand, work to facilitate instructors
and to report the progress of the programme to the higher authorities.

vi.

The NGOs plays supportive role in literacy model. They are responsible
for social mobilization through the extensive advertisement of the
programme, announcing motivational incentives and generating and
managing resources. They are also the connecting agents among
instructors, supervisors, adult learners and the literacy centres.

vii.

Instructors are responsible not only for the activities at the literacy centres,
feedback and evaluation but, they are also involved in the process of social
mobilization.

viii.

Literacy centres are established at the most approachable and acceptable

place for the adult learners. NGOs with the help of local community
establish such literacy centres with appropriate furniture and facilities like
electricity, toileting and drinking water. Media support is provided at these
literacy centres through Television and Radio broadcasts. Moreover,
arrangements are made at the literacy centres for the other needed audio
video aids including CD player, fillip charts, literacy cards and computers.

337

ix.

Adult learners, the centre of all the arrangements and provisions, attend the
literacy centres at the time of their choice during the whole week. They are
given the liberty to come to literacy centres at least two days in a week.
Moreover, they can benefit themselves from the television and radio
broadcasts while remaining at their homes.

x.

At the literacy centre and through the broadcast media reading and writing
skills are imparted to the adult learners. Continuous efforts are made to
make the able to read and write the national language. For the reading skill
emphasis is given upon pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency and
comprehension. Whereas, in the writing phase they are gradually taught to
distinguish the shapes of different letters, building up words and finally
helping them to write sentences and paragraphs.

xi.

The expected outcome of the whole six month cycle of literacy process is
that the learners will be able to speak, read and write in national language.

xii.

Parameters for the assessment of the programme are monitoring of literacy

programme, determining the progress and ultimately the achievements of
adult learners.

xiii.

Research for the improvement in literacy process, materials and facilities

provided to adult learners is conducted by DNFE with the cooperation of
IME and IET.

xiv.

Finally, evaluation of the literacy programme is made with the mutual

coordination of instructors, supervisors and RDs. On the basis of
evaluation feedback is provided both to IME for future planning. Keeping
in mind decisions made after evaluation, IME re-plane the literacy
programme for necessary improvements.

338

5.6.1 LEARNERS FACILITATION PROCESS IN THE

PROPOSED DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL FOR
ENHANCEMENT OF LITERACY IN PAKISTAN

AIOU
IME

Print
Material

Adult
Learner

Media Support

Mobilization

Approachable

Motivation

Literacy
Centre

Furnished

Awareness

Acceptable

NGOs

Training Manuals

Primers

Equipped

Flexible Timing

IET

Casual Meetings

RDs

Flip Charts

Instructor

The description of the facilitation process is given at the next page.

339

Correspondence

Coordination

INTERNET

Telephonic Guidance

Reporting

Face to Face Meetings

Management
Supervisor

Literacy Cards

Video Programmes

Audio Programmes

Television

Radio

Teaching Learning
Activities

The facilitation process for adult learners proceeds as under

i. In the distance education literacy model AIOU arranges and supervises all
the facilitation process. Adult learners can directly approach AIOU for
guidance and assistance. This link may be telephonic, face to face or
through the correspondence. The RDs facilitates learners at the local level
to resolve the problems of local nature.
ii. Print material developed through IME is send to the learners. As well as
the instructors and supervisors.
iii. The centre of the leaching learning activity is the literacy centre. Adult
learners casually, two days a week, attend the literacy centre which is
approachable, acceptable, furnished with appropriate furniture and basic
utilities like drinking water, toilet, electricity etc.
iv. Audio visual aids like radio, television, flip charts, literacy cards and
computers are also available at the literacy centre.
v. IET supports the adult learners through media support. It prepares radio,
and television programmes along with other audio visual facilities..
Moreover, developed programmes are placed at website especially
designed for the programme so that media support for learners may be
made continuous and effective.
vi. The instructors facilitate the adult learners at the literacy centre through
teaching activities. His services include face to face guidance, telephonic
help and assistance through correspondence.

340

vii. Supervisor also facilitates the learners with his indirect directions through
the instructor. He helps in coordination, reporting and management of the
literacy centres.
viii.

Finally NGOs play their role by making people aware of the literacy

programme, mobilizing them to join the programme through different

motivational aspects.

341

5.7

VALIDATION
EDUCATION

OF

THE

MODEL

PROPOSED

FOR

DISTANCE

ENHANCEMENT

OF

LITERACY IN PAKISTAN
The first draft of the developed distance education model for enhancement of
literacy in Pakistan was reshaped according to the suggestions of the experts involved
in process of validation. After incorporating the suggested key changes in the
proposed model it was again taken to the same experts for re-validation. The experts
have suggested some more changes in the proposed distance education model for
enhancement of literacy in Pakistan. Summary of the suggestions put forward by the
experts during the validation process is given below.
i.

There should be direct contact between Allama Iqbal Open University and
Ministry of Education instead of their contact through EFA Wing as it will;
a) Help Ministry of Education in proper management and administration
of the literacy process.
b) Reduce communication gap between the Ministry of Education and
Allama Iqbal university
c) Help Allama Iqbal Open University in independently planning,
implementing and evaluating literacy projects.
d) Ease the feedback and funding processes.

ii.

Literacy instructor should also be involved in the process of social

mobilization because they;
a) Are appointed from the local community and are well acquainted the
habits and attitudes of illiterates living in the target area. Hence they
can easily persuade them for joining the literacy programme.

342

b) Along with the NGOs can very effectively and successively advertise
the literacy programme in the far-off areas.
c) Can motivate of the local adult illiterates to join literacy programme in
an impressive way as compared to the personnel of the NGOs.
d) Can make the adult illiterates aware of the importance of literacy in
every day life and in improving their life standards.
e) Enable them to understand that after becoming literate they will be
managing available resources in a profitable way and will be gaining
maximum advantages of thes resources.
f) Can prove more effective as they will not be finding any
communication barrier between them and the aadult illiterates. They
personnel of NGOs may possibly confront the language hurdle in the
communication with them
iii.

No change was suggested by the experts in the learners\facilitation process

suggested in the proposed model

iv.

In the same way some suggestions regarding the face validity of the model,
inclusion of AIOU in the model and showing adult learners were suggested by
the viva committee. All these improvements were made in the final draft of the
model

The final draft of the proposed distance education model for enhancement of literacy
in Pakistan is given on the previous pages whereas the initial drafts of the models are
given in the Appendices. All the suggestion given by the experts have been
incorporated in the proposed model.

343

5.8

SIGNIFICANT

FEATURES

OF

THE

PROPOSED

DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL FOR ENHANCEMENT

OF LITERACY IN PAKISTAN
The present model possesses several features that can help in the process of
literacy enhancement in Pakistan. An important aspect of the model is that the literacy
importuning process continuous with out any impediment with the help of instructor,
media support at or away the literacy centre. Even if, unfortunately, the learner is
unable to contact the instructor or can not approach the literacy centre frequently, the
literacy process does not stop. The learner can avail the media for necessary support.
Similarly, if the learner is poor enough that the arrangement of radio or television is
feasible, the media facility can be very easily availed at literacy centre in the presence
of instructor or even without help of instructor.
In Pakistan most of the literacy programmes were administered by some ad
hoc commission, department or organization caused several problems like abrupt
closure of programmes, poor supervision, lack of facilities for learners, discontinuity
in literacy programmes and misuse of the allotted funds and facilities. But the present
model is developed under the supervision of an established institution i.e. Allama
Iqbal Open University Islamabad. The problem of discontinuity and abrupt closure
will automatically be checked as AIOU will run literacy programme according to its
admission regulations. In the same way supervision will be improved by the mutual
coordination of Regional Directors, supervisors NGOs and the instructors.
Most of the literacy programmes in Pakistan had suffered from the lack of
feedback arrangements. After the lunch of literacy programmes learners were left
alone at the mercy of the untrained instructors. But, the proposed model possesses a

344

separate learners facilitation process. They are facilitated for effective learning by the
instructors, supervisors, IME, IET and NGOs at literacy centres, homes and even at
their place of work.
Similarly, literacy programmes in Pakistan had suffered due to the absence of
incentives for learners, inappropriate advertisement of literacy programmes and
untrained teachers. In the present model provision are there for giving certain
incentives to adult learners. They are motivated by the NGOs and instructors to join
literacy programme. In the same way extensive advertisement is available for the
social mobilization and awareness of adult illiterates about the importance of literacy.
Like wise, training of literacy instructors is also suggested in the proposed model.
Literacy instructors selected from the local community will be trained through the
media support and mutual coordination of supervisors and Rds.
Another important aspect of the proposed literacy model is a prescribed
process of evaluation of adult learners progress and achievements. The evaluation
process will be conducted mutually by the instructors and supervisors. On the basis of
evaluation measures for the feedback of learners are adopted and future planning is
made to revise the literacy programme to make it in accordance with the needs and
demands of the learners. For the purpose of re-planning outcomes of evaluation are
discussed by the RDs, officials from IME and DNFE.
The present model clearly specifies the performance indicators for the learners
and the literacy activities. The performance of the learners will be judged on the basis
of inputs provided to the i.e. reading and writing. Teaching of reading and writing is
also clearly described through the description of possible outcomes.
Finally, the proposed distance education model for enhance of literacy in
Pakistan suggests a systematic and comprehensive process for imparting literacy. All

345

the aspects from planning of a literacy programme to its evaluation are categorically
elaborated. It includes all the required components of literacy and the process of
literacy. Each component of the literacy process and its administration is mutually
linked on the basis of the findings of the research. There exists logical as well as
research based support for the process given in the proposed model.

346

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375

APPENDIX A

Questionnaire for Instructors of Literacy Programmes

Dear Sir/Madam,
I hope that you will be quite well. For the completion of my Ph. D. thesis from
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad I am undertaking a research study entitled,
Development of a Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in
Pakistan
For this purpose your valuable opinion is needed. Please indicate your
response by () mark in the appropriate box.
Be sure that the information provided by you will be kept confidential and will
be used only for research purposes.
With regards,
(KHALID SALEEM)
Lecturer in Education
University of Education
Okara

376

Questionnaire for Instructors of Literacy Programmes

Name ------------------------------Experience of teaching adults---------Address----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Following are some statements with five options i. e.
SA
DA

Strongly Agree,
:

Disagree,

SDA

Agree,
:

UNC : Uncertain
Strongly Disagree

You are requested to tick () the appropriate box to indicate your level of agreement.
STATEMENTS
1) The adult learners are punctual.
2) The adult learners take interest in the of literacy activities.
3) The adult learners remain at literacy center full time.
4) All the adult learners complete the duration of literacy
programme.
5) Adult learners hesitate to join literacy programme.
6) Adult learners take interest in literacy class.
7) Adult learners are satisfied with the facilities at literacy center.
8) Literacy courses are easy to understand.
9) The literacy courses relate to every day life of adults.
10) The material used for literacy is interesting.
11) Teaching functional literacy is a part of literacy programme.
12) Broadcast media supports literacy programmes.
13) Teacher uses tape recorder to teach adult learners at literacy
center.
14) VCP/VCR is used to teach adult learners at literacy center.

377

SA

UND DA SDA

15) Flip chart/Flash cards are used by the instructors at literacy

center.
16) Computer is applied to teach literacy skills.
17) Instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes.
18) Literacy instructors provide telephonic guidance to the adult
illiterates
19) Instructors are trained to teach adult illiterates.
20) Instructor faces difficulties in handling adult learners.
21) Instructors relate the literacy work to the every day life of adult
learners.
22) Instructors are appointed from the local community.
23) Instructors are familiar with the needs of adult learners.
24) The literacy programmes are evaluated.
25) The administrators facilitate teachers.
26) The administrators of literacy programme visit literacy center.
27) The attitude of administrators is friendly with teacher.
28) The administrators solve the teachers problems regarding the
teaching and learning process.
29) Literacy centers are established at easy access of learners.
30) Furniture is available at literacy centers for teacher and
students.
31) Please enlist significant problems while teaching adults.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32) If you have any suggestion to improve the literacy programme please indicate below

378

APPENDIX B

Questionnaire for the Executive District Officers Literacy

Dear Sir/Madam
I hope that you will be quite well. For the completion of my Ph. D. thesis from
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad I am undertaking a research study entitled,
Development of a Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in
Pakistan
For this purpose your valuable opinion is needed. Please indicate your
response by () mark in the appropriate box.
Be sure that the information provided by you will be kept confidential and will
be used only for research purposes.
With regards,
(KHALID SALEEM)
Lecturer in Education
University of Education
Okara

379

Questionnaire for the Executive District Officers Literacy

Name. ------------------------------------------- District of Appointment ----------------Following are some statements with five options i. e.
SA
DA

Strongly Agree,
:

Disagree,

SDA

Agree,
:

UNC : Uncertain
Strongly Disagree

Please tick () the appropriate box to indicate your level of agreement.

STATEMENTS
1) Community surveys are conducted for need assessment before
launching a literacy programme
2) The literacy centers are approachable for the adult illiterates.
3) Furniture is available for adult illiterates and instructors at the
literacy centers.
4) The instructors attitude towards the adult illiterates is polite.
5) The instructors performance is reported to higher authorities.
6) Instructor is able to build up teamwork environment during the
teaching and learning process.
7) Instructors are trained to teach adult illiterates.
8) Instructors are capable of creating pleasant teaching learning
environment at literacy centers.
9) The progress of learners is regularly evaluated.
10) Teaching aids are used during teaching.
11) VCP/VCR is provided at literacy center to teach adult learners.
12) Supervisors facilitate the instructors at literacy center.
13) Literacy programmes are launched on regular basis.

380

SA

UND DA SDA

14) Instructors highlight the importance of literacy in the society.

15) Instructors are punctual.
16) The instructors need training in how to deal with the illiterate
persons.
17) The administration provides learning material to the adult
learners free of cost.
18) Local community shuns from literacy personnel.
19) Instructors are appointed from local community.
20) Instructor motivates the people to join literacy programmes.
21) Broadcast media provide supplementary support to the literacy
programme.
22) Audio-visual material is available at literacy centers.
23) Literacy learning materials relate to the every day life of adults.
24) Government funding for literacy programmes is sufficient.
25) Community welcomes the literacy programmes.
26) Political leadership cooperates in the literacy programme.
27) The material developed for literacy is easy to understand.
28) The material used for literacy is interesting
29) The supervising staff of literacy programme is sufficient.
30) Financial incentives are given to adult illiterates.
31) Enlist significant problems in conducting literacy programme in your district.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

381

32) Suggest some measure to improve literacy condition in Pakistan.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

382

APPENDIX C

Questionnaire for Academicians of the Department of DNFE

& IME, Allama Iqbql Open University Islamabad

Dear Sir/Madam
I hope that you will be quite well. For the completion of my Ph. D. thesis from
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad I am undertaking a research study entitled,
Development of a Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in
Pakistan
For this purpose your valuable opinion is needed. Please indicate your
response by () mark in the appropriate box.
Be sure that the information provided by you will be kept confidential and will
be used only for research purposes.
With regards,
(KHALID SALEEM)
Lecturer in Education
University of Education
Okara

383

Questionnaire for Academicians of the Department of DNFE

& IME, Allama Iqbql Open University Islamabad
Name ------------------------------------ Department: DNFE

IME

Following are some statements with five options i. e.

SA:
DA

Strongly Agree,
:

Disagree,

SDA

Agree,
:

UNC : Uncertain
Strongly Disagree

Please tick () the appropriate box to indicate your level of agreement.

STATEMENTS

SA

1) Instructors of literacy programme have appropriate knowledge

of adults psychology.
2) Feedback is provided to learners in existing literacy programmes.
3) Present literacy materials are interesting for adult learners.
4) Evaluation of literacy programmes is made.
5) Continuous feedback is necessary for the adult learners.
6) IME can supervise nationwide literacy programme.
7) Telephonic feedback is helpful for solving problems of
illiterates.
8) IME and NGOs can work collaboratively to run a literacy
programme.
9) Early experiences of adult learners are utilized to make them
literate.
10) It is possible to launch literacy programme through distance
education mode.

384

UND DA SDA

11) Television assisted teaching proves helpful to teach writing

skills.
12) The skill of reading can be taught television programmes.
13) Adult learners are cooperative to their fellow learners
14) Literacy programmes through distance education reduce
administrative problems.
15) Distance education literacy programmes are economical.
16) Literacy programmes through distance education can prove
successful in Pakistani situation
17) Casual meetings between learners and instructors can resolve
literacy related problems of adult learners.
18) Mass media is helpful in motivating adult illiterates to join
literacy programme.
19) Radio helps in creating awareness about literacy programmes.
20) IME is capable of training the literacy personnel.
21) How distance education can be used properly for the promotion of literacy in
Pakistan?

22) What kind of characteristics an adult literacy programme through distance mode
of education should possess.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

385

APPENDIX D

Interview Schedule for the Personnel of EFA Wing, Ministry

of Education, Government of Pakistan
Dear Sir/Madam
I hope that you will be quite well. For the completion of my Ph. D. thesis from
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad I am undertaking a research study entitled,
Development of a Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in
Pakistan
For this purpose your valuable opinion is needed. You are requested to to
provide the needed information.
Be sure that the information provided by you will be kept confidential and will
be used only for research purposes.
With regards,
(KHALID SALEEM)
Lecturer in Education
University of Education
Okara

386

Interview Schedule for the Personnel of EFA Wing, Ministry

of Education, Government of Pakistan
Name --------------------------------------------------- Qualification ------------------1) Are need assessment surveys conducted before launching literacy programme?
2) Do the instructors of literacy programme have appropriate knowledge about adult
literacy?
3) Are the instructors able to deal with the illiterate persons properly?
4) Is any kind of training provided to the literacy instructors?
5) Are the literacy programmes properly supervised?
6) Are literacy programme regularly evaluated?
7) Who conducts the evaluation of literacy programme?
8) Are the literacy materials locally prepared in accordance with the environment of
learners?
9) Does government provide sufficient funds for the literacy programmes?
10) Is the progress of literacy programmes continuously reported to the central
office?
11) Is broadcast media used to create awareness about the literacy programmes?
12) Is any kind of financial assistance provided to the adult learners during the
literacy programme?
13) Are the Pass-outs of literacy programmes certified?
14) Is any kind of audio-visual material provided at literacy centers?
15) Are the adult learners provided literacy learning materials free of cost?
16) Do the local administrators have powers to resolve problems locally?

387

17) Are proper arrangements made for the mobilization of community for literacy
programme?
18) Did the new coming governments continue the on-going literacy programme of
the previous governments?
19) Do the local people cooperate in launching literacy programmes?
20) Is any kind of feedback is provided after evaluation of literacy programmes?
21) Do the provinces cooperate with literacy programme of federal government?
22) Is it possible to teach adult illiterates through television?
23) What kind of training literacy instructors are given?
24) Who are involved in material development for literacy programmes?
25) What kind of criteria is followed for the recruitment of instructors?
26) What are the significant problems confronting the literacy improvement in
Pakistan.
27) Suggest some measures to improve literacy situation in Pakistan.

388

APPENDIX E

Interview Schedule for the Adult Illiterates

Dear Sir/Madam
I hope that you will be quite well. For the completion of my Ph. D. thesis from
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad I am undertaking a research study entitled,
Development of a Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in
Pakistan
For this purpose your valuable opinion is needed. You are requested to to
provide the needed information.
Be sure that the information provided by you will be kept confidential and will
be used only for research purposes.
With regards,
(KHALID SALEEM)
Lecturer in Education
University of Education
Okara

389

Interview Schedule for the Adult Illiterates

Name --------------------------------------------------- Age -------------------------------------Address --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1) Have you attended a school ever?

YES

NO

YES

NO

2) If yes, why did you leave the school?

Poverty

Lack of interest in studying

Teachers punishment

Teachers method of teaching

Inappropriate home environment

Helping parents.

Difficult approach to school

Please indicate any other reason ---------------------------------

3) Do you want to become literate?

4) Would your employer/family allow you to attend the literacy center?

Daily

On alternate days

Twice a week

Weekly

5) At what time would you prefer to attend the literacy center?

Morning

Noon

Evening

6) Would you give importance to literacy class than daily business?

YES

NO

7) Have you watched any literacy programmes on TV?

YES

NO

8) Did you like that TV programme of literacy enhancing?

YES

NO

9) If yes, why did you leave that literacy programme?

390

Unavailability of time

Unavailability of TV

Household responsibilities.

Irrelevant literacy programme to every day usage

Any other reason

10) Where would you like to attend literacy class?

In community center

In school

In mosque

In near by village literacy center

At any other place -------------------------------------------------

11) Is there any literacy center near your residence?

YES

NO

12) Can you afford to purchase literacy material?

YES

NO

13) For how much time you can stay at literacy center:
1 Hour

2 Hours

3 Hour

More than 3 hours

14) What do you desire to learn at literacy center?

Reading

Writing

Reading and writing

Professional skill

15) Why do you desire to be literate?

To read newspaper

To make sign after reading documents

To write a letter

To maintain the records of income and expenditures

To study further

Any other reason

16) Did some body ever told you about any literacy programme?

YES

NO

17) Can you read the Holy Quran?

YES

NO

391

18) Do you feel any hesitation for attending literacy programme?

YES

NO

19) Would you send your children to school?

YES

NO

YES

NO

20) Would you cooperate with your fellow illiterates at literacy

center?
21) From whom do you desire to be literate

By a school teacher

By radio and audio cassettes/tape recorder

By TV, video cassettes and VCR

By self learning using learning kit (non-broadcast media)

By a friend with the use of above described electronic media

22) Which kind of learning material you prefer?

Only print

Print and illustrations

Print and audio

Print and video

23) In which language you would like to study?

National language

Local language

Mother tongue

Any other language --------------------------

24) Is it possible for you to arrange?

A radio set

Tape recorder

A TV set

VCP/VCR

All the above

25) How would you like to approach your teacher for guidance in your study?

Through personal contact

Through telephone

392

Through some one other

26) Is there some body that can help you in reading and writing?

Father

Mother

Brother

Sister

Friend

393

APPENDIX F

Previous Proposed Literacy Models

First draft of the

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in

Pakistan

AIOU

Feedback

Need
Analysis

IME

Improvement

Programme
Preparation
Literacy
Cards

Flip Chart

A V Aids

Video

Television

Radio

Internet
Evaluation

Programme

Training of
Literacy
Personnel

IET

Literacy
Center

Material
Development

Delivery of
Material

Media

Adult
Learner

Supervisor

Instructor

394

Second draft of the

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in

Pakistan

MOE

EFA

Social Mobilization

IET

Need Analysis

RDs

Material Development

RDs

Advertisement

Programme Planning

Recruitment & Training

Feedback
Monitoring & Evaluation
Television

Flip
Charts

Supervisor
Literacy Centre

INTERNET

Video Programmes

Video Programmes

Audio Programmes

Radio

A.V. Aids

Adult
Learner

395

Instructor

Resource Management

NGOs

IME

Motivation & Incentives

AIOU

Learners Facilitation Process in the Proposed Distance

Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy In Pakistan

Print
Material

Mobilization

Approachable

Motivation

Literacy
Center

Furnished

Awareness

Acceptable

NGOs

Training Manuals

Primers

Equipped

Flexible Timing

Casual Meetings

RDs
IET

Training

Monitoring

IME

Recruitment

AIOU

Adult
Learner

Media Support

Instructor

Flip Charts

396

Correspondence

Coordination

INTERNET

Telephonic Guidance

Reporting

Face to Face Meetings

Management
Supervisor

Literacy Cards

Video Programmes

Audio Programmes

Television

Radio

Teaching Learning
Activities

Third Draft of

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy In

Pakistan

MOE

EFA

Social Mobilization

IET

Need Analysis

RDs

Material Development

RDs

Advertisement

Programme Planning

Resource Management

NGOs

IME

Motivation & Incentives

AIOU

Recruitment & Training

Social
Mobilization

Feedback
Monitoring & Evaluation
Television

Flip
Charts

Supervisor

Literacy
Centre

INTERNET

Video Programmes

Video Programmes

Audio Programmes

Radio

A.V. Aids

Adult
Learner

397

Instructor

Fourth draft of the

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in

Pakistan

MOE

EFA

AIOU
Programme Planning

IET

IME

Need Analysis
Re-planning of

Programme

Material Development

RDs
Decision
Making

Media
Support
Training of
Literacy
Personnel

NGOs

Literacy
Center

Adult
Learner

Social
Mobilization

Instructors

Supervisor

Measures for
Feedback

Evaluation

398

Fifth draft of the

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in

Pakistan

AIOU
Programme Planning

IET

IME

Need Analysis

Material Development

RDs

Re-planning
of Programme

Training of
Literacy
Personnel

Media
Support

Decision
Making

Literacy
Centre
NGOs

Writing
Word
Distinguishing
Word Building
Sentence
Structuring

Social
Mobilization

Instructors
Reading
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Fluency
Comprehension

Adult
Learner
Motivation
Engagement
Learning

Assessment
Monitoring
Progress
Achievement

Performance
Capable of
Reading
Writing

399

Supervisor

Measures for
Feedback