The Goddesses

and Gods
of Old Europe
6500-3500 BC

Marija Gimbutas

The Goddesses
and Gods
of Old Europe
6500

3500

bc

Myths and Cult Images

N ew and updated edition

with 2 5 2 illustrations
1 7 1 text fig u re s
and 8 maps

i B ird -G o d d ess founci at A ch illcio n ,

T h c ssa ly , G rc c c c . c. 6000 ih :.
L cft: fron t vicvv d c a r lv shovving
thc b ird -lik c beak and thc p artin g
o f chc hum an h air-d o

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

B c rk c lc y , Los A n g clcs

To the inspiration
o f Franklin D. Murphy
Chancellor o f U C L A
1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 8

Contents
Preface to new edition

Introduction

ote

on

r a d io c a r h o n

C A U llR A T liD

DATluS A N I)

and

d i :n d r o

- c: h

r o n o i <h ; k : a i .[. y

l i l i : C H K O N O I (H .'U .A I

1AH1.1 s

I3

THE PREPARATlON OV THiS VOLUME

WAS CSENEUOUSLY SUPlORTED
l)Y THE SAMUtiL H. KHESS FOUNDATION
T h e line dravvings for this voltune \vt*re done by Linda
M o iim -W illiam s: the photographs w ere taken bv Kalman
Konva and M iod rag Djordjevi.

1 Cultural Background
Tm ;

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u r o p i ;'

and

ITS SIG N IH C A N C .H

U N I V E R S I T Y O I; C A L 1F O R N 1A P R E S S
B erkelev and Los Angeles, C'aiifornia

I7

R E G IO N A L A N I) CH KO NO I.O GICAl. SU B !)!V ISIO N S OI: O i.D

Europi;

ISBN: 0 -520 -0 4 6 55-2

The
The
The
The
The

Librarv o f Gongress C atalo g C'ard N um ber 7 2 -S 2 32 3

*tV; 1974. iyS2 Tham es and Hudson Ltd. London
O riginallv publishe in the U nited States ot Am erica
in 1974 bv U niversitv o fC a lifo rn ia Press under the title

lln' ( ',o(k /</ (

d e s ig n a t io n

17

oj Old liinvpt': 7000-j^oo tu '

in

Aegeoii and Central Balkan arca

Adriatic arca
Middle Damtbe Basiu
linsi Balkan area
A loltlat'ian-11 V>7 Ukraiiiian area

19
25
27
29
^3

Nevv and updated edition in paperbaok iyN2

R eprin ted 1 yt/>
Ali riglus reserved. N o part of tiiis publication inav be
rcprodueed or cransmitted in anv torm or bv anv means,
eleetronie or m echanka], inelm iing photoeopv, iveording.
o r anv othor in forn ution storage and retrieva! .vstem,
\vithoi? prior pcrnm sion in \vriting trom the publisher.
Pritued and boinui in CJrcat Britain bv

15AS

Printers

Schem aticism

37

SlIORTliANI)
T m ; Ni:oirnii<: a r t is t ' s rhai .itv - not a imivsicai
ri ;a u t y

38

Lim ited. O v e r W aflop, I Ltmpshire

Tm ;
tim ;

t r i -n i )

r o \ V A R i) s

m o r i ; n a t u r a i .i s t k

CjiA i.coi.n i i k : i ra

; s c u i . m 'R i ;

in

43

3 Ritual Costum e

44

D e c o r a t iv e m o tifs o n c l a y fig u r in es a s a r eplec tio n

OF C OSTUM E AN D ORN AMENTS

Hip-belts
Dresses
M en s costume
Footivear
Coiffure and caps
S U M M I N G -U P

T he p rim o rd ia l ecg

101

T h e f ish

107

44
45
45
51

51
54
55

7 Mistresses of Waters: the Birdand Snake G o d d e ss

T h e in v o c a t io n o f rain , th e

beah

a n d th e id eogram s

o f th e B ird Goddess
T he m e a n d e r , sy m b o i. of

112

i 13
c o s m i c wa t e r s

124

T h e o r ig in o f t h e B ird G o d d e ss a n d her im a g e d u r in g

4 The M ask
N o n - h u m a n visage
T he V in ca m ask

57
57
57

E V O LU T IO N OF THE V l N A MASK

61

D e CORATION AND PERFORATIONS FOR A T T A C H M E N T

64

5 Shrines and the Role of Figurines

I 32

T he L a d y B ird a n d th e L a d y S n a k e of th e
C h a lc o lit h ic era

136

T h e S n a k e a n d B ird G o d d e ss as n u r se

14 2

R e c a p it u la t io n

i 44

T h e B i r d G o d d e s s a n d S n a k e G o d d e s s in M i n o a n

PARALLELS IN C R E T E AND A N C I E N T G R EEC E, AND THE

T HEATRICAL EMPHASIS

THE N e O L I T H I C

66

67

C r e t e a n d in A n c i e n t G r e e c e

8 The Great G o d d e ss of Life, Death and Regeneration

C l a Y MODF.LS OF SHRINES

67

R E M A I N S OF SANCTUARIES AND SACRIFICIAL PI-ACES

71

FOLDED ARMS o f THE N e OUT H IC PERIOD

P a r a l l e l s w it h M in o a n - M y c e n a e a n sh rines

74

T h e c h r y s a l i d g o d d e s s w i t h f o i .d e d a r m s o f t h e

145

152

T h e a n d r o g y n o u s a n d c o r p u i .e n t g o d d e s s w i t h

C h a l c o l i t h ic per io d

S h RINE EQUIPMENT AND OBJECTS RELATED TO CUI.T

PRACTICES

80

152

i57

T h e m a c . i c a l s o u r c i ; o f i.iff : w i t i i i n t u f : g o d d e s s : h e r
mouth

, h a n d s a n d eggs

163

V o t i v e o f f e u i n g s . I n s c r i b e d FIGURINES, VESSELS, s p i n d l e WHORLS, AND OTHER OBJECTS

S U M M I N G -U P

6 C o sm o gon ic al and Co sm o lo gical Im ages

85
88

89

T h e f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r i .d , t h e m o o n
A ND THE BUI-I.

<89

93

he snake

T he epiph an ies

169

The do$, a tioitble of the Moon Goddess

The doe, a douhle oj the (joddess oj Regeneration
The toad and the turile: the goddess in thc shape oj a human
Jbetus
The hedgehog: the goddess iu the slnipe oj an tinitiuil uterus or
jbetus

The bee and the lmtterfty: the bttll-born Goddess oj

Transformation and Regeneration
The bear: thc goddess as niother and nurse

169
17 1
174
179
181
190

R e c a p i t u l a t i o n o r v a r i o u s a s p f .c t s o f t h e p r e h i s t o k i c

G r e a t G oddess

195

H e k a t e a n d A r t e m is : s u u v iv a l o f thi: O l d E u r o p e a n
G r e a t G o d d e s s in A n c i e n t G u e e c e a n d w e s t f . r n
A n a to lia

i X >

9 The Pregnant Vegetation G o d d e s s

T h e d o t (s e e d ) a n d t h h

i. o z e n c e

201
(s o w n f i e l d )

T he enth ro ned P reg n an t G oddess

205
20S

T h e pig, t h e s a c r e d a n i m a i . o i : t h e G o d d e s s o r

- 11

V e g e tatio n
A t t U S l O N S T o DftMETfili, K o K l i AND PiiRSKPMON'E IN GlitiliK

MVTHOIOO*

314

10 The Y e ar-G o d

2 16
2 16

T h e p h a i . i .u s
T he ith yph a llic : m a s k e d

god

220

T h e isui . i. w i t h a h u m a n

mask

224

A llu sio n s to D io n v su s

227

T h e \s o r r o w f u i . g o d

230

T he D iv in e C h ild

234

C o iitin sio n s

236

A bbreviations

239

Decails o f sites in d u d in g radiocarbon dates

24!

B ib lio grap h y

256

C a ta lo g u e

270

Idcx

300

Preface to new edition

M uch new material on the m ythical im agcry o f O ld Europe has
cm ergcd during the tcn-year interval betw een the w ritin g o f The
Gods and Goddeacs oJ'O'id Europe and the present edition, but the basic
concepts have rem aincd unehanged. T h e nevv discovcrics- have
served on ly to strongthcn and support the vievv that the cuiture calied
O ld Europi1 w as characterized b y a dom inancc o f w o m an in societv
and vvorship o f a Goddess incarnating the C re a tiv e principle as Source
and G iv er o f A li. In this cuiture the m ale elem ent, man and anim ai,
represented spontaneous and life-stim u latin g - but not lifegenerating - pow ers. This p riority is represented in the present title
by a ehange in w ord order, from The Gods and Goddesses to The
Goddesses and Gods o j O ld Europe.
T h e term O ld Europe is applied to a pre-In do-European cuiture o f
Europe, a cuiture m a t r i f o c a l and p robably m a t r i l i n e a r , agricultural
and sedentary, egalitarian a n d peaceful. It contrasted sharply w ith the
cnsuing p ro to -In d o -E u ro p ean cuiture w hich was patriarchal,
stratified, pastoral, m obile, and vvar-oriented, superim posed on ali
Europe, except the S o u th e rn a n d vvestern fringes, in th e course o f
three w aves o f infiltration from the Russian steppe, between 4500
and 2500 bc. D uring and after this period the fem ale deities, or m ore
accurately th e Goddess C reatrix in her m any aspeets, w erc largely
replaccd by the predom inantly m ale d ivinities o f the IndoEuropeans. W hat developed after c. 2500 uc: was a m elange o f the
tw o m yth ic svstems, O ld European and Indo-European.
T h e analysis o f O ld European m ythical im agery has reconstituted
a link between the religion o f the U p p er Palaeolithic and that o f the
pre-In do-E u rop ean substratum o f European cultures; w ithout
consideration of the very rich evidence from O ld Europe, neither the
Palaeolithic ideological struetures nor those o f early historic G reeks
and other Europeans can be well understood. The persistence o f the
Goddess vvorship for m ore than 20,000 years, from the Palaeolithic
to the N eolithic and beyond, is shown by the continuity o f a variety

o fa s c r ie s o f conventionalizcd im ages. H er specific aspccts o f p o w e r

such as life -g iv in g , fertility-givin g, and b irth -givin g are extrem ely
lo n g lasting. T h eir indentification was m ade through study o f
sym b o licsign sin cised o n figu rin esan d asso ciated culticobjects, as w ell
as postures, attributes, and associations. M o re o f this detailed evidence
w ill appear in a forth co m in g study by the author on signs and sym bols
o f O ld Europe. The object o f the present vo lu m e is to transm it som e
notion o f the variety and com plexity o f the philosophical ideas o f ou r
European forebears.
Los Angeles, California i gSi

M arija Gimbutas

Introd uction
T h e tradition o f sculpture and painting encountered in O ld Europe
(for a defm ition o f this term, sec p. 17) was transmitted from the
Palaeolithic era. I11 art and m ythical im agery it is not possible to draw
a line between the tw o eras, Palaeolithic and N eolithic, ju st as it is
not possible to draw a line between w ild and dom estic plants and
animals. M uch o f the sym bolism o f the early agriculturists was taken
over from the hunters and fishers. Such im ages as the fish, snake,
bird, or horns are not N eolithic creations; they have roots in
Palaeolithic times. And yct, the art and myths o f the first farm crs
difFered in inspiration and hence in form and content from those o f
the hunters and fishers.
C la y and stone figurines were being fashioncd long before pottery
was first made around 6500 BC . The vast increase in sculptures in
N eo lith ic times and the extent to w hich they departed from Palaeo
lithic types w as not caused b y technological innovations, but b y the
perm anent settlement and grow th o f com m unities. A farm ing
econom y bound the villages to the soil, to the biological rhythm s o f
the plane; and animals upon which their existence w h o lly depcnded,
G yclical ehange, death and resurrcetion, vvere ascribed to the supernatura) povvers and in conseqitence speeial provision vvas made to
p ro te the capricious lifc forces and assure their perpetuation. As
carly as the scventh m illennium n c traits associated w ith the psychol~
o g y and religion o f the farm er are a characteristic fcature o f sculptural
art. This art was not consciously im itative o f natura] form s but sought
rather to express abstract conceptions.
A bo u t 30,000 m iniature sculptures o f clay, m arble, bone, copper
or gold are presently know n from a total o f some 3000 sites o f the
N eo lith ic and Chalcolithic era in southeastem Europe. Enorm ous
quantitites o f ritual vessels, altars, sacrificial cquipm ent, inscribed
objeets, clay models o f tem ples, actual temples and pictorial paintings
on vases or on the vvalls o f shrines, already attest a genuine
civilization.

T h e three m illennia sa w a progressive increase in stylistic ive rsity ,

p roducing e ver greater varicty o fin d iv id u a l form s. Sim ultancously,
a m ore naturalistic expression o f anatom ical generalitics grad u ally
em ancipated itself from an initial subordination to the sym bolic
purpose. T he study o f these m ore articulatcd sculptures, their ideogram s and sym bols and the h igh ly developed vasc painting enabled
the author to distinguish the different types o f goddesses and gods,
their epiphanies, their devotees, and the cult scenes w ith which they
w ere associated. T h u s, it is possible to speak o f a pantheon o f gods,
and to reconstruct the various costumes and masks, which th row
m ach light 011 ritual dram a and life as it was then lived.
T h ro u g h the deciphering o f stereotype im ages and signs w ith the
help o f quantitative and qualitative analyses it becomes clear that
these early Europeans expressed their com inunal w orship through
the rnedium o f the idol. In the m iniature sculptures o f O ld Europe
the em otions are made manifest in ritual drama in v o lvin g m any
actors, both gods and worshippers. M uch the same practice secms to
have bccn currcnt in A natolia, Syria, Palestine and M esopotam ia in
the corresponding periods, but only in southcastem Europe is such
a quantity o f figurines available for a com parative study.
T h e shrines, cult objeets, m agnificent paintcd and black pottery,
costum es, elaborate religious cerem onialism , and a rich m ythical
im agery far m ore com plex than was hitherto assumed, speak o f a
refined European culture and society. N o longer can European
N eo h th ic-C h alco lith ic developm ents bc sum m cd up in the old
axio m , E x oriente lux.
W hen the m agnificent treasures o f the M inoan civilization w ere
unravclled in the beginning o f the twentieth century, Sir A rthu r
Evans w ro te : I venture to believc that the scientific study o f Greek
civilization is becom ing less and less possible w ithout taking into
constant account that o f the M inoan and M ycenacan w orld that
vvent before it (JH S 19 1 2 : 277). W hile his rem ark was am p ly
ju stified, the question o f w hat went before the M inoan civilization
rem ained to be posed. N o w it is becom ing less and less possible to
understand the M inoan civilization vvithout the study o f the culture
which preceded it. The study o f this culture, to which I have applied
the nam e O ld E u ro p e, rcveals new chronological dim ensions and
a new concept o f the beginning o f European civilization. It was not
a single small legendary island claim ed b v the sea som e 9000 years
ago that gave rise to the fabulous civilization o f C rete and the
C yclad es, but a considerable part o f Europe surrounded by the
castem M editerranean, Aegean and A driatic Seas. The m any islands
w ere an aid to navigation and facilitated com m unication with Ana
tolia, Levant and M esopotam ia. Fertile river valleys lured the first
farm ers deeper inland into the Balkan Peninsula and Danubian

Europe. O ld Europe is a produet o f hybridization o f M editerranean

and Tem perate southeast-European peoples and cultures.
European civilization between 6500 and 3500 b c was not a
p rovincial refleetion o f N ear Eastem civilization, absorbing its
achievem ents through diffusion and periodic invasions, but a distinet
culture developing a unique identity. M an y aspeets o f this culture
rem ain to be explored. O ne o f the main purposes o f this book is to
present, as it w ere, the spiritual manifestations o f O ld Europe.
M y thical im agery o f the prehistoric era tclls us m uch abou t hum anity
- its concepts o f the strueture o f the cosmos, o f the beginning o f the
w o rld and o f human, plant and animal life, and a'lso its struggle and
relations w ith nature. It cannot be forgotten that through m yth,
im ages and sym bols man com prehended and manifested his being.
T h o u g h profusely illustrated, this vo lu m e docs not claim to present
every aspect o f the m y thical im agery o f O ld E u ro pe; the illustrations
w ere seleeted from m any thousands, w ith a view to sh ow in g the
most representative exam ples and not ju st the most beautiful
sculptures or vases. Basic inform ation is derived from the system atically excavated sites, which are listed w ith full chronological details
at the end o f the book. The docum entation o f the illustrated objeets
is contained in the C atalogue.

N ote on rad io carbo n a n d d en d r o ch ro n o lo g ically

CALIBRATED DATES AND THE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

T he d iscovcry and developm ent o f the radiocarbon dating technique

by W illard F. L ibb y (Radiocarbon Dating, 1952) gave archaeology its
most pow erful means o f diseovering the age o f prehistoric cultures.
W ithin tw o decades o f its developm ent and im plem entation radio
carbon analysis had revolutionized earlier conceptions o f European
N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic chronology, extending its span by alm ost
tw o m illennia. Prior to this, stratigraphic and typological interpretations had been used to support a theory o f the spread o f agriculture
from the N ear East to Europe in the fourth m illennium b c . The
backbone o f this universally accepted chronological outline was the
postulated N ear Eastem erivation o f the Vinca culture w ith its
typical fine ceram ics, rcsult o f a m igration from the N ear East via
A natolia subsequent to the T ro y I period, datable, it w as believed,
by analogies to historic Egypto-M esopotam ian civilization to ju st
after 3000 b c. Vinca was firm ly located within the relative chron olo g y o f the European N eolithic-C halcolithic cultures and so through
its supposed historic conncction becam e the datum around which
the absolute ch ron ology o f European prehistory was estimated. This
chronological system is still maintained by a small m inority o f

the m ethod. C u rren tly archaeologists ineluding the author o f this

vo lu m e use the Suess c u rv e (named after D r Hans E. Suess, o f
U C S D ) fo r corrcction o f radiocarbon dates to app ro xim ate true age.
C onsequcntly, European N eolithic and C h alcolithic ch ron ology
is u ndergoing a second revolution which extends the span o f prchistoric developm ent by a further m illennium . The most im portant
effect o f radiocarbon ch ron ology and o f this m arked extcnsion o f it
to approxim ate true age has been to dem onstrate the antiquity o f
European prehistoric cuiture, and its autonom ous g ro w th as the
equal rather than the dependent o f N ear Eastern cultural evolution.
Socio-econom ic developm ents that 20 years ago w ere compressed
into little over one m illennium are now seen to have required at least
three m illennia to evolve, emphasizing the stability, lon gevity and
cultural continuity o f the O ld European N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic
civilization.
A chronological table o f the cultural com plexes o f O ld Europe
appears b elow . T h e given years represent true age, i.e. radiocarbon
dates converted into true age on Suess calibration curve.

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European prehistorians w ho w ere encouraged b y the recent disc o very in an E arly V ina context o f the Tartaria tablets, w hich they
consider to be an im p o rt fro m M esopotam ia at about 3000 BC.
This c h ro n o lo g y w as com pletely discredited by radiocarbon
analysis, w h ich b y 1970 had supplied 300 dates for O ld European
N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic samples, placing the beginnings o f the
N eo lith ic in the seventh m illennium BC. T his called fo r not o n ly a
readjustm ent in the absolute dating o f N eo lithic-C h alcolith ic cuiture
but also an im portant rearrangem ent o f the relative chronologies o f
E u rope and the N ea r East.
H o w e v e r, b y the early 1960s it becam e evident that radiocarbon
dates w ere inaccurate. T h e accuracy o f the process was dependent
upon the valid ity o f the assumption (am ong others) that the radio
carbon content o f atm ospheric carbon-dioxide had rem ained constant
during geo lo gically recent time. Discrepancies between radiocarbon
and calendrical chron ologies w ere soon rem arked, fo llo w in g the
radiocarbon analysis o f w o o d samples o f kn ow n age fro m historic
E gyp tian and N ear Eastern sources; and it has since been dem onstrated through the m arriage o f dendrochronological research and
radiocarbon analysis that there have been variations in the level o f
atm ospheric radiocarbon through tim e, and that these are o f tw o
sorts: localized fluctuations, and a lon g-term trend in w hich the
divergen ce betw een the radiocarbon and true ages increases w ith
increasing sam ple age du ring the m illennia b c .
D e n d ro ch ro n o lo g y is the study o f the chronological sequence o f
the annual g ro w th rings in trees. W ithin the confines o f a particular
environm en t the ring patterns o f different tree specimens can be
m atched and related one to another, a technique made possible b y
the fact that annual rings vary in thickness due to varyin g local
environm ental conditions from year to year. So a m aster-ch ron ology
can be com piled incorporating both livin g trees o f great age and
dead, prcscrvccl trunks w hich can be fitted into the ring-pattern
sequence. The bristle-cone pine o f the W hite M ountains o f C a lifo rnia has p rovidcd an unbroken sequencc extending back into the
sixth m illennium b c . R a d io ca rb o n analysis o f ring samples o f k n ow n
age idcntified the inaccuracy o f the radiocarbon dates; and, w id i the
accum ulation o f sufficient analyses, was able to supply curves and
tables o f conversion which perm it corrcction o f radiocarbon dates
to approxim ate true age. Dates falling between the third and fifth
m illennia b c in radiocarbon years require a corrective addition,
incrcasingly large w ith increasing age, o f a few hundred to as m uch
as a thousand years to align them with approxim ate true age. D irect
com parison o f the radiocarbon content o f historically dated samples
from ancient E gyp tian contexts w ith that o f bristle-cone pine samples
o f equivalent true age has indcpcndently confirm ed the valid ity o f

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Cultural Background

T h e d e s i g n a t i o n C i v i l i z a t i o n o f O ld E u r o p e a n d its
SIGNiFICANCE

M a p I : O ld Bi trope: the area oj autochthonous European civiliza tion , c. 7 0 0 0 -15 0 0 b c

in re lation to the rest oj Europe

Villages depending upon dom csticatcd plants and animals had

appeared in southeastem Europe as carly as the seventh m illcnnium
BC, and the spiritual forces accom panying this ehange in the economic and social organization are manifested in the em ergent artistic
tradition o f the N eolithic. The developm ent o f a food-producing
econom y and subsequent cultural innovations can no longer be
sim ply cxplained as an introduetion o f vagu ely designated colonists
from A natolia or the east M editerranean. D uring the seventh, sixth
and fifth millennia b c the farmers o f southeastem Europe evolved a
unique cultural pattern, contem porary with sim ilar developm ents
in Anatolia, M esopotam ia, Syro-Palestine and E gyp t. It reached a
clim ax in the fifth m illcnnium b c .
A new designation, Civilization o j Old Europe, is introduced herc
in recognition o f the collective identity and achievem ent o f the
diffcrent cultural groups o f N eolithic-C h alcolith ic southeastem
Europe. The area it occupied extends from the Acgcan and A driatic,
ineluding the islands, as far north as C zechoslovakia, southem Poland
and the vvestem Ukraine. Between c. 7000 and c, 3500 ne, the
inhabitants o f this region developed a much m ore com plex social
organization than their vvestem and northem neighbours, form ing
scttlements which often amounted to small tovvnships, inevitably
in vo lvin g eraft specialization and the creation o f religious and
governm ental institutions. T h ey independently diseovered the
possibility o f utilizing copper and gold for ornaments and cools, and
even appear to have evolved a rudim entary script. If one defines
civilization as the ability o f a given people to adjust to its environment and to develop adequate arts, technology, script, and social
relationships it is evident that Old Europe achicved a m arked degrce
o f success.
17

T he most eloquent vestiges o f this European N eolithic cuiture

are the sculptures, w hich bear witness to facets o f life otherw ise
inaccessible to the archaeologist: fashions in dress, religious cerem onialism and m yth ical im ages.
T h e inhabitants o f southeastem Europe 7 0 0 0 years ago were not
the p rim itive villagers o f the incipient N eolithic. D uring tw o
m illennia o f agricultural stability their material w elfare had been
persistently im proved by the increasingly efficient exploitation o f
the fertile river valleys. W h e a t , barley, vetch, peas and other legum es
w ere cultivated, and ali the dom esticated animals present in the
B alkans today, except for the horse, w cre bred. Pottery tech nology
and bone- a n d sto n e-w o rkin g techniques had advanced, and copper
m e t a l l u r g v was i n t r o d u c e d into east Central Europe by 5 5 0 0 b c .
Tr'ade and C o m m u n icatio n s, w hich had expanded th ro u g h the
m illennia, must have provid ed a trem endous cross-fertilizing
im petus to cultural g ro w th . T h e archaeologist can infer the existence
o f far-ran g in g trade fro m the w id e dispersion o f obsidian, alabaster,
m arb lea n d S p o n d y lu ssh c ll. T h eseasan d inland w aterw aysd oub tlcss
served as p rim ary routes o f com m unication, and obsidian was being
transported by sea as early as the seventh m illennium b c . T h e use o f
sailing-boats is attested from the sixth m illennium onw ards b y their
incised depiction on ceramics.
T h e continued increase in prosperity and in the com p lexity o f
social organization w o uld surely have produced in southeastern
Europe ah urban civilization b ro ad ly analogous to those o f the
N ea r East and C rctc o f the third and sccond m illennia b c . T h e
increasing cultural m om entum o f fifth m illennium European
societics was, hov/ever, cut short by the aggressive infiltration and
settlem ent o f sem i-nom ad ic pastoralists, ancestors o f the IndoEuropeans, w h o d i s t u r b e d m ost o f C e n tra l and e a s te r n Europe during
the fourth m illennium b c . T h e colourful pottery and sculptural art
o f O ld E u ro p e s incipient civilization qu ickly vanished; only around
the A egean and on the islands did its traditions su rvivc to the end o f
the third m illennium b c , and on Crete to the m id-second m illen
nium b C. T h e E arly H elladic cuiture o f Greece and the C yclad es and
the M inoan civilization on C rete, w ith its wealth o f palae art,
epitom ize the N eo lith ic and C halcolithic cuiture o f O ld Europe.

R e g i o n a l a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s o f O i .d E u r o p e

T h e d evclopm cn t o f the N eo lith ic was characterizcd by an increase

in sedentary habits and rcliance upon dom esticated plants and
anim als, larger d em ograph ic units, a continued grow th in artistic
and technological sophistication, and a m arked regional diversity
o f m aterial cuiture.

iS

B y 6000 BC, and increasingly through the ensuing m illennium ,

O ld European cuiture can be divided into five m ajor regional
variants vvhich display w ell-d eveloped traditions in ceram ic art,
arehiteeture and cult organization. T h e five variant traditions o f
O ld European civilization are: 1) T h e A egean and central Balkan,
2) T h e A driatic, 3) T h e m iddle D anube, 4) The eastern B alk an , and
5) T h e M o ld avian -w est U kranian.

I THE AEGEAN AND CENTRAL BALKAN AREA

Neolithic, C. 7000-5500 BC.

T h e beginnings o f N eo lith ic art in the A egean and central Balkan
area can be dated to c. 7000-6500 BC, along w ith the em ergence o f a
well-established village society. This earliest N eolithic is k n o w n b y a
different nam e in each o f the m odern European countries o v er which
it was distributed, the term inological distinetions refleeting m od em
political boundaries rather than significant cultural variations. It is
k n o w n as Proto-Sesklo in G reece, w here the Sesklo settlem ent near
V o los in T hessaly was the source o f N eolithic te rm in o lo g y ; Starevo
in Y u g o sla v ia after the eponym ous site east o f B elgrad e; Koros in
southeastern H u n gary and C ri - the R om anian nam e fo r the same
R iv e r K o ro s - in w estern R om ania. This com p lex occupied the
drainage area o f the V ard ar and M orava in M acedonia and Southern
and central Y u go slav ia and the southeastern part o f the m iddle
Danube basin, extending as far as M old avia in eastern R om ania. T o
sim plify term in o logy, this cultural bloc w ill be referred to as the
A egean and central B alk an N eolithic .
T his N eo lith ic cuiture left rem arkably h om ogeneous artifacts:
bone, Stone and ceram ic artifacts, ineluding distinetive painted bow ls
and ring-based jars, ali closely resem bling each other. W heat, barley,
lentils, vetch and peas w ere cultivated and am ong the dom esticated
animals, sheep and goat w ere the m ost num erous, a characteristic
feature o f the w arm er and drier conditions o f the A egean and east
M editerranean. A lth o u gh the basic econom ic pattern was faithfully
transferred from the south to the m iddle D anubian basin, N eolithic
farm ers in northern Y u g o sla v ia , H u n gary and R o m a n ia had to adapt
to a som ew hat dam per, m ore h eavily forested en viron m en t:
consequently cattle and p ig w ere increasingly exploited b y m ore
northerly settlers, and fishing and hunting usually playe a m uch
m ore im portant role. T h e cli.mate was slightly vvarm er and w etter
than it is today. T e lls, created by the accum ulation o f cultural
debris, attest the perm anence o f these farm ing com m unities on
extensive Coastal and inland plains in the A egean area and B ulgaria
south o f the Balkan M ountains. Further north, they occur less conspicuously, especially in the upper river valleys o f central Y ugoslavia,

19

Vierma

iBa
Budapest

Lengyel

s%

OL

^Beograd

B u c h a r e .s i* \ ^ > / i

SSi*% ^
e n t r a l

^ B iitr m r c

<

f \ .

VmCaV)|^
? S o fia # s

Adriatic Sea
Serra DAlto

^ Karanovai-vi
'% V)ilvilitash

Mediterranean Sea

l M ap U : D i stribu (ion oj Pottcry Ncolithic eomplexcs in the Balkan Peninsula and the
IDanube regions, and site* mentioned in texf. Seventh and sixth ntilletiniunt <:
| M a p I I J : C h a lc o lith ic liitrope at its iliin a x oj develo pm en t in the fifth ntillen n iuin <:
f and its regional g ro u p s

Black Sea

II

III

IV

H u n g a ry and R o m a n ia , w h ere the deposit is usually shallow and

m ore w id e ly distributed. This m ay reflect a partially horizontal
displacem ent o f settlem ent through tim e, possibly as a result o fse m inom adic agriculture, in v o lv in g periodic abandonm ent and reoccupation o f sites. T h e use o f w ood en rather than substantial
m ud-brick structures w o u ld also explain the less-m arked accum ulation o f m idden deposits in the w etter northerly environm ents.
M o re than a thousand P ro to -Sesk lo, Sesklo, Starevo and K o ro s
(Cri?) sites are recorded, o f w h ich about fifty have been extensively
excavated during the course o f the last century. T h e area o f distribudon and the nam es o f sites m entioned in the text are indicated in the
m ap. M o st o f the radiocarbon dates fo r this com plex range from the
end o f the seventh to the beginning o f the fifth m illennium BC.
E m p lo y in g the corrective scale produced b y radiocarbon analyses o f
d en d roch ro n olo gically dated w o o d samples these dates w o u ld yield
an app roxim ate true age o f 7000-5500/5300 BC.
T h e process o f separating out into regional groups progressed
steadily. B y 6000 b c , the Sesklo cuiture o f Thessaly and central
G reece w as ty p o lo gica lly distinct from the artifact assemblages o f
the rest o f the central B alk an region. Further north, typical form s o f
the Starevo com p lex persisted into the m iddle o f the sixth m illen
nium , fm ally u n d ergoing a rapid transition, m ost e a rly reflected
in ceram ics, to fo rm the V inca com plex.

Chalcolithic, c. 5500 -3500 b c .

The Vinca sequence is best docum ented at the site o f Vina itself,
14 km . east o f B elgrade, excavated interm ittently between 1908 and
19 32 by M . Vasfc. T h e stratified m ound yielded about 12 m. o f
cultural debris, o f w hich the Vina remains occupy about 7 m. and
the Starevo, below , a depth o f almost 2 m. N o other site with such
vvell-defm ed stradfication has yet been discovered, and it has rem ained the backbone o f the skeletal ch ron ology and ty p o lo g y o f
Vina assemblages. At V ina alone, alm ost 2000 figurines were dis
covered , b y far the greatest n um ber unearthed at a single site. O ther
im portant settlements excavated during the last fifty years are
indicated on the map, w here they are seen to cluster around the
m odem tow ns o f Belgrade, V rac-Tim i$oara, C lu j, K ragu jevac,
Pritina, K o so vsk a M itro v ica, Sko pje and cip.
M an y settlements o f the Chalcolithic period are large, occupying
as m uch as t:wenty or m ore acres o f river terrace. T h e houses are o f
tw o or three room s and are organized into streets. Vina sites such
as P lonik, P otporanj, C rn ok alak a B ara, M ed ved n jak, Selevac,
D ren o vac, G rivac and V ala must have been townships rather than
m ere villages.
22

M a p I V : Vina cit'ilizalion , c. 5 3 0 0 3 5 0 0 b c . A real distribution and sites mentioned

in text

R ad io carb o n dates converted to app roxim ate true age provide

an accurate ch ronological definition o f the southeast European
N eolithic and C h alcolithic cultural sequence. This d iverges radically
from the conservative traditional ch ron ology w hich m aintained that
the European N colith ic and C h alcolithic encom passed nothing
m ore than stagnant cultural backwaters, incapablc o f autonom ous
innovation and g ro w th . W hen Professor Vasi first reported the
results o f his excavation o f the Vina m ound in the lllustrated London
N ew s in 1930, hc described the site as a centre o f A egean civilization
in the second m illennium bc;\ He believed that the settlem ent was
continuously occupied from about the beginning o f the M iddle

B ronze A g e in the A egean d ow n to the conquest o f the area b y the

R o m a n s. Finally, shortly bcfore he died he asserted that V ina was
rather a colo n y o f the G reeks, and this suggestion continues to bc
cited m som e m odern histories o f the Balkans. T h e cuiture was
considered m uch too advanced, its art treasures too sophisticated, to
be o f N eo lith ic or C h alcolithic age, som e 7000 years old. T h e calibrated radiocarbon dates obtained from eight sites o f different
phases o f the Vina cuiture (Anza, Predionica, Vina, M ed ved n jak,
Banjica, Vala, G o rn ja Tuzla and D ivostin) place this cuiture betw ecn 5300 and 4000 BC. T h e artistic tradition produced in the late
sixth and fifth m illen nium b c in the central B alkan Peninsula is one
o f the m ost rem arkable and distinctive o f European and N ear Eastern
prehistory.
T h e discovery o f the Tartaria tablets and other signs inscribed on
figurines and pots, coupled w ith evidence o f a m arked intensification
o f spiritual life in general, has nourished a diffusionist explanation.
M an y w o u ld attribute the appearance o f the Vina com plex to
m igration or intensive stim ulus-diffusion from the east, in particular
from A natolia. In this context the tablets are believed to have reached
the D anube region fro m M esopotam ia not earlier than about 3000
B C . D espite stratigraphical evidence, typologies, natura! scientific
dating techniques, and new excavations indicating strong influences
from the east Balkans and not Anatolia, som e archaeologists persist
in vievving the Balkan prehistoric cultures as in ferio r; and this, even
though m ost o f them find no m arked cultural hiatus betw een the
Starevo and V ina com plexcs. The first attcmpts at linear w ritin g
appear not later than the m id-sixth m illennium b c and the E arly
Vina inscribed figurines, spindle w horls and other objects are
definitcly o f local m anufacture. The m uch-discussed problem o f the
origin o f the black-polished and ligh tly channdled pottery p redo m inant am o n g the Vina ceram ics can be explained by postulating
continuous cultural contact and exchange between the central and
eastern B alk a n s: the black-polished vvares w ith channelled decoration
w ere first m troduced by the N eolithic inhabitants in the M arica
valley o f central B u lgaria, during the early phases of K aran ovo . T he
vvare spread first to M acedonia and subsequently to the central
Balkans during the K aran o vo III phase, the true age o f w hich is
ap p ro xim ately 54 00-5300 b c . Despite constant contact w ith neighbouring cultures Vinca sculptural art rcm ained m arkedly distinet
from that o f other groups. Indeed, the m ythical im agery, perhaps
m ore than anything else, refleets the European roots o f the Vina
coin plex.
D ne to intensive com m unication via the prehistoric h ig h w a y
o f the R iv e rs Bosna and N eretva connectcd by a narro\v pass o f the
D in aric Alps. a cuiture o f the central Balkan background in Bosnia

developed into a separate entity know n as Butmir, thus nam ed after

the B u tm ir settlement at Sarajevo, excavated in 18 9 3-9 6 ; it is noted
for its spiral-dccorated globular and piriform vases and a significant
num ber o f sculptures. T h e B u tm ir cuiture is affiliated with Vina,
but also was strongly influenced by the A driatic D a n ilo -H va r and
Southern Italian M atera-Serra d A lto cultures. T h e k ey site for
ch ron ology is O bre II, excavated in 1967-68 b y A . B cn ac and the
author. T he site yielded an ideal, uninterrupted four-m etre stratigraphy and a series o f radiocarbon dates. These place the three
periods o f the B utm ir civilization betvveen c. 5 10 0 and 4000 b c .
2 THE ADRIATIC ARKA
Neolithic, c. 6500-5500 b c.
The early N eolithic cuiture o f the circum -A d riatic region is know n
as the Impresso com plcx, characterized by grit-tem pered wares
impressed w ith cardium shells or finger-nails. T h e sim ple pottery
bow ls ornam ented in this w a y and the farm ing eco n o m y w hich they
served are believed to have developed as a result o f difFusion, coupled
with m aritim e m ovem ent and trade along th e A driatic littoral and
off-shore islands. The Im presso cuiture o f vvestern Y u go slavia,
vvestern Greece and S o u th e rn Italy represents on ly a part o f the w id cly
dispersed circum -M editerranean com plex.
Impresso sites occupy caves or take the form o f open settlements
enclosed by a ditch, and their econom y was based upon dom esti
cated sheep and cattle, fishing and hunting, and eultivation o f w heat
and barley. T h e material cuiture was poor in ceram ic art and sculpture until the produetion o f n c w form s was stimulated by contact
with central Greece, perhaps the result o f m ore extensive m aritim e
activity which is otlierw ise witnessed by the widespread distribution
ofobsidian from Lipari, one o f the Aeolian islands north o f S icily, and
from Sardinia.
Advanced Neolithic-Chalcolithic, c. 5500 -3500 bc;.
Elaborate re-on-cream painted wares appeared in S o u th e rn Italy,
m arking the inception ot the Sialoria period. I his in turu \vas succeeded by the Scrra d'Alto period, characterized by baroque handles,
fruitstand shapes and other com plex ceram ic form s. O11 the Y u g o slav coast, there em erged the Danilo com plex, d o se ly related to
B u tm ir, and characterized by geom etrically dccorated painted vvare
and zoom orp hic cult vases.
T h e radiocarbon dates from the earliest Scaloria sites w ith painted
w are d uster around 5500 b c (th eaverage calibrated date is 5550 b c ),
and for the sites ofth e advanced stage (Scrra d A lto, H var-successor to
Danilo) fali vvithin the first h a lf o ft h e fifth m illennium b c .

Villages in the plains around Foggia and M atera in southeastem

Italy w ere large. T h e settiement o f Passo di C o rv o near Foggia
occupied ap p ro xim ately 50,000 square m etres and ineluded m ore
than a hundred com pounds (Tine 1972). C aves w ere used as sanetuaries, particularly those w ith stalagmites and stalactites.

T H E M I D D IE D A N U B E BA SIN

Neolithic Central European Linear Pottery, Alfold, Tisza and Bukk

complexes, c. 5500-4500 b c .
A fu lly developed N eo lith ic culture and econom y evolved b y about
5500-5000 BC in the M iddle Danube Basin and the foothills o f the
Carpathians. T h e earliest N eolithic assemblage representing the
Linear Pottery c u lt u r e ('Bandkeramik") o f C en tral E u r o p e and th e
related A lfold group in eastern H un gary reveal strong centra! Balkan
(Late Starevo and E arly Vinca) influence. N evertheless, the local
robust, tall-statured European o f C ro -M a g n o n B type, distinguished
b y a m esocephalic skull and rectangular f a c e - a v e ry w id c m andiblc
and short, straight nose - continued to occupy the arca, com prising
both the M esolithic and N eolithic inhabitants. It seems that the local
M esolithic population was gradually converted to an agricultural
econom y, fo llo w in g the exam ple o f the farm ers to the south and
east. T h e p r a c tic e o f e x t e n s iv e slash-and-burn a g r ic u lt u r e i n v o l v i n g
periodic resettlem ent effected the rapid spread o f the N eolithic
econom y am o n g the indigenous population from H olland in the
west to R o m a n ia in the east. The second stage o f N eo lith ic develop
ment is m arked by the appearance o f the Zeliezovce variant west o f
the m iddle D anube in H ungary, Slovakia and A ustria, the m usicnote (Notenkopf) decorated pottery phase to the north, and the
B u k k culture in the Carpathian foothills. The Tisza com plex, nam ed
after the R iv e r Tisza, m ay have developed from the A lfo ld E arly
N eolithic and is contem porary to Early Vinca.
Advanced Neolithic and Chalcolithic Len$yel, and Tiszapolgar and
Petrefti complexes, c. 5000-3500 b c .
In prehistoric as in early historic times com petitivc struggle tor
occupation o f the fertile valleys o f the M iddle Danube Basin seems
to have played a significant role in the culture history o f the region.
T he periodically m igrating farmers o f the Linear Pottery culture
w ere supplantcd by the Lettf>ycl com pIex w hich has cjuite di (Teren t

Lipari Is.0

<

Mediterranean Sea

M ap V : Adriatic civilization tUtrini; the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periodi, 6 5 0 0 -15 0 0

b c . Butmir s it a have a Central Balkan haclcground injlnenced hy tlie Adriatic (iviU zation. Circles indicate lite i oj seventh and si.\tli millennia 11 c ; d on indicate tliose o f fifth
and early fourth millennia nc:

2 7

architectural and artistic traditions. The L engyel physical type, the

so-called A tlanto-M ediecrran can, contrasts w ith the ccntral E u ro pcan C ro -M a g n o n , although a closely rclated physical typc is knovvn
from central Italy. A nalogies to the L en gyel com plcx w ith its settlements fortified w ith w id e ditches, and its sophisticated painted
p irifo rm vases and footed stands, are found in the D anilo com plex
along the A driatic coast o f Y u go slavia. This m ay reflect an ethnic
infiltration from the A driatic area to the Sava basin and the region
east o f the Alps.
T h e L cn gyel sites are distributed over a large territory ineluding
eastern A ustria, ccntral and eastern Czechoslovakia and Southern
Poland. T h e settlements consist o f tw o house types - rectangular
tim ber struetures built w ith upright posts and scm i-subterranean
dvvellings. These villages w ere located on large flat terraces and
surrounded b y fortifications, enorm ous ditches and palisades w ith
tow ers. A djacent to their settlem ent, the villagers cultivated vvheat,
barley and Italian m illet; in addition to tending sheep/goat and
kceping dogs they dom esticated both cattle and pig and engaged in
hunting. Each o f these anim als also played an im portant part in ritual
practices, ju d g in g from the frequent zoom orphic figurines and
specially prepared offcring-pits w hich contained aurochs skulls or
d og skeletons. L en gyel scvilpture retained a uniquc identity th rou gh out, and so form s a separate unit in the m osaic o f O ld European art.
T h e classical L en gyel cuiture in central Europe began som e tim e in
the fifth m illenium b c , its later period cxtend ing into the fourth
m illennium b c . T h e ceram ic sequence for w hich a painted period
w ith three sub-phases and an unpainted period w ith tw o sub-phases
can be recognized, corroboratcs these w id ely separated dates.
T h e Tiszapolgar com p lex in the east H ungarian plain em erged as
a successor to the Tisza grou p . It is also referred to as the H ungarian
E arly C o p p cr A ge because o f the occurrence o f copper axes, awls
and pendants. T h e com p lex derives its name from the cem etery o f
Tiszapolgar-Basatan ya in northeastern H u n gary w ith 156 burials
near the settlement area. These people o f M editerranean type buried
their dead in shallovv pits in a crouched position accom panied b y large
and small vases, copper and shell bead necklaces, copper and gold
pendants, flint blades and copper and stone axes. T h eir ceram ic form s
- biconical vases and w id e bovvls 011 pedestals - are gen erally related
to those o f the L e n g y d cuiture, but they did not paint their pottery.
T h e Bodrofkereszti'tr o r M iddle C o p p er A ge co m p lex is a continuation o f T iszapolgar and term inated around 3500 b c w ith the
infiltration o ft h e steppe elem ent and East Balkan refugees.
T h e Pctrefti grou p in T ransylvania is contem poraneous and
culturally d o s d y related to the K aran ovo and Cueuteni cultures. Its
beginning m ay have been connected with the north w ard m ovem en t

Prague
Srelice
oH luboke Mauvjc;
B o d ro g k sre sz tu r

L a n g -E n z e rsd o rf

'V ien n a
V o se n d o rf

L e n g y e l V
:n go v ark o n y

Beograd
ueharest

M ap V I : M iddle Danube and T isz a civilizations. Dots indicate Lengyel

Tiszapolgar sites. Fifth and early fourth millennia u c

o f the K aran o vo people along the R iv e r O lt and painted-pottery

peoples from H ungary. The site o fP e tre jti itself lics near C lu j and its
cultural deposits overlie E arly Vina laycrs.

4 THE B.ASl BAI.KAN ARKA

Neolithic, c. 6000 - sooo bc:.
The East Balkan civilization began before or around 6000 bc: with
the first appearance o f N eolithic occupation along the M arica river
valley o f B u lg a ria ; the m ost n o tew orth y sites are K a ran o vo at N o va
Zago ra, A zm ak near Stara Z a go ra , and Kazaniik, ali in central
B u lgaria, and avd ar east o fS o fia . In the low cst levd s o ft h e teli,
representing the K aran ovo 1period, rectangular one-room ed houses

~9

VII

w ith w attle-and-daub w alls and aligned plank floors w ere arranged

in parallel row s. T h eir contents p roved to be surprisingly advanced,
including tulip-shaped vases w ith a black or w hite geom etric design
painted on a red slip, one-handled cups, three-legged cult vessels,
m arble and clay figurines and a rich bone and stone tool assem blage
including num erous m ill-stones and sickles o f deer antler w ith
inserted flint blades. Plentiful rem ains o f einkorn, em m er, wheat
and lentils, and bones o f dom esticated sheep/goat, cattle and pig
confirm the role o f agriculture. A lth o u gh fundam entally related to
the central B alkan N eolithic, w e have here another distinguishable
variant o f southeast European N eo lith ic culture.
T h e highest B u lgarian tells have a stratigraphic depth o f as much
as 1 8 m ., com posed o f accum ulated debris from the sixth to the third
m illennia b c . T h e stratigraphies defined at the K aran o vo , A zm ak
and Kazanlik tells yield an ideal docum entation o f the evolu tion and
con tinu ity o f m aterial culture o ver a lon g p eriod ; the K a ran o vo
scquence, phases I to V I, has becom e universally adopted as a
ch ron ological yardstick fo r the developm ent o f East Balkan civiliza
tion during the sixth, fifth and part o f the fourth m illennia BC. A
large nu m ber o f radiocarbon dates from the K aran o vo and A zm ak
tells, rcpresenting K a ran o vo IIII, form an alm ost perfect sequence;
calibrated, they run from the end o f the seventh m illennium to
about 5200 b c .
T h ere was a considerable inerease in population du ring the
K a ran o vo III phasc, vvhich must have begun around 5500-5400 b c ,
w hcn elements o f the K aran o vo III assem blage w ere carried, prob ably by ethnic expansion, northw est into the lo w er D anube region
and southw ard beyond the R h o d o p e M ountains to M acedonia and
T h race. In the north the intruders had to confront the settlers o f the
C en tral European Linear P o ttcry culture, w h o occupicd the lo w er
D anube and the H am angia grou p on the B lack Sca coast.
Chalcolithic, c. 5200/5000-3500 b c .
T h e East Balkan C halcolithic is com posed o f tw o diffcrcnt cultures:
H am angia on the B lack Sca coast, and M arica-B oian-G um clni^a in
R o m a n ia , B ulgaria and northeastern Greece.
T h e Hamangia sites are lo c a te d a lo n g th e C oastal s trip o f th e Black
Sea betvveen northern B ulgaria and the vvestern U kraine. M ost
inform ation com es from 350 excavated graves o f the cem ctcry at
C ern avo d a in the low er Danube region (Berciu 1966). Skcletal
cxam ination rcvealed a predom inantly M editerranean population,
but w ith a distinet local b rach ycep h aliccom p on ent. T h e ir settlements
are found 011 the lo w tcrraces o f rivers.
The H am angians practiscd m ixed farm ing, cultivating w hcat and
vetch and herding sheep/goat, cattle and pig. T he carlicst ceram ics
.V/<7/> 1-7 / : /:a>l Balkan civiliza tio n : distribution o f Karanovo, B oian-(hinw lni(a and
Hamangia complc.vcs during the N colifhic and Chalcolithic pvriods. Hatchcd are a
daiotv Hamangia complcx. o. 5 5 0 0 -4 5 0 0 n e

V u lk a n e sti

Bolintineanu

k e

a&mangia

Buchares*t#},vk

?ir?ova
lavoda

G ju le ?ti# ;

T a n g ir u V j^

Salcuta
\ H o ta r e lle * ^ B d T a n \
a stu .
V adastca Q J^ jn fire sti ^ ^ use _
R 'D ^

H otn ica
K ojaderm en

V ^ K a z a n i i k * Veselinovj
'^ a t T v o V ,

A zm ak*

R M anea
Ja r T ja t a *

Jasatepe* v

Dikiitash,
Sitagroi J

L ovec /
^ P i 0 W liv

Paradim i

Black
Sea

were carium -im pressed. O rnam ents, found abundantly as grave

goods, include huge bracelets and beads o f Spondylus shell. A rou nd
the m iddle o f the fifth m illennium the H am angian com plex was
superseded b y the G u m e ln ip civilization.
T h e Marica com p lex represents t h e S o u th e r n branch o f th e East
B alkan civilization, nam ed after th e R iv e r M arica in ccntral B u lgaria.
T h e Boian tradition is a northern variant o f the East Balkan
civilization. It is named after an island settlem ent in the Danube south
o f Bucharest. D u rin g its second (Giuleti) phase, B oian material
cuiture spread as far as M oldavia in the northeast. Skeletons from a
large B o ian cem etery at Cernica near Bucharest w ere predom inantly
o f sm all-statured M editerranean type. T h e nam e 'Vadastra civilization , derived from a m iddle layer o f the stratified site on the Danube
in w estern R o m a n ia , is not a separate cuiture but a w estem variant
o f the East Balkan civilization parallel to the B oian tradition.
The M arica, Vadastra and Boian groups are not different cultures
but integral parts o f one civilization, which in its advanced stage and
clim ax is k n o w n as the Cum elnija civilization.
A t least five hundred tells containing Gum elnita material remains
have been recorded in R o m a n ia , B ulgaria and eastern M acedonia,
o f w hich about thirty have been system atically excavated. The
Gum elnita site itself lies southeast o f Bucharest on the Danube and
was excavated between 1924 and 1960. O ther im portant sites from
G um elnita deposits are Cascioarele, Sultana, V idra, T an giru and
Hirova, ali in the lo w er Danube region o f R o m a n ia , and R u se ,
Chotnica and Kodjaderm en in northern B ulgaria. In the M arica
V alley, in addition to A zm ak and K aran ovo (VI), know n sites cluster
around Stara Z ago ra and P lovd iv. N orth o f the A egean, the m ost
n o tew o rth y are the reccntly excavatcd Sitagroi and D ikili-T ash
m ounds on the Plain o f D ram a.
Sedentary Gum elnita com m unities occupicd com pact villages or
small townships for a m illennium or m ore, producing deep accum ulations o f cultural deposit, rich in artifacts. The subsistencc econom y
depended upon the usual crops and dom esticates - w hcat, six-ro w
barley, vetch and lentils; and cattle, pig, shcep/goat and dog. T h ere
was a steady grow th in m etal-produetion and trade: copper ncedles,
awls, fish-hooks and spiral-hcaded pins w erc produced and, at the
end o f the period, axes and daggers, a d evelopm ent which is also
found in the Vina, T iszapolgar, Lengyel and Cucuteni cultures.
W orkshops o f flint, copper, gold, SpondyIus shell and pottery have
been diseovered, im plyin g craft-specialization and general division
o f labour. G old was obtained from T ransylvania and copper from
C arpathian sources.
G um elnita fine ceram ic vessels are distinguished by the m anner
in w hich colour and decorative patterns are blende vvith exquisite

form s, clear evidence o f an advanced technique. G raphite painting,

which becam e the dom inant me.thod o f decoration, required special
kilns to provid e the prolonged period o f reduetion necessary to
prevent oxidation o f the graphite. Shapes range from large decorated
storage vessels for grain to cups, profiled dishes, biconical or piriform bow ls and am phorae and h igh ly stylized anth ropom orph ic,
zoom orphic and ornithom orphic form s.
Schem atism is a characteristic o f ali East Balkan sculptural art.
D u ring the B oian phase, figurine form was bound by rigid conventions, w hich w ere subsequently relaxed to perm it the inereased
freedom and versatility displayed by Gum elnita figurines. Lincar
signs (possibly w riting) w ere cm ployed b y the East B alk an B o ia n Gum elni(a civilization throughout its existence.

5 THE MOLDAVlAN-WUS'r UKRAINIAN ARHA

Neolithic, c. 6 500-5000 b c .
D uring the B oreal and Atlantic clim atic phases, the black soil region
northvvest o f the Black Sca, intersected by the fertile valleys o f the
Prut, Siret, Dniester and S o u th e rn B ug, offered a suitable en viron m ent fo r the inception and developm ent o f a N eolithic eco n o m y.
T h e Dnicster-Biig N eolithic c u i t u r e , com prising perm anent villagc
settlements based on agriculture, developed indigenously and was
only subsequently influenced from the south and west, in the sixth
m illennium b c by the Central Balkan (Starevo) com plex, and in
the fifth b y the East Balkan (Boian) and Central European (Lincar
Pottery) com plexes. The uninterrupted cultural continuum is ideally
defined by stratigraphic and typological studies, reinforced by radio
carbon dates, w hich reveal a D niester-B ug sequence o fth ree aceram ic
and five ceram ic phases.

Chalcolithic, c. 5000-3500 b c .
The N eolithic cuiture \vas succecdcd by the tw elve consecutive
phases o f the C h alcolithic Ciiciitcni (Russian : Tri pol
civilization.
Subsistencc was based upon the cultivation o f cinkom whcat,
dom estication o f cattle and pig, and intensive hunting o f forest fauna
and fishing. H ovvcvcr, the forest environm cnt made shifting agricul
ture neccssary and conscqucntly there was 110 accum ulatioii o f
mound deposits such as are found in Bulgaria and Southern R o m a n ia .
The earlicst villages w crc located 011 flood-plain tcrraccs and w crc
later establishcd on higher ground during the vvetter A tlantic phase.
The large C ucutcni villages are alw ays situated 011 extensive raised
river tcrraccs.

33

Vili

T he Cucuteni civilization is clearly affiliated w ith its Southern

neighbours o f the East B alkan tradition, and form s the n o rth erly
outpost o f O ld European culture, extending as far as the m iddle
D nieper in the northeast. Ethnically, it appears to have com prised a
m edley o f the indigenous inhabitants and infiltrating M editerraneans.
Southw estern and East Balkan influences played an im portant part
in transform ing local ceram ic styles, both at the inception and during
the evolution o f C ucuteni culture, w hich in its classical period,
around 4500-4000 b c , achieved a rem arkable artistic m aturity in its
ceram ic products. Characteristic o f the Cucuteni peoples are their
colourful bichrom e and trichrom e vases, bow ls, ladles, and other
p ottery fo rm s; equally distinctive are libation ju g s, vessels for
divination, altars and schem atic anthropom orphic and zoom orphic
figurines, vvhich reveal an adherence to elaborate ritual practices.
Pictorial representations on Late Cucuteni vases are o f utm ost
im portancc as a source o f m ythical im agery.
T he fortified settlement o f Cucuteni in north i 1 M old avia, after
which the culture is nam ed, was excavated in i> 9 - 10 by H ubert
Sch m idt and in 19 6 1-6 5 b y M . Petrescu-Dim bc i(a. T rip o ly e on
the m iddle D nieper was excavatcd at the end
' the ninetecnth
cen tury b y V . V. K h v o jk a . A lm o st one hundre years o f p rolific
excavation by R o m an ian and Soviet archaeolog: > have m ade this
one o f the best archaeologically docum ented
gions in eastem
Europe.
T h e sie o f C ucutenian (Tripolyean) villages a 1tow ns inereased
during the course o f the fifth m illcnnium b c . D u i g the first h a lf o f
the fourth m illcnnium , the C ucuteni culture 1 veloped into an
urban civilization. T h e largest to w n , near T a lr : south o f K ie v ,
consisted o fa b o u t 1,50 0 houses in an area o f 700 ac s w ith a potential
population o f 20,000 (currently under excavation / N . M . Shm aglij
o f the A rch aeological Institute o f the U krainian A< lem y ofScien ces,
K iev).
Follov/ing the initial excavation o f the settle ent at C ucuteni,
the classical period was called Cucuteni A ai
the late period
C ucuten i B . This tc rm in o lo gy survived, alth oi i it subsequently
required elaboration : an intervening phase is ider fied as C ucuteni
A B and phases prcceding Cucuteni A w ere
cessarily term ed
P ro to -C u cu ten i . In S o viet literature the T ri >Iye sequence is
d ivided into A , B and C . The C ucuteni cu ltu r rontinued to the
m iddle o f the fourth m illcnnium vvhcn it v s disturbed and
transform ed b y K u rgen W ave N o . 2.

34

T /ip o ly e ^
fshchina
Zhukovtsi
St. Buda

Luka-Vrubleve:

;lateni

Krynichka

Tru^eti \Larga-Jijiei
\ Cucuteni
Tirpesti

Habasesti

i Frumusira

\lzvoare
#lTraian

N ovyf- Rusesl

JAr*usd
.A N A L P S

Bucharest

M ap V i l i : Cucuteni (T rip o ly e ) civilization, c . 5 0 0 0 -15 0 0

(brokeri Iine) is uncertain

Black Sea

bc

. Th e ivestern limit

35

2
Sh

Schematism
o rth and

In the earliest level o f the Vina m ound, representing the N eo lith ic

Starevo com plex, a ceram ic figurine usually described as a seated
goddess w ith large buttocks and cylindrical neck was found. For a
fem ale representation it has an extrem ely reduced form , w ith no
distinetion between head and torso, and on ly a cylindrical neck
. adjoining the buttocks. Its general shape suggests a bird but there is
no indication o f w ings, beak or bird-legs. Even as a hybrid, perhaps
h alf-w om an and half-bird, it needlessly lacks naturalistic detail.
This means that w e are confronted w ith the problem o fd ete rm in ing the artists ultim atc intention. In the first place w e m ust decide
w hat the sculpture presents, its subject m atter; beyond this, w e must
also try to understand its sym bolic content, for on ly in this w a y can
w e hope to com prehend the psycho-social dynam ic that inspired its
produetion.
Stratigraphical evidence shows that this figurine dates from
ro u gh ly 6000 b c , and there are m any like it in sites o f the same period.
Som e figurines are even m ore reduced, rendering the m erest outline
o f hum an or bird form . E xcavation o f N eolithic sites has yielded
num erous b u m p y figurines, often little m ore than tw o ccntim etrcs
long, w hich archaeologists classify only as indeterm inate or am biguous objeets. Exam in ed as isolated, individual pieces they rem ain
enigm atic, their role unknovvn; but once w e identify these m iniatures as belon ging to a single hom ogencous grotip o f figures, thev
can be recognized as vastly reduced versions o f the larger steatop y g o u s figurine-type w hich w ill be fully described in later ehapters. W ith these and m any larger figures lacking in detail, it is evident
that the sculptor was not striving for aesthetic effects; he w as producing sculptural shorthand , an abstract sym bolic conceptual art,
im ages that were em blem atic o ft h e divine regardless o f the cxtent
o f their sehematization. T h e true m eaning o f the figures can best be
1 S c h c m a t i i ' c d l e m a l e t i j j u r c . I l.iir i n d i c a t e d b y i n c i s i o n . V i n c a m o u m l . H a r l v
s ixth m ille n n iu m

ih:

37

sought in the m ore detailed, less abstracted figurines w h ich reveal

the naturalistic detail that betrays subject m atter and so brings us
closer to understanding the content o f the w o rk .
Sculptural shorthand, unthinking and repetitive, illustrates the
conservative nature o f the tradition w ith in w h ich the sculptor
w o rk e d ; each culture translates its basic explanatory assum ptions
into equivalent fo rm structures and creativity is on ly expressed in
subtle variations fro m the socially prescribed norm s. For the sociocultural historian it is m ore im portant to exam ine the conventional
than the fe w and slight deviations from it, since his w o rk is to
com prehend the inherited and collective - rather than the individual
- psyche.

T h e N e o lith ic a r t is t s r e a l it y -

not

p h ysic a l

r e a lit y

B o th figurine subject m atter and the form al repetition o f the collectiv e ly approved style g iv e an insight into the content and purpose o f
figu rin e art. A rt reveals m an s m ental response to his environm ent,
fo r w ith it he attem pts to interpret and subdue reality, to rationalize
nature and give visual expression to his m yth olo gizin g explan ato ry
concepts. T h e chaotic form s o f nature, including the hum an fo rm ,
are disciplined. W h ile the C y cla d ic figurines o f the third m illenniiim
BC are the m ost e xtrem ely geom etricized, rigid constraint o f this
kind, though less m arked, characterizes m ost o f the groups o f O ld
European N eolithic and C halcolithic figures. T h e artists reality is
not a physical reality, though he endow s the concept w ith a physical
form , w h ich is tw o-dim ensional, constrained and repetitive. Su pernatural pow ers w ere conceived as an explanatory device to induce an
ordered experience o f natu res irregularities. These p ow ers w ere
given fo rm as masks, h yb rid figures and animals, prod u cing a
sym b olic, conceptual art not given to physical naturalism . T h e
p rim ary purpose w as to transform and spiritualize the b o d y and to
surpass the elem entary and corporeal.
It follo w s, then, that form al reduction should not be ascribed to
the technical inability o f the N eo lith ic artist to m odel in the round
but to requircm ents dictated b y deeply im planted concepts and
beliefs. N evertheless, since w e are dealing w ith an art that has often
been term ed p rim itive in a partially pejorative scnse, it is necessary
to digress briefly in defence o f the N eolithic sculptors ability and to
stress that he w as not lim ited to unnaturalistic form s b y the inadequacy o f his m anual skills, the nature o f his raw m aterials o r the
lack o f neccssary tcchniqucs. In short, old European figurine art was
the ou teom e o f skilled craftsm anship, con form in g to m atured
traditions.
T h e . beginnings o f p ottery m anufacture are blurred in the

archaeological record, fo r the earliest clay vessels and artifacts w ere

unbaked and have not survived. T h e earliest fired ceram ics, includ
ing fine burnished and painted w ares from the late seventh m illennium B C, are articulately m odelled and reveal a com plete m astery o f
ceramic tech nology. Stone and bone was fm ely carved and g ro u n d :
Proto-Sesklo and Starevo villagers in the A egean area and centra!
Balkans fashioned beautiful spoons o f bone and painstakingly ground
miniature stone ornam ents such as perforated pendants and buttons.
T he serpentine toad from the site o f N ea N ikom edeia in M acedonia
is an outstanding w o rk o f art o f the seventh m illennium b c .
Stone and bone sculptures are fe w com pared to those o f clay, but
they sh ow a like degree o fstylization , though one m igh t expect them
to be, i f anyth in g, m ore schem atic still. T w o sculptures have been
seleeted to dem onstrate this: a typical Early Vina clay figu rin e w ith
a triangular masked head, bum p fo r a nose, slanting incised eyes,
stum p-arm s, projeeting buttocksandnaturalistically m odelledbreasts
and n avel; and the m arble figurine from Gradac, also o f the E a rly
Vina period. T h e different raw materials do dictate a differing
expression but the figures are alike in style and detail. B o th com prise
masked heads, arm stum ps and inarticuiate Iegs. O th er m arble
sculptures are still m ore reduced, lacking ali facial features. D urin g
the fifth m illennium , carvin g in m arble became m ore self-conscious
and em ancipated itself fro m the influence o f clay-m od ellin g. B on e
figures w ere entirely schematic. A fifth-m illennium exam ple o f a
stylized hum an figu re carved out o f bone from a g ra v e in the
cem etery o f C ernica near Bucharest is a case in point. Its head is
broken. T h e tw o rounded protuberances apparently p ortray folded
arms. T h e abdom inal and pubic area is emphasized. A lth o u gh
drastically reduced, this little sculpture is probably a p ortrayal o f a
Great Goddess in a rigid position, standing in the nude w ith folded
arms, a type encountered in graves throughout the O ld European
period and in the C yclad es o f the third m illennium b c . A lm o st ali
o f the knovvn figurines o f copper and gold are schem atic, tw o dim ensional silhouettes o f the human body, cut from a flat piece o f
material.
T h ro u gh o u t the seventh and sixth millennia b c figurine art was
clearly dom inated b y abstract form s such as cylindrical p illar-like
neeks and a hybrid torso o f fem ale buttocks and a b ird s b o d y, but at
the same time other quite different form s were produced, som e o f
them strikingly naturalistic. A n exceptional fem ale figurine assigned
to the Sesklo period in Thessaly sits in a relaxcd position w ith her
legs to one side, her hands resting on her thighs. In profile the nose is
exaggerated and beaked but the head and body are naturalistically
proportioned, dispensing with the pillar-like neck o f earlier
sculptures.

39

171

3, 4
5

7,8

3, 4 Fem ale fig u rin e w ith m asked hcad

and stum ps fo r arm s. V in a m ou n d . c.
o f sixth m illen n iu m b c

6 Bone

fig u r in e from th e cem etery o f

C ernica, So u th e rn R om an ia. Late sixth

m ille n n iu m b c

7, K Seated nude figu rin e from Thcssalv

Sesklo cuiture, c. 6ooo n e

9 C lassical V in a fig u rin e . S c h e n u tiic d ab o v c

the w aist, rou n d ed b e lo w . S e le v a c near
S m ed erev sk a Palan ka, southeast o f B c lg ra d e .
c.

sooo bc

10 Sq u a ttin g Late V in a figu rin e. Indsions

ind icatc dress and punetate design sym bo lizes
snake m o tif. c. secon d h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m

bc

. , ,

l i , 1 2 Sq u attin g m an, hands resting on tig n tly

d ra w n -u p knees. Fafos I, V in a site at K o so v sk a

M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o s la v ia . c. 5000 BC

he

h a l c o l it h ic

trend

to w ard s

m ore

n a t u r a l ist ic

scu lptu r e

in

th e

era

T h e gradual trend tow ard m ore naturalistic sculpture can be traced

in the V ina statuary. The Vina m ound and other Vina settlements
p rovid e a large group o f figurines com bining sehematization o f the
upper part o f the b o d y w ith alm ost naturalistic m odelling b elow . A
sculpture fro m Selevac in centra! Y u go slav ia provides a classic
exam ple in this series: the figure has exquisitely m odelled abdom en
and hips, the legs m erging to provid e a stable base. T h e head is
schem atized, pentagonal, w ith sem i-globular plastic eyes; the arms
are represented b y perforated stumps. O ne o f the most exquisite
sculptures fro m the Vina site is a perfectly proportioned squatting
w o m an , u nfortunately headless. A nother rem arkable Vina sculp
ture, also headless, from the site o f Fafos, depiets a man w ith knees
d raw n tigh tly to his chest, his hands placed on them and his back bent
slightly forvvard. His life-like posture, w ith the excep tionally
accurate m odelling o f the arms and the hands tightly grasping the
knees, is unique in European art o f c. 5000 b c .
A n exquisite rendering o f the rounded parts o f a fem ale body,
especially abdom en and buttocks, occurs occasionally in ali parts o f
O ld Europe. A n extraordinary series o f m ale sculptures, each
ind ivid u ally seated 011 a stool, is distinguished for perfeetion in
portrayal o f the m ale body, particularly the slightly curving back.
T h e excavation o f the B u tm ir site yielded several finely executed
heads, rem arkable for their realism ; the conventional m asked
features are here replaced b y a w ell-m odelled forehead, eye-b ro w s,
nose, lips, ehin and ears. U nm asked hum an heads m odelled in the
round occasionally occur in other cultural gro u p s; even in the
Cucuteni area, in w hich figurine art reached an extrem e o f schem atic
sym bolism , a fe w naturalistically rendered hum an heads w ere discovered, w ith eyes, nostrils and m outh show n b y impressed holes.
Figurines w ith unm asked heads and hum an facial features com prise
the rarest category o f N eolithic and Chalcolithic sculptures.
T h e finest sculpture was certainly the produet o f exceptionally
gifted m em bers o f society, though the varyin g intensity o f individual m otivation w ould also bc refleeted in the quality o f the artifact.
N evertheless the eruder figurines which w ere the norm w ere no less
rich in sym b olic content.

43

10

11,12

246, 2 4 8 -2 5 0

H ip - belts

3
D

Ritual Costume
e c o r a t iv e

m o t if s

on

f ig u r in e s

as

r e f l e c t io n

of

CO STU M E A N D

M ost captivating are the hip-belts, which have a large button resting
on either hip and a third in fro n t o f the pubis. T h e belts w ere p rob ab ly
fashioned in leather, although som e w ere apparently m ade o f large
beads or clay dises. T h e large buttons m ay have been m anufactured
o f bone, w o o d , clay or stone. M ushroom -shaped buttons o f w hite,
green o r y e llo w m arble, alabaster and calcite, diseovered in Vina
settlements, m ay have served as studs for belts, jackets or other
garm ents o f h eavy fabric. Figurines vvearing large buttons on the
hips have been diseovered in the deepest layer o f the Vina m ound,
belon gin g to the N eo lith ic Starevo period, and they continued to
be represented in sculpture until the final phase o f occupation at the
V ina site. H ip-belts are also portrayed on East Balkan figurines.
Fem ale figurines vvearing hip-belts appear to be otherw ise naked,
except fo r the usual facial masks.

O RNAM ENTS

i Figurine irearing a h ipV/f made o f large and m a li

ises. V in i a mound. c. }o o o

D ecorative m otifs frequently occur on figurines to indicate costum e,

refleeting the stylistic conventions and characteristics o f dress w ithin
the sculptors society. Late V ina figurines teli us m ost about costum e
design since they are less abstract than earlier N eolithic figurines and
less conventionalized than those o f the East Balkan and Cucuteni
civilizations. T h e ir careful detail, reinforced b y less substantial
evidence from East Balkan (Gumelni^a) sculpture, enables us to
reconstruct O ld European dress style c. 4000 b c .
T h e usual decorative technique was deep incision, often enerusted w ith a w h ite paste m ade o f erushed shells, or filled w ith red
ochre, or black, w hite or red paint. Alternating dark and light bands,
set either d iagonally or vertically, w ere som etim es produced b y this
m ethod, p robably to depict a garm ent m ade o f several broad,
different coloured panels o f material sewn together. Plastic relief
decoration was also em p loyed . A pplied buttons arranged in one,
tw o or three row s indicatc belts, m edallions and necklaces. B oth
m en and w o m cn w o re a circular pendant hanging in the m iddle o f
the chest or at the nape o f the neck. It m ay have been an em blem
sign ifyin g particular status, or m ore spccifically sym bolic o f go d
desses or gods. T h e first indications o f necklaces on fem ale figurines
are to be traced on the prim itive cylindrical Starevo figurines.
A ctu al shell, clay, stonc and bone hcads have been frequently fou n d :
in the N eolithic settlem ent o f Vrsnik, near tip, Y u go slavia, hundreds o f shell beads w ere deposited in a small globular black polished
vasc. N u m erou s beads o f shell, alabaster, m arble, copper and clay
w ere recovered from the sites o f C h alcolithic V ina, B u tm ir, L en gyel, East B alkan, C ucuteni and other cultural groups. Several strings
o f beads frcquently appear on Cucuteni figurines.

44

r esses

T h e incised decoration o f som e figurines indicates long, elegant

go w n s. T h e y m ust have been w ell-fitted to the fem ale b o d y, narrovvin g at the waist and at the bottom . Breasts, buttocks and legs are w elldefined in m ost sculptures, as i f the dress w ere o f light fabric. C o m m onest are tw o-piece dresses, consisting o f skirt and blouse. The
m ajority o f the clothed figurines have incised m arkings suggesting
a blouse o f six o r m ore equal panels o f m aterial sew n together. It has
a sim ple V neck at front and back and m ay be sleeveless, shortsleeved or lon g-sleeved. T h e blouse or bolero norm ally extends ju st
b e lo w the vvaist, but seated figurines w ear blouses or jerk in s extending d ow n to the stool or throne. A suggestion o f decorated sleeves
appears on som e o f the m ost im pressive figurines, perhaps im p ly in g
the portrayal o f richly clad goddesses. A b o vc the shoulders a spiral
m o tif is usually encountered, and below it three or m ore parallel
incisions. T h e B arilje vo seated goddess has a shoulder and sleeve
decoration o f spirals and tvvo groups o f lines. The constricting lincs
across the m iddle o f the arm s and at the wrists o f this figure m ay
represent arm -rings and bracelets. A similar constriction appears on
the arm o f the sculpturc from uprija, but this figure is uniquc for
another reason: it bears upon its back w hat appears to be a bag,
perhaps a leather pouch for carrying a baby. The bag is suspended
o v er the shoulders and neck b y a massive belt or ropc vvhich is clearly
indicated b y an incised applied ridge.
Dress fashions show considerable divcrsity, and various fabrics
and perhaps em broidcry can be inferrcd from the differin g zigzag,
ladder and net patterns w hich adom the blouses. T h e skirt, discernible on alm ost ali standing and seated figurines in w hich the

45

2 Classical Vina figurin e

with wliite-eucnisted
incisions indicaling closefitting full-length dress.
Potporanj site at Vrac,
northeastern Yugoslaviq

16 U p p c r part o f large figu rine

w ea rin g a m ask m arked vvith
triple lincs under cycs and
m canders on top and a
m ed allion . Fafos II at K osovska
M itro v ic a . V in a culture, c.
4500 BC

1 7 T h e m asked la d y o f
B a r ilje v o ; n e a r Pritina, So u th ern
Y u g o s la v ia , w e a rin g elaborate
dress w ith constricted sleeves
and a m ed allion . O rig in a lly
seated 011 a throne. c. 4500 4000 BC
18, 19 Late V in a figu rin e fro m
C rn o k a la k a B a ra near N i,
Y u g o s la v ia , vvcaring tight skirt
o f cross-hatched design vvith
'fo ld s at b o tto m . R c c ta n g u la r
panel at back o f the shoulders
suggests a s c a rf o r is purely
sym b o lic

13 , 14 Late C u cu ten i fig u rin e sh o w n vvearing fiv c

n ccklaces and a broad belt w ith frin g e at front.
Sipintsi (Sch ip cn itz), w estcrn U k ra in e . E a rly fou rth
m illcn n iu m b c

5 Late C u c u te n i fig u rin e w c a rin g tw o n ccklaces

and a h ip -b elt a b o v e the c x a g g c ra tc d and
d ccoratcd p u bie area. B ilczo Z lo t c . w estem
U k rain e. E a rlv fou rth m illenn iu m Rt:

6 Vinca fig u rin e wearing

tight skirt which hugs the
hips and leaves the belly
exposed. Gradac site,
Southern Yugoslavia

3 L oiver h a lf o f fem ale

figure ivearing a hip-belt
m th a large disc on the pubis
and upon each hip. Vina
mound. c. $ 3 0 0 - 3 1 0 0 b c

4 Seated l 'ina fig urin e

ivearing tuo-piece dress and
perhaps a bolero. H er legs
inerge with the stool.
M iddle part o f blouse painted
black at fron t and back.
Banjica site ticar Belgrade.
Barly fifth millennium bc:

7 V ina fig u ri ne ivearing

checkerboard skirt. W hiteenerusted dots and incisions.
Vina mound. c. 5006 BC

$ Miid - Vina figu rine

iccaring broad hip-belt unth
fritige in fro n t, back and
sides, supported hy straps
over shoulders. Vina
mound. Early fifth
millennium b c

s l'orso 01 figurine. H hiteenc.rustcd incisions indicatc

blouse or tunic o f fabric with
fiet and ladder motifs. I 'ina
mound. c. early fifih
millennium B C

? I ? 3cm

have curving diagonal incisions o ver the legs suggesdng folds at the
hem o f the skirt, o r ribbons securing and fol ing up the hem beneath
the skirt.

M en s c o st u m e

g L o w er h a lf o f a Vina fig u rin e slioivn ivearing a spiral-decorated narroiviiig skirt tvliich

a u li in folds. Dottcd pattern in fro m may represent an apron. Bcletinci at O bre, district
o f Srem ska M itrovica, northern Yugoslavia

.5, 7

20

21

lo w e r torso is preserved, is the m ost elaborate form o f attire. T h e

belly is almost alw ays exp o sed ; the skirt, not necessarily sew n or
attached to the blouse, generally begins b elow the w aist-line, h uggin g the hips. T h e w h ite enerusted incisions reveal net patterning,
horizontal lines divided into sections, checker-boards, dots, spirals
and meanders. T h e skirt usually narrovvs b elow the knees, w here
ornam ent either term inates or ehanges into parallel lines. A n apron
w as som etim es w o rn o ver the skirt, w ith a fringe or tassels indicated
around the apron sides and at the back. As a rule, V ina, Gumclni^a
and C ucu teni figurines w ear hip-belts, som etim es supported by
shoulder straps and frin ged at the front, back and sides.
T h e long skirt usually reaches to the tocs but in a num ber o f
figurines legs and fcet are visiblc, either naturalistically portrayed or
vvith indications o f cloth covcrin g. C lear definition o f breast and
navel suggests that the seated figure from arija wcars no clothing
ab ove the v^aist. B e lo w the belly, a dottcd apron vvith tassels or skirt
fringe on each side covcrs her lap. T h e figu rcs fat legs scem to be
bound, perhaps w ith thongs or w o ven bands, but are p robably
otherw ise bare. O th er figurines clearly reveal draped cloth and
vvrappings around the legs and the skirt was possibly slit b elow the
knees and fastened w ith w o ven bands, ribbons or thongs. O n a fine
exam ple from C rn ok alak a Bara a skirt is incised w ith vertical lines,
its hem indicatcd by a horizontal lin. B e lo w the hem are tw o double
lines passing around the front o f each leg, presum ably representing
binders o f w o ve n m aterial. T h e costum e this figure w ears givcs an
im pression o f constraint and rcstricted m ovem ent. M an y figurines

50

Male sculptures are usually portrayed nude in a standing or sitting

position, but som e w ear em blem s, pendants or collars. Late C ucuteni
figures w ear a hip-belt and a band or strap passing d iago n ally over
one o f the shoulders and across the chest and back.
One category o f Vina m ale figurines appears fu lly dressed in
sailor blouse and knickers. A broad V-shaped collar m ay depict a
blouse or som ething w o m over a blouse. T w o or three incisions
above the shoulders are either a decorative m o tif or an em blem . A
grotesque standing masked man from the Vina site o f Fafos at
Kosovska M itrovica is o f considerable interest: he vvears padded
knickers, and his belly is exposed and his hands, n o w broken,
probably w ere on his hips.

0J 1 2i

31 c m

it Late Vina seated m ale?

fig u rin e from Vala,
Southern Yugoslavia, shown
in blouse and knickers.
I Vh ite-i nfi Iled incisions
indicate dress. Broad
V-shaped collar painted in
red, probah! y oj symholic nature
1 2 A decorated shoe,
probah!)' leather. East
Balkan Gum elnifa complex.
Vidra, lower D anube,
Romania. c. 4 5 0 0 b c

10 Cucuteni man portrayed u'itli a liip-belt, dagger and chest-hand. Bercfti site near
Bujor, eastem Romtmia. c. 4000 11c:

Fo o tw ear

Figurines produccd during this period in the Balkan Fcninsula do not

reveal details o f foo tw ear. Som e sculptures cleariy sh o w bare fect
with toes indicatcd, but in on ly exccptional cascs w erc shocs portraycd b y incision or b y m odelling.

24, 25 G ro tcsq u e m asked fig u rin e

w ith 'padded k n ickers and expo sed
belly fro m Fafos I at K o so v sk a
M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o sln v ia .
First h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m b c

2 0 Seated V in a fig u r e fro m arija,

central Y u g o s la v ia , vvearing h ip -b elt,
d ottcd apron in fron t and side frin ges.
L e g -b in d in g s ju s t b c !o w knees and
calvcs. T op lcss except fo r goddess
em blem o r V-shaped collar

23 U p p e r pa rt o f a Late V in a
fig u rin e fr o m P lon ik, So u th e rn
Y u g o sla v ia . w earin g broad, red,
V-shaped collar. Sleeves c o n stric te d
b e lo w shoulders and three incisions
011 ea ch shoulder. T h e mask is
m arked w ith V signs and parallel
lin es. c. late fifth m ille n iu m b c

2 1 Late V in a fig u rin e w c a rin g tight

skirt. T w o d o u b lc lines passing
arou n d legs indicatc leg-b in d in gs.
L ig h t b ro w n fabric w ith w h itc encrtisted incisions. C rn o k a la k a
B ara, southeastem Y u g o s la v ia
22 Legs c o v ered b y skirt folds
characterizc this large V in a figure.
R ed paint on bare toes. V ilica m oun d.
M id -fifth m illennium b c

e la b o r a te coiffures consisting o f double-spiral coils round the head.

Som e figures, m ale and fem ale, w ear peculiar conical caps, hoods or
coifs, vvhich are decoratcd w ith r a d ia l incisions and extend
o v e r the mask. T h e most celebrated o f such figurines, w earing a
tiered conical cap, is the little man (or w om an) from the site o f V ina.
P o in t e d c a p s . m ust have been w id cly in fashion during the sixth and
fifth m ille n n iu m b c throughout southeastern Europe. E la b o r a t e
c o i f f u r e and cro w n or turban appears on ly on B ird and Snake Goddess
p o in te d

3 C jlin d rica l head with

mg hair neatly combed and
oun at the end. Starevo
iyer o f the Pavlovac site,
outhern Yugoslavia. E arly
<xth millennium BC

figurines.
SU M M IN G UP

4 M asked head fro m the

/ina mound shou/ing hair
ivided into tu/o panels by a
air-band. First h a lf o f fifth
-tillennium BC

5 Vinca masked head from

he site o f Crnokalaka Bara
tortli o f N i, southeastern
t'ugoslat/ia. H ead behind
he mask shows hair neatly
ombed and cut. c. first
ta lf o f fifth millennium b c

2.
'

4 cur,

COIFFURE AND CAPS

t.1

'4

15
16

A lth o u gh the face is certainly masked on a m ajority o f the figurines,

long free-hanging hair falling d o w n the back to ju st belo w the
shoulders is often evident behind the mask. L on g hair, carefullv
indicated even on the schem atizcd exam ples, characterizes the
cylindrical figurine heads o f the seventh and sixth m illennium b c ,
and special attention to coiffure persisted throughout the duration
o f the Vina cuiture. A masked head from Vina itsclfsho w s the hair
divided into tw o sym m etrical panels b y a central ribbon, attached,
at back and front, to a second ribbon that passes around the cro w n o f
the head, disappcaring at the back vvherc it is overh u n g by hair. This
hair-style, interpretcd as p lu m age b y Vasi, is indicated b y incision.
M an y o f the later V ina figurines indicate hair ve ry ncatly com bcd,
parted and cut, descending to b clow the cars. Som e have a band
around the cro w n o f the head. A catcgo ry o f Cucuteni nude or sem inude fem ale figurines has p o n y-tails vvhich fali to the vvaist-line and
end in a large bun. East Balkan m iniature sculptures indicate very

The costume detail preserved on clay figurines attcsts a particular

richness in the style and ornam ent o f fem ale and male garm ents
during the fifth and early fourth m illennia b c . C o m p arab le indication o f dress on figurines o f the seventh and sixth m illennia b c is
rare, but sufficient to affirm the presence o f hair-styles, hair ornam ent,
bead necklaces, pendant m edallions and hip-belts.
In the fem ale costum e o f the Vina and East Balkan cultures
several dress com binations reur persisten tly: fu lly dressed figures
wear blouses and tight skirts, or long dresses, and possibly boleros;
the others w ear either skirts vvhich hug the hips or hip-belts supportingaprons o r a lo n g sk irt-lik e fringe, leavin g th e n a ve l and upper h a lf
o f the torso exposed. Lon g, tight and rich ly ornam ented skirts are
characteristic o f ali cultural groups.
A t least tw o form s o f attire are discernible on m ale figurines:
some are dressed in decoratcd blouses w ith trousers extcnding below
the knees, vvhile others vvear only belts or shorts and chest bands. The
m ens blouses charactcristically display broad V-shaped collars.
N ecklaces, exclusive to fem ale costum e, vvere strung with beads
o f M editerranean or Adriatic shell, stone, bone, copper or clay;
equally popular vvere clav pendants, and arm -rings and bracelets o f
shell, bone and copper, w o m by botli m ale and fem ale figurines.
T he richly clad figurines are p robably not m eant to depict
ordinary villagers; they are m ore likely to p ersonify specific go d
desses o r gods, or represent vvorshippers or priests attending rites,
garbed appropriately in masks and festive costum e.
M uch that typifies costumes vvorn during the fifth and fourth
millennia in Balkan Europe can bc readily recognized in the illustrations o f goddesses and vvorshippers preserved on M inoan frcscoes,
statuary, seals and signet rings o f the second m illennium b c . The
exquisite M inoan fem ale costume m ay represent the culm ination o f
a tradition vvhich began in N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic Europe. Like the
sculptured deities or vvorshippers o f their Balkan predecessors, the
M inoan goddesses and their votaries alw ays vvear lavishly decoratcd
skirts o f various designs and colours. Topless fashions vvere popular

1 6 N ude Cucuteni figurine

with long hair ending in a
large round coil. K ryniclika,
Podolia, uiestcrn Ukraine.
c. early fourth millennium
BC

/7 M iniature M id-V ina

masked head, u'earing a
conical cap decoratcd uitli
(hevrons. Vina mound.
5000 - 4500 BC

in both periods and so w ere necklaces and arm -rings. W ide-open

blouses and bolero-shaped jackets, typical and distinctive in M inoan
fem ale dress, had been w o rn by Vina and East Balkan w om en.
Individuals h aving im portant roles in ritual celebrations and dressed
as goddesses and gods w ere the m ost extravagan tly clad in both
periods. H o w e v e r, som e difference can be n o te d : where the M inoan
skirt w as flounced, that o f the B alkan N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic was
close-fitting.
Essentially the same tradition continued from the B ronze A g e to
the tim e o f classical G reece. O n vases o f the sixth and fifth centuries
BC gods appear in sleeved decorative robes; D ionysus wears one on
b lack-figu re vases and so does A n d rom ed a on a krater o f the fifth
century B C , although sleeved robes had becom e unfashionable by
that tim e (B ieber 19 3 9 : Figs. 4 3 ,6 3 ). M inoan, M ycenaean and ancient
G reek festival attire is an inheritance from the O ld European civiliza
tion. T h e parallelism is striking.
W h at was the origin o f the exquisite O ld European costum e?
T h ere is no reason to assume that this surprising sophistication o f
c. 5000-3500 b c was an im ported elem ent, stim ulated b y A natolianEast M editerranean fashions: like the Vina and East Balkan script
and ceram ic designs, O ld European costum e design developed w ith in a local tradition. T his is not to say that Europe was culturally
isolated from the A natolian-M editerranean w o rld , for generalized
stylistic sim ilarities im p ly interm ittent cultural contact and exchange.
O n ly lim ited com parison is possible between the costume o f O ld
Europe and other parts o f the civilized w o rld - Anatolia, M esopo
tam ia, Syro-Palestine and E g y p t - because now here else w ere garments so frequently illustrated on figurines before 4000 BC. A few
M esopotam ian figurines, dating from the H a la f and U baid periods
o f the fifth and fourth m illennia, display necklaces, belts or short
skirts and chest bands (Dales 19 6 3 : 2 1) , w hich are analogous to
typical Balkan attire.
D u rin g the seventh and sixth millennia b c there was a m arked
resem blance betvveen European and A natolian ceram ic produets,
including figurine art and its associated costum e fashions. M ost o f
the figurines o f this period from Catal H iiyu k and H acilar in Central
A natolia are portrayed nude, but in H acilar som e vvear shorts or
belts w ith aprons at front and back (M ellaart 1960: Figs. 6, 9 - 1 1 , and
14), w h ilc others appear to w ear blouses or dresscs indicatcd by
vertical and horizontal painted lines, display elaborate hair-styles,
and w ear conical caps (M ellaart 19 60: Figs. 13 and 18).

5<>

4 The Mask
N

on

-h

um an

v is a g e

The mask v/as not invented b y the earliest agriculturists; it is as old

and as universal as art and religion. N eolithic m an fo llo w e a tradi
tion established by his Palaeolithic forebears, adapting the mask to
his ow n modes o f ritual and artistic expression. Each o f the cultural
groups ineluded in this study possesses a characteristic style o f figurine
art, and com m on to each style is the portrayal o f masked faces devoid
o f realistic facial features.
Cucuteni art evidences little interest in the hum an head. E arly
Cucuteni figurine heads are disproportionately small and schem atic
in relation to the b o d y, and later becom e almost disc-shaped, with
tw o large eyes, or frequently - on male figurines - on ly a single eye.
The eyes, holes pierced through from the back o f the head, are the
only indication o f facial features; there is no m outh. T h e un ifo rm ity
o f this figurine type, found w id ely distributed o v er the western
U kraine and east R o m a n ia , suggests that enduring conventions,
rooted in popular rcligious beliefs, dictated aesthetic values.
The heads o fE a st Balkan figurines are typically either beaked and
narrow or unnaturally broad, with large noses and perforations in
the m outh and car arcas for attachments. T o us they appear unfam iliar, even u g ly (cf. Pl. 207), presenting an uncom fortably
non-hum an visage suggestive o f a mask.

he

in a

m ask

The Vina artist attached particular im portance to the mask and it is

the distinctive and unusual features o f his sculptural masks that
render V ina statuary so uniquc. T h e Vina figures, m odelled less
schem atically and displaying a greater variety o f form s than their
East Balkan, M iddle Danubian or A driatic counterparts, are the key
to the interpretation o f Balkan N eolithic-C halcolithic-sculptures.

57

30 Mask m od elled in re lie f upon the neck

o f a vase fro m the site o f G la d n ic e , near
Pritina, Southern Y u g o s la v ia . S ta r e vo
culture. Early sixth m illen n iu m bc

3 1 A n im al m ask (ram ?) fro m V in a site at

G rad ac, sou theastem Y u g o s la v ia

26 V in a fig u rin e vvearing a larg e m ask part or

handle o t'a vessel. T h e h u m p on the back p ro b a b ly
p o rtray s a b a g fo r c a rry in g a b ab y
27 N a ttira listica llv depieted m asked head fro m the V in a
in o un d . 5000 - 4.00 ih :
2fi Late V in ca head w ith co itfu re and coflfee-beah eyes.
T h e truncated lo w e r part o f th e fa c e en d in g in a sharp
trian gle sh o w s it to be a m ask. P red io n ica near IJritina.
S o u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . c. 4500
4000 1:
29 V in a head fro m the site o f C rn o k a la k a Hara.
Southern Y u g o sla v ia . <\ sooo 4,-ioo ih

32 S ty !iz ed an im al m ask from Late Vim'.i

site at P lon ik, So u th e rn Y u go sIa via .
m arked w itll triplc lines. 4 S 0 0 4 00 0 ih

2 6, 2 7

Vina figurines are dem onstrably m asked; on m an y o f them the

m ask is clearly outlined, its angular projections extending clear o fth e
face w h ich it conceals. It is this evidence, supplied b y the detailed
three-dim ensional m od elling o f the V ina heads, w hich sustains the
m ore equivocal assertion that the schem atic East Balkan and C u cu
teni figurines are also masked.
In v e ry fe w o fth e V ina figures is the face depieted in the round:
m ost conform to a stylized facial representation w h ich clearly
suggests a m ask. T h e evidence for this being strictly form al, the
purpose o f this ehapter is to display the range o f variation o f the
masks and to delineate their form al evolution w ithin the life-span
o f V in a art and o f it s ancestry.
It is alm ost unbelievable that during the thirty or m ore years in
w h ich essays treating Vina art have appeared, there has been no
sustained reference to the m ask, its m ost captivating elem ent. T he
contours o f the m ask are evident in profile v iew o f m an y o f the
better preserved heads. T h e facial triangularity or pentagonality, or
the protrud in g angular cheek-bones have been rem arked by Vasi,
S re jo v i and others, but that this points to a mask and the dom inant
part it played has on ly been acknovvledged incidentally.
S re jo v i (1965 : 35) ascribed the flat decorative faces o f the Vina
figurines to a trend tow ards stylization': T h e elaborate ornam ental
patterns and shading had to com pensate visually the loss o f the threedim ensional, sculptural representation o f the hum an fig u re. B ut
there w as no need o f com pensation in this sense, for the Vina artist
was am p ly capable o f producing fine sculpture in the round. It is in
these figures that the elaborated mask representation reaches its most
co m p le x and dram atic form .
T h e Vina artist w as clearly not m otivated to show individualized
facial features. N evertheless there does exist a variety o f so-called
naturalistic heads, som e o f vvhich show neatly com bed hair and
d re a m y half-closed eyes. D o these n onconform in g exam ples
represent realistic facial m odelling, vvithout the im position o f a mask?
O ne o f the best k n o w n and most naturalistic am on g them is the
little man o f V in a , vvearing a conical cap. His face is vveli-proportioned, w ith fu lly detailed facial features. H ovvever, vievved from
the back even this exceptional figure rcveals an unnatural protrusion
o f the cheek-bones : it too m ay bc m asked, despite the appealing
h u m anity o f its features. O ther sim ilar small figurines portrayin g
m en w ith pointed heads, w earing caps or hoods, are clearly masked.
T h e same is truc o f the distinctive, exccptionally w ell-m odelled
heads found in the K o so v o M etohije province near Pritina, produets
o f the Late Vina period. O ne o f the m ost aesthetically pleasing is the
head from Fafos. A n o th er exam plc is the head from Predionica, near
Pritina: its hair is indicatcd, the eycs are cortce-bean shaped. The
60

'
fc

massiveness o f the nose, dom inating the face, gives a false im pression
0fm ascu lin ity, the coiffure being that o f a w o m an . O ne is struck by
the uncom prom ising lines o f the ja w : dom inated b y the nose, the
low er part o f the face is truncated im m ed iately b elow it, lackin g any
indication o f a m outh. The cheek-bones and ehin project unnaturally.
A head fro m C rnokalaka Bara is rendered w ith sem icircular plastic
eyes, large nose and sculpted hair. The clear dem arcation o f forehead
and hair, the stylized spiraliform ears and the row s o f stabbed im pressions, w h ich m ay have facilitated som e sort o f attachm ent, ali
im ply that this is a masked head. The spiral o f the ear is an extension
o f the facial mask. A nim al masks w ith horns or ears from the Vina
culture are exquisitely stylized.

Evo

l u t io n

of the

in a

29

31,32

m ask

In the N eo lith ic period masks w ere m odelled in re lie f on cvlindrical

figurines or upon the neeks o f large vases. C ylin d rical P roto-Sesklo,
Sesklo and Starevo figurines vvearing clearly defined masks are
knovvn from . the sites in eastern and vvestern Thessaly and from
Y u go slavia. T h e y are diam ond-shaped, oval or ro u gh ly triangular
with the lo w e r part rounded. O ne o f the finest exam ples o f a mask
m odelled in relief on a vase vvas unearthed at the Starevo settlem ent
at Gladnice in Southern Y u go slavia. A cylindrical sanctuary idol
from Porod in , southvvestern Y u go slavia, vvears an im pressive beaked
mask w ith huge sem i-spherical eyes, m odelled in relief. These form s
suggest that the masked design vvas an early tradition o f southeastem
Europe vvhich vvas sustained through the m illennia, and integral
vvith the spiritual foundations o f the society it nourished.
In the m id-V ina period (7-5~<5 m. deep in the Vina mound)
the masks becom e pentagonal, ineorporating the characterisdcally
protruding angular cheek-bones, a lon g and m ore clearlv defined
nose and huge inciscd or raised sem icircular cyes vvith bovv-shaped
brovv-ridges.
T h e pentagon or broad triangle rem ained the basic facial outline
th rough out the Late Vina period. Som e masks, dom inated b y large,
slanting scm i-sphcrical eycs vvith a border o f cxaggerated lashes,
incised and vvhite-cncrusted, give an impression. o f all-seeingness.
O thers, vvith apparently half-closed or closcd eycs and no indication
o f eye-lashes exprcss a pensive or d ream y m ood.
A t its culm ination Vina art applied a pictorial m ethod to its
sculpture, and masks acquircd an extravagant appearancc dne to the
arbitrary im position o f an inorganic cxpression. D ccoration took
the form o f incision and painting and the ornam entation o f masks
becam e a pursuit vvith its ovvn artistic interest, independent o f the
sculptural presentation o f the mask. This rcoriented interest in mask
61

3 cms

1 $ M iisk iuu! phtilIic

Milini front A cl1Hici on,
l :tirstilti, Thesstil)'.
Scshlo ailturc.
c. 6000 BC

36 Black burnished V in a head (m ask) w ith en orm ou s

semicircular eyes, w h ite-fille d incisions and red
painted bands at top corners and centre. M ed ve d n jak
site. Sm ederevska P alan ka, southeast o f B elg ra d e .
c. 5000 BC

33 Fem ale figu re vvearing a p en tagon al beaked

m ask. From Vi u a m ou n d. Cla.ssieal V in a period.
5000 - 4 5 00 n<:

38 N e t and tw o -lin e o rn am en ted m ask from

Predionica, near Pritina, S o u th e rn Y u go slav ia.
V in a, 4500 - 4000 bc:
39 A m on u m en ta! head, striated triangles ab ove eyes,
triple lines b e lo w . F rom P redio nica, near Pritina.
So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . V in ca, 4 5 0 0 - 4000 b c

(V)
i g T ypology oj ccntral
Balkan Starevo and Vina
m a sk i: (i) roughly
triangular ( Starevo);
(ii) triangular (E arly
V in a ); (iii) pentagonaI,
undecorated ( M id -V in a );
(iv ) decoratcd pentagonal
u'ith semicircular eyes in
rc licf (early Late V ina);
(v ) pictorial with almondshaped eycs ( Late Vina)

surfaces dictated the m odelled form , and masks consequently

assumed the shapes o f v e ry broad triangles, or peaked ovals or
lozenges. T his d evelopm ent is evident in masks found at the sites o f
Vala and Predionica, located in K o so v o M etohije, Southern
Y u g o sla v ia . A lm o n d - or egg-shaped slanted eyes ty p ify this series
o f masks o f the Late Vina cuiture, and the diam ond shape replaces
the pentagonal. M a n y o f these picces have a strictly geom etric
ornam entation, usually striations, diagonal incisions, w ith the mask
divided into equal sections b y the centrally placed line o f the eyes.
V ertically-striated triangles above the eyes and several deep w hiteinfilled incisions belo w the eyes replace the long lashes o f the other
masks. T his m o tif p robably derived from an ideographic m arking.
T h e m ost striking sculptures, sym b olizing the ultim atc developm ent
o f Vina art, are the m onum ental, alm ost life-size heads from
Predionica, each w earin g a mask ornam ented w ith large, ellipticalshaped eyes. T h e ornam ental design and the peaked, striated triangles
and incised diagonal lines above and below the eyes relate them
closely to the type discussed above. B u t these faces are better proportion ed ; like the best o f m odern sculpture they give an im pression o f
m onum ental solidity. T h e w id ening o f the mask follow s the slanting
line o f the eyes, w h ile its projeetion at the eye corners is suggestive o f
ears. Was it the scu lptors intention to p ortray on the mask an animai
or half-anim al, half-hum an creature? T h o u g h w e cannot k n o w for
certain, w e feel that the creature is endow ed with an aw e-inspiring
p ow er, the ve ry essence o f the significance o f the mask - a proposition w hich w ill be discussed in later ehapters.
It w ill bc seen, then, that the Vina masks can be subdivided into
five main d evelopm ental stages: i. R o u g h ly triangular, belonging
to the Starevo and earliest Vina periods (appearing from a depth
o f 9 .3-8 .3 m . in the Vina m ound). ii. T rian gu lar, belon ging to the
E arly V ina period (as high as 7.3 m. in the Vina m ound). iii. U n decorated pentagonal, typical o f the m iddle phase o f Vina d evelop
m ent (from c. 7 - 5 m . deep at Vina). iv. D evelop ed pentagonal,
w ith large, raised sem icircular eyes; ornam ented (5-3 m . deep at
V ina). v. Pictorial w ith alm ond-shaped eyes (sce Fig. 19).

e c o r a t io n

an d

p e r f o r a t io n s

fo r

attach m en t

Frequently occu rring perforations o f the mask and a flattencd crow n

o f the head im ply that the figurines carried som e sort o f organic
attachm ent which has not survived. Plum es, fruits, flow ers, w o vcn
bands and other m aterials couid have been em ployed in this w ay,
and w c m ay legitim ately try to im agine these sculptures co lo u rfu lly
adorned w ith elaborate crovvns. In fact, on a few figurines there is a
suggestion o f a crovvn or halo. Since a m ajori ty o fth e Vina masks
64

20 Terracotta head oj a fig u rin e from the Vina mound toearing a broad, triangular
stylized mask. It has seven pairs o j perforations fo r attachments u/lticli have not survived.
Late Vina

appear to im itate bird-like features, the em p loym en t o f p lum age as

decoration w o u ld not be unnatural. Ethnographic data from the
Balkan Peninsula lend support to this assum ption, fo r even today
masks used for annual festivals are decorated w ith plum es. In contem porary western B ulgaria, for instance, bird masks have ve ry
elaborate crovvns o f colourful plum age, w hile other masks bear
rams or bulls horns. M inoan figurine masks are cro w n ed vvith
birds, horns, poppies, pom egranates, or even snakes w ith their heads
projeeting above the crovvn (ej. bell-shaped idols from G azi, K arfi
and G o rty n a : A lexio u 1958, Pl. E -H ). T h e decoration o f masks must
have varied considerably depending on vvhat kind o f divinities,
devotees, or animals vvere represented. It is possible that som e masks
served m ultiple purposes, the transform ations being effected by
varying decoration. A head-dress could easily be fashioned for the
mask, to be renevved annually, perhaps w ithin the context o f the
farming co m m u n itys seasonal ritual festivals. The pierced arm stumps w hich frequently occur on standing figurines o f the B ird
Goddess type could have served for the attachm ent o f w in g plum es;
but generally, perforations through the shoulders, arms and hips
vvere p robably intended to perm it the figures to be hung up in the
home, in shrines or trees, perhaps also to bc used in ritual svvinging.
Sw inging is kn ow n from ancient Greece in the festival o f Aiora
(Nilsson 19 5 0 : 3 3 1- 3 2 ) . A relevant scene is depieted on an A ttic
red-figure skyphos vvhere a satyr w earing a cerem onial head-dress
is sw inging a yo u n g girl. A sw inging figurine attached to pillars p ortrayed in clay has been found in H agia Triadha, Crete, n o w in the
Heraklion m useum . Indced, a num ber o f N eo lithic-C h alcolith ic
figurines are shovvn in a half-seated, half-standing position believed
to be conncctcd w ith sw in gin g, in the spring, as a fertility rite
(Marinatos 19 68 : 7-9).

65

Parallels

in

rete

and

n c ie n t

reece

an d

T H E T H E A T R IC A L

EMPHASIS

2 4 ,2 5

M asked figures appear on M inoan sculptures, vases, signet rings and

seals. A goddess and w orshippers in the ritual dance scene on the
ring from Isopata near Knossos, Crete, w ear insect masks. The
G o rgo n M edusa head becam e a terror m ask, although the C o rfu
pedim ent o f about 600 b c proves that M edusa was o rigin ally a Great
Goddess (Bieber 19 3 9 : 35). A satyr-like masked man w ith padded
knickers and fat belly, a w e ll-k n o w n figure from G reek com edy, is
encountered on a Late M ycenaean seal from C y p ru s and on the
M inoan steatite vase from H agia T riadha (W ebster 19 59 : 10). His
costum e closely resem blcs that o f the masked and padded figure
from the Vina site o f Fafos. A nim al-headed dem ons w a lk in g upright, as depieted on M ycenaean frescoes and gem s (M ylonas 1966:
126), must be hum ans w earin g masks. O n a M inoan ring from
Phaistos (W ebster 19 59 : 8, fig. 4) a hum an mask is shovvn between
tw o goats. Portrayal o f the mask alone vvas as im portant as portrayal
o f masked creatures, for it vvas the reccptaclc o f invisible divine
forces. O n the m any vases used during the D ionysian festival o f
Lenaia a mask 011 a post decorated vvith dresses represented the god
him self. T h e priests or priestesses and the vvorshippers o f ancient
Greece and Italy vvore m asks; the satyrs and the maenads vvho danced
in frenzy at D ionysian festivals, w ere m asked; e vcryo n c vvho danced
for the god and m ade m usic vvas masked. Each different m ythical
persona vvas represented by a different mask. M asks o f centaurs are
knovvn from the sixth ccntury b c (Kenner 19 54 : 12). A liturgical use
o f masked participants, the thiasotcs or tragoi, led ultim ately to their
appearance upon the stage and to the birth o f tragedy. M asked figures
survive in Greek com ed y o f the fifth century b c . In their dram a the
com ic poets used ehoruses o f animals, birds, fish and insects, and
hybrid creatures or sirens (Sifakis 19 6 7; 19 7 1) , vvhich w ere not an
invention o f the sixth and fifth centurics b c but trae their origins to
the M ycenaean and M inoan era and to O ld Europe. Players danced
vvith vvooden masks in h onour o f A rtem is C o ryth alia in Italy, and
in the tem ple o f A rtem is O rthia in Sparta w ere found clay masks o f
the seventh and early sixth century b c . T h e y vvere m ade in im itation
o f vvooden masks used in the perform ances and dances and songs
dedicated to A rtem is. T h is a n alo gy, and the shape and decoration o f
Vina masks, stron gly suggest that the mask representations on a y
figurines are replicas in m iniaturc o f vvooden masks.
Masks and masked figures, life-size or in m iniature, o f Ancient
Greece, M inoan C rete and O ld Europe, im p lv litu rgy and drama
vvhose emphasis is theatrical. It is quite conceivable that ali three
belong to the same tradition. M asked figurines are m im etic repre
sentations o f rituals and m yth olo gical scenes.

66

Shrines and the Role of Figurines

The abundance o f clay statuettes p o rtrayin g costum ed, masked

wom en and men im plies that the O ld European peoples re-enacted
rituals, but it is necessary to look elsevvhere in the archaeological
record fo r the cerem onial accoutrem ents o f the cult, in order to
reconstruct its practice m ore precisely.

C l a y m o d e l s o f s h r in e s

The m iniature clay house-m odels produced through out the N eo li

thic-Chalcolithic period are particularly imp'ortant, presenting
details o f arehiteeture, decoration and furnishing that are othervvise
unavailable to the prehistoric archaeologist. Som e o f these m odels,
diseovered under the corners o f excavated house-floors or b y the
centra! post supporting the roof, must have been used in a sacrificial
cerem ony to celebrate the ereeon o fth e strueture. Several exam ples
were diseovered in such a context at the Starevo settlem ent o f
R o szk e-L u d var near Szeged in H un gary (T ro g m a y er 1966) and at
Bran, a L en gyel site in Slovakia (Vladar 1969: 506). A d ivin ity vvas
modelled in re lie f on the gable.
In the N eolithic m ound o f Porodili near Bitola in Southern
Y ugoslavia several house-m odels o f a uniquc typc vvere excavated :
each has a cylindrical ch im n ey upon vvhich are m odelled the masked
features o fa beaked and large-eyed goddess vvith a necklaceencircling
her neck and spreading o ver the roof. T h e m odels have elaborate
doors, either o f an invertcd T shape or vvith angular cut-outs, and
probably represent tem ples dedicated to a particular goddess. A
house-model vvith a b ird s head and incised plum age found at the
Early V ina site o f Turda? in T ransylvania, must sign ify the same
concept. T h e m odel o f a sanctuary from Vadastra in vvestern R o m a nia has divine proteetors in the form s o f a rani and a buli. T h e tvvo
temples have pitehed roofs and tand upon a high podium decorated
vvith a spiral and lattice pattern.

^7

0 1 1 3 4 3 em
j i C,lay model o fa Dird
C oddcss snctiiary. 1'urdas,
Rom ani. I:rly Vina, c.
end fi.xtli milleiiniinn 1:

A m o d e l diseovered in 1966 on a r i v e r - i s l a n d settlem ent o f the

Gum elni(a c u l t u r e , at Cascioarele in S o u th e rn R o m a n ia , has caused
the interpretative confines o f the prehistorians understanding o f
N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic struetures a n d cult practices to be readjusted
(Hortensia D um itrcscu 1968). T h e red-baked, polished clay m odel
vvas found ly in g close to a large house (10 X 7 m.) divided by
partition w alls into tw o corridors. T he w o od cn construction o f the
house was not preserved; but traces o f its peculiar strueture, the
presence o f a sacrificial place w ith a b e n c h (altar) tw o metres a w ay,
and num erous cult vases o f unusual shape, including askoi, suggest
that it was a sanctuary. It is im possible to say, h o w e vcr, w hether or
not the m odel had b e e n vvithin, or should be associated w ith, the
house strueture near vvhich it was found. T h e m odel is 24.2 cm . high
and 5 1 cm . lo n g at the base. It consists o f a large s u b s t r u c t u r e , like the
stereobate o f a classical G reek tem ple, w hich supports four individual
temples, each o f vvhich has a w ide-arched portal and is crovvned vvith
horns on the gable and above the four corners. T h e entrance to each
tem ple has a narrovv border in relief, suggcsting a d oor-fram e, from
vvhich tw o ribs project o b liqu ely upvvards bctvveen the lintel and
the roof, perhaps indicating the vvooden supports o f an arcade leading to the tem ple. T h ere is no further arehiteetural detail vvithin the
temples. T h e front surfacc o f th e substructure is decorated with
irregular horizontal incised lines and ten round holes. T h e m odel
tem ples presum ably illustrate real struetures at least three metres in
h eigh t; add to that a substructure corresponding to that o f the m odel,
and vve have a tem ple com p lex ten or m ore metres high. T h e hori
zontal lines m ight depict flig h ts o f sta irs or a terrace-like strueture,
but the presence o f holes, vvhich should represent entrances, remains
inexplicable. M rs D um itrescu interprets the incised lines as an
indication o f vvood construction, in vvhich casc the holes could
represent entrances into the podium , vvhere staircases vvould lead up
to the level o f t h e tem ples. In addition, there vvas p robably a stairw a y access on the outside o f the podium , and on top there must have
been a terrace to accom m odate a vvorshipping congregation.
Tem ples supportcd on terraced substructures are knovvn from
Sum erian arehiteeture at the end o f the fourth m illcnnium B C . As
the closest parallel to the Cascioarele m odel M rs D um itrescu cites
the tem ple from Susa, depieted in a stylized en gravin g on a cylinder
seal o f the proto-urban period, c. 3300 b c . It has a large substructure
vvith entrances and apertures. O n top there is a rectangular tem ple
vvhich has tvvo gates and is decorated vvith three bull-horns on each
side (H. D um itrescu 19 6 8 : Fig. 7). R ad io carb o n tests gave the dates
3668 x 120 and 3535 J~ 12 0 b c ; calibratcd, they take us back to
the second h a l f o f the fifth m illennium n e. So the Cascioarele edificc
m ay ante-datc the Sum erian tem ples b y on e m illennium .
68

The m odel from Cascioarele is not unique. W ith in the area o f

distribution o fth e East Balkan civilization m any fragm ents o fsim ila r
models, usually sm aller, have been knovvn for a lon g time. A tvvostorey house diseovered in the site o f R u se , on the lovver D anube
in B u lgaria, possesses arehiteetural similarities to the Cascioarele
model (G e o rg ie v -A n g e lo v , R use: 58, Fig. 20). T h e surface o f the
loWer part is incised vvith ro u gh ly parallel lines and pierced b y round
apertures; vvhile the second storey, the main tem ple, has a strueture
0f vertical posts and horizontal beams. This m odel vvas fragm en tary,
particularly its upper part, and the reconstruction m ay not be
entirely correct. Struetures vvith vvide-arched portals standing on
' terraced stereobates are depieted by other clay m odels excavated
from the same settlem ent o f R u se during 1948-49 (id.: Fig. 90) and
from Izvoarele in R o m a n ia . T h e detail on these m odels suggests that
the tem ples foundation need not in variably have been o f vvood, but
m ight consist o f steeply terraced earth. A quadrangular clay m odel
o f a tem ple vvith vvide-arched portals on ali four sides vvas recently
diseovered in a Late N eolithic context in the site o f K ran n on -D u rak i
in Thessaly (M ichaud 1970).
Arehiteetural remains encountered during excavations at V a rvarovka, a C u cu ten i-T rip o lye settlement near K ishenev, Soviet
M oldavia, vvere considered to represent the collapse o f tw o-storey
rather than single-storey struetures. A clay m odel o f a tw o -sto rey
sanctuary, the second floor com prising the tem ple, vvas diseovered
in 1969 near K ie v in the R o s river valley. (The m odel is housed in
the A rchaeological Institute o f the A cadem y o f Sciences in K iev.)
There are entrances on both floors, and in front o f the large portal or
gate o f the m ain tem ple is a platform adorned vvith bulls horns.
Vertical vvall-posts are indicated in re lie f and the arehed r o o f is
supported by horizontal beams.
M iniature clay m odels o f shrines from the B u g V alley in the
vvestern U krain e h ave been knovvn since the beginning o f the
tvventieth century. T h e m odel from Popudnia, a Late C ucuteni (in
Russian T rip o ly e C ) settlement north o f U m an , vvas diseovered
by H im ner in 19 12 (H im ner 1933). It is usually interpreted as a
building resting on piles because the m odel stands on cylindrical clay
legs. B y an alogy vvith other m odels o f shrines, som e o f vvhich are
illustrated in this volum e, it m ay be assumed that the presence o f
these supports is mcant to stress the im portance o f the sanctuarys
elevation above the ground. Hundreds o f Cucuteni houses have since
been excavated, none o f vvhich vvas built on piles. T h e Popudnia
model consists o f the main room and a vestib u leo ren o sed platform .
Betvveen them there is a rectangular entrance vvith a threshold. O n
the right side stands a large rectangular oven, raised on a platform ,
and benehes. O n the bench to the right o f the oven, a fem ale figurine

69

2 2 C la y model o f a temple
on a stereobate. Izvoarele,
southeastem Rom ania. East
Balkan civilization. Copper
A g e , c. 4500 b c

r e m a in s

2 j C la y model o f a slitine fro m Popudnia, ivestem Ukraine. Late Cucuteni. c. midfourth millennium b c

w ith hands on her breasts w as foun d ; by the other w all, again on a

raised level, a sculpture o f a w o m an grinding grain. N ear the quernstone is a small depression to accom m odate the ground grain. B y the
same w all tand three large pear-shaped vases. A raised platform in
the shape o f a cross decoratcd vvith grooves around the edges lies
near the centre o f the shrinc. Such cross-shaped platform s also occur
in the actual houses o f the C ucuteni settlements and are k n ow n to
bc placcs for vo tivc offerings (docum ented in the settlem ent o f
V la d im iro vk a: Passck 1949, 85, 89). Interior vvalls aredecorated vvith
bands o f black-painted geom etric designs consisting o f lozenges
flanked' vvith chevrons. T he m odel, o f reddish clay, vvas constructed
in parts vvhich vvere then glued together and baked. It has no roof,
allovving the ob servcr to vievv the interior arrangcm ent o f the
sanctuary. M an y other m odels o f C ucuteni shrincs from V lad im i
rovka and S h u v k o vk a are roofless (Passck 19 49 : 100, 125). T he
m odel found in the classical Cucuteni site o f V lad im iro vk a has
cxterio r and interior vvalls. T h e floor o f the main hali and o f the
vestibule is painted in red, vvliite and dark brovvn concentric circles
and sem icirclcs, and there are zigzag bands around the entrance, the
round vvindovv and along the top o f the vvalls.

70

o f s a n c tu a r ie s a n d s a c r if ic ia l p la ce s

One o f the m ost excitin g discoveries in R o m an ia vvas the tem ple

unearthed in the village o f Cascioarele in a layer im m ediately below
the Gumelni^a stratum in vvhich the large clay m odel o f the edifice
was found. T h e carbonized w o o d revealed radiocarbon dates in the
region o f 4000 b c (Berlin Lab. dates: 5980 100 B P , 5860 100
B P and 5570 100 B P ). C alibrated, they equate vvith the early
part o f the fifth m illennium b c . Vases found standing on the
hardened clay floor are o f late B oian style o f the East Balkan
civilization.
The sanctuary is rectangular in plan, 16 X 10 m ., divided into
two room s b y a ro w o f six posts. O n ly one room has a painted
interior, its vvalls being cream on a red background, in the fo rm o f
curvilinear and angular designs o f thin ribbons and larger bands. A
terracotta m edallion, nearly circular in shape, decorates the vvestern
wall. It is painted vvith a band o f red spirals bordered vvith a thin line
o f cream paint on a brovvnish-green background. T w o pillars vvere
found in this room . T h e larger one is about 2 m. high. It has a hollovv
interior and vvas p rob ab ly m odelled around a tree trunk vvhich vvas
then rem oved after the clay hardened, because no traces o f vvood
remain. T h e pillar, like the vvalls, vvas painted three times and each
set o f the painted geom etric designs is different. T h e pillar vvas
encircled b y posts, but does not seem to have had any arehiteetural
40

24

31

funetion. N earb y, a skeleton o f an adult in a crouched position vvas

diseovered. A nother, thinner pillar (only 10 cm . in diameter), but
o f the same height and also hollovv inside, vvas found close to the
interior vvall. It is painted vvith cream ribbons, 8 - 1 2 m m . vvide, on
a reddish-brovvn background. N ex t to it vvas a terracotta beneh,
c. 40 cm. high and painted vvith curvilinear ribbons of cream paint.
M an y fragm ents o f large pitlioi decoratcd vvith excised m otifs, and
vases, painted 111 vvhite on a lustrous brovvn b ackgroun d, vvere found
above the floor (V. D um itrescu 1970).
In the C ucuteni (T ripolye) civilization, rcm ains o f a tem ple vvere
found in the site o f Sabatinovka II in the valley o ft h e Southern Bug
(M akarevich 1 9 6 0 M ovsha 19 7 1). It dates from the Proto-Cu'cuteni
period ( Early T rip o ly e 111 Russian term in o logy). T h e rectangular
building occupied about 70 sq. m. A narrovv entrance vvas located on
the long side. T h e entrance area vvas paved vvith flat stones and the
rest o f the floor vvas plastered vvith clay. A bone figurine vvas found
at the entrance. Each part o f the building served a different cult
purpose. A b o ut halfvvav in, tovvards the right, there was a large oven,
at the base o f vvhich a fem ale figurine vvas found. B eyo n d and to the
right o f the oven vvas a group o f vessels, ineluding a dish filled vvith
burnt bones o f a buli and a channel-dccorated pot vvith a small cup
inside; to the left o f these stood a brazier (an incense burner?), a
grou p o f five saddle querns and a rovv o f five terracotta figurines. Ali
o f the figurines vvere o f the same tvpe, seated, vvith bodies leaning
25 Tlu' slitine of
Sabatinovka in the Southern
ttug I \illey, Soviet
M oh iaria. lia rly (Cucuteni.
T h e shrine Oiiupies 70
stfuare metre* and its tvalls
are hnilt o f ivattle-and-daub.
1 . Stone p a vem em : 2. i'lay
oven :
dais (altar) o f c la y :
4, (lay throne:
clay
figurin es: 0. group of vases
ineluding a dish filled 1vitli
burni bones o fa buli

26 C la y figurines fo u n d on
the altar o fth e Sabatinovka
shrine, ali originally seated
on horned thrones (several
o f these are illustrated in top
ro w ); they are ali
characterized by massive
buttocks ~ to aid the sitting
position - and snake-shaped
heads. O ne fig u rin e (bottom
centre) holds a baby snake or
a phallus

backwards. Farther inside and opposice the entrance, was a large

altar m easuring 2.75 X 6 m ., covered with four or five Iayers o f
clay plaster. Sixteen fem ale figurines w ere found at its Southern side,
ali seated on h om -backed stools. In the corner, behind the altar, vvas
a clay throne or chair. Its seat, one metre w id e, vvas o rigin ally
covered vvith split planks. The total num ber o f the figurines found
in this sanctuary was th irty-tw o . A li o f them are schernatically
rendered vvith fat thighs and a snake-shaped head. A few vvere
perforated through the shoulders, but have no arms except one w h o
holds a baby snake o r phallus (Fig. 26, bottom ro w , centre). T h e
association o f quern and grindstones vvith figurines portrayed
in a seated position suggests m agical grinding o f grain and then
perhaps baking o f sacred bread. There vvas an overseer in control o f
the proceedings, p robably a priestess or priest, seated on the full-size
chair near the altar.
In the Classical Cucuteni settlem ent o f K olom ijshchina 1 in the
middle D nieper region a raised red-painted altar, 70 cm. in diam eter,
was diseovered in the centre o f one o f the houses (N o . 6), near the

73

26

27 Coiitents o fth e shrine at

G ournia, a Late M inoan
tou'n in eastem Crete.
1 , earthen tripod; 2, tubeshaped clay vessels decorated
with snakes and horns;
j , terracotta fig u rin es (mliole
and fragm enti o f the heads)
one entwincd by a snahe

oven. T w e n ty -o n e figurines, ali in seated position, w ere diseovered

in the altar and oven areas; eighteen w cre fem ale and three male.
A ltars in the shape o f a dais, built o f clay and covered with
w o od en planks, or in the form o f w ooden tables, occur in ali parts
o f O ld Europe, in association vvith beehive-shaped or dom ed ovens.
T h e y are not alw ays accom panied by figurines or ritual vases;
o w in g to bad preservation excavators w ere in m any cases able to
iden tify only the burnt remains o f som e struetures and groups o f
figurines, or an accum ulation o f assorted vases (exam ples: Vina
sites at M ed ved njak, D ivostin , C rnokalaka B ara, Anza).
H um an sacrifice accom panied b y anim al sacrifice and offerings o f
other objeets vvas p erform ed in open-air sanctuaries. In a Late C u cu
teni site at T svik lo v tsi, Podolia in the vvestern U kraine, the cremated
bones o f a youth aged about tw en ty w ere found, together vvith those
o f a buli, m arten and sheep near an offering pit vvhich contained
eighteen vessels, grindstones, vvhorls, net sinkers, and an antler pick.
A b o v e another pit filled vvith charcoal and ashes stood a rectangular
altar. T h ere vvas one m ore pit plastered vvith clay, in vvhich, together
vvith layers o f ash, stood a large storage ja r vvith remains o f vvheat
grains. A t the base o f the pit, a stone polisher, an aw l, and fragm ents
o f dishes and cups v/ere diseovered. T his sacrificial area vvas adjacent
to the excavated village (M oshva 1 971). Sacrificial pits filled vvith
anim al bones or skulls, charcoal, ashes and pots have also been found
vvithin the settlement area. In the L en gycl settlement o f B ran near
N itra in Slovakia, dcep conical pits vvith vvalls and bottom s lined
vvith clay vvere locatcd at one end o f large, tvvo-room houses. In one
pit, nearly 2 m. deep, there vvas a bu lls skull vvith horns. M any
layers are to be seeri in the sacrificial pits: offerings vvere solidly
covered vvith clay and then vvith loess. T h e sterile layers in betvveen
the rem ains o f sacrifices perhaps sign ify annual intervals (Vladar
19 6 9 : 507).
W orship vvith offerings or m ysteries took place in natural caves
as ritual pottery and graffiti testify. N eolithic paintings vvere dis
eovered in 1970 in a cave at Porto Badisco. south o f O tranto in
A pu lia (Graziosi 19 7 1). These inciude spirals, snakes. stylized iialfsnake, half-hum an creatures, qu ad riform designs and lozenges,
horned anim als, men holding bovvs. and geom etric svm bols
executed in black o ro e h re -re d . Pottery found at the site iso t A driatic
Serra d A lto stylc, follovved by a fevv ceram ic articles o f later Piano
C o n te style. This suggests the cave vvas in tise during the latter part
o ft h e fifth and during the fourth m illennium ne.

P a r a i .l e l s v v i t h M i n o a n - M y c ; e n a e a n s h r i n e s

T h e O ld European and M inoan shrines shovv a striking sim ilarity.

74

^ jja lo g o u s shrine equipm ent and vo tive offerings cover a vvide

period fro m C h alcolithic or even N eolithic O ld Europe to Classical
Greece. I shall m ention here a fevv closely related exam ples.
The Late M in oan I shrine o f the provincial tovvn o f G ournia in
eastern C rete is situated at som e distance from the palae on the
suinrnit o f the tovvn hill and had a road leading to it. T h e shrine vvas
5niall, o n ly 4 X 3 m ., vvith rudely constructed vvalls. A raised dais
ran along the Southern vvall to the right o f the entrance. In the centre
stood a lo w plastered earthen table vvith three legs, and around it
three curious tube-shaped vessels and part o f a fourth. T h e y have a
vertical ro w o f three or four snake-like loops on either side, a big ger
handle on the back, and above this a pair o f horns o f consecration;
one o f these vessels is entvvined b y tw o snakes. T h e other objeets
inciude a bell-shaped fem ale idol vvith raised hands and a snake
around the b o d y, tvvo heads o f other Snake Goddesses, three arm s,
hands and bases o f other figurines, tvvo snake heads, fou r small birds,
and a fragm ent o f a clay pithos (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 80-82). C le a rly the
Snake Goddess vvas invoked and vvorshipped in this small shrine. Its
equipment has m uch in com m on vvith the snake-decorated vases and
Snake Goddess figurines o f O ld Europe.
The snake cult is evident also in the palae at Knossos. A t the
entrance to a little room in a private house in the southvvestern part
o f the palae dating from the Late M inoan I and II period stood a
large ja r. It contained a num ber o f clay vessels, including tubular
ones o f terracotta provided vvith tw o pairs o f cups, a terracotta tand,
the upper part o f vvhich is divided into four com partm ents, tvvo small
jugs and vessels o f unusual form o ver vvhich snakes are coiled. The
last-named are perforated like strainers and p robably served for
invoking rain b y allovving vvater to run through the holes. In ali
areas o f C h alcolithic O ld Europe vessels vvith perforations frequently
occur; gen erally they are made o fa thick clay vvith rough and uneven
holes. Som e are zoom orphic or ornithom orph ic and others have
perforations in the snake coils.
A t M ycen ae recent excavations revealcd a little room filled vvith
terracotta sculptures o f vvhich nineteen vvere hum an idols o f both
sexes up to 50-60 cm . high, and seventeen vvere coiled snakes (T aylo u r
1970: 274).
A small shrine, on ly 1.5 m. square, vvas found by S ir A rth u r Evans
in the palae at Knossos and dated to the Late M inoan III period. O11
the stam ped clay floor vvere m any bovvls and vases. Inserted into the
pebbly surface o f a raised dais vvas a plaster tripod on vvhich stood
some cups and ju g s. O n a highcr platform vvith a pebbled floor and
plastered front, tvvo pairs o f horns o f consecration m ade o f vvhitc
stucco vvith a clay ore vvere set up. Lcaning against one o f them vvas
a d oub le-axc o f steatite vvith duplicated blades. Each o f the horns

75

2 8 Perforated vessels
covered ivith coiled snakes
from a private house of Late
M inoan / - / / periods, in the
Palae o f Knossos

2g H orned tand ivith

perforations from T itrda f,
Transylvania. Bariy Vinca.
C. 5 2 0 0 BC

4 0 ( ?j . i\ - r m n k ] o t ,i '..U K 'c u .u y consisK

o f tvvo te m p le s s u p p o n e d o n a
^
> u b > ir iK u iu .uh! to p p e d h y .1 ram s

and .1 h u ll s head paim ed 111 red.

Vadastra Ii. so u th u estern Romania
Ka\t B alkan v iliz a iio m C-li;*Icolithic
4 >00 c

43 Stylized rcp lica o f a

san ctu ary, p ro b a b ly used as
an altar d ecoration , fro m
T r u je jti, n ortheastern
R o m a n ia . C lassical C u cu ten i.
En d o f fifth m illen n iu m b c
44 A ltarp iece in the shape o f
a bird vvith p lu m age
indicatcd. T r u je jt i. C lassical
C u c u ten i. End o f fifth
m illen n iu m b c
4 1 C !ia y m o d e l o f a s.m e ru a rv \vitha
h o le o n to p fo r in se rtio n o f goddess1
im a g e (vee P i. 3 4 ). 1 le r n ee k lac o is
s lio u ri in r e l i e f a r o u n d th e hole.
In v e r te d T -s h a p e d e n tra n e e s o n ali
sidev. P o r o d im so u th e r n Y u i'o sla v ia .
h a r lv s i s t li u iille n n iu m iu

4 : ( "3-i\ model
1>! .111 i/d liu e
lr*H) ( 'an'ioardi
Ii\\er I ).inubc
ivi* u n. portraym-j: .t l.ir^ e subs ir u e u ir e
M ipportim j; tour
l e m p le v l'.ast
H ajka 11 eiviliza1ro.11. (. h alco In Ih , , I .ili'

fifth

1111 1U n ni um 11C

45 A ltarp iec e in the shape o f t h e goddess w ith

upraised arm s. T r u je jt i. C lassical C u cu ten i

j i D esign on the painted

larger pillar at the entrance
to the Cascioarele shrine.
I:arly fifth ntillenninni b c

had a ccntral socket w hich was m eant to receive the shaft o f the
d oub lc-axc. O n either side o f the horns stood terracotta figurines
com prising three bell-shaped idols, and tw o v o ta ry figures, one male
and one fem ale. T h e fem ale figurine p robably portrays the main
goddess o fth e shrine (N ilsson 19 50 : 80). T he doub le-axe m ost likely
represents the epiphany o f the G reat Goddess since she assumed the
shape o f a buttorfly rising from the horns o f a buli (sce ehapter 8).
O b v io u slv the G reat Goddess w as \vorshipped in this little shrine.
T h e tw o-pillared sanctuary o f Cascioarele has m an y parallels in
C retan towns and palaces as w ell as in M ycenaean Greece. A pillar
or tw o in a shrine vvas the m ost frequent attribute o f a M inoan
sanctuary. A t Koum asa, for instance, the sanctuary was com posed
o f several room s, one o f which had a w ooden colum n in the m iddle;
a cylindrical idol and a table for offerings stood iu.situ (A rch. Anzeiger
1 9 0 7 : 1 0 8 ; N ilsson 1 9 5 0 : 1 0 2 ) . Pillar room s are kn ow n from virtually
ali C retan palaces. A t Knossos they are present in ali phases o f the site.
T h e oldest pillar room was found in the building w hich belongs to
the initial stage o f M iddle M inoan I. In it tw o rectangular pillars
w ere found, each about tvvo metres high, and carvcd from a single
slab o f lim estone. N ear the Southern w all opposite the space between
the tw o pillars was a circular pit. I11 the hillside west o f the palae at
Knossos is situated the little palae, the foundation o f w hich belongs
to the beginning o f Late M inoan. It has three pillar room s. The
vvestern room has tw o pillars, one o f vvhich is com plctely preserved
and consists o f a base and tvvo gypsum blocks. Bctvvcen the pillars a
shallovv stone vat vvith a smaller sunken square in the m iddle had
been let into the ground. At the royal villa o f Knossos. in a building
o f Late M inoan II date, north o f the main room there is a pillar room ,
4 .15 4 ni., paved vvith gyp su m slabs. I11 the centre stands a pillar
com posed o f tvvo gvpsum blocks. A sunken channel form s a rcc-

tangle around the central pillar, about m id w a y betvveen it and the

vvalls. T h e house near the southeastern angle o f the palae at Knossos
contains a m ost interesting pillar room from M id d le M inoan III. In
the m iddle o f the rectangular room stands a pillar, consisting o f six
blocks vvith a doub le-axe engraved on one o f the upper blocks. A
truncated pyram idal gyp sum block vvas found close to the foo t o fth e
pillar vvhich p rob ab ly served as the base fo r a double axe. F ro m this
side o f the pillar to the vvall runs a foundation vvith m an y flat stone
bases vvhich m ay have served as stands fo r vessels. O n the other side
o f this vvall an iv o ry knot vvas found, and in the an te-roo m stood a
six-legged o fferin g table (Evans, Palae o f M inos, I, I46ff., 4 4 1 ; II,
396, 407, 5 1 5 ; N ilsson 19 5 0 : 237-40). Pillar room s vvere revealed in
the palaces at Phaistos, H agia Triadha, M allia and Z a k ro . In the
palae at H agia T riadh a a square pillar stood in the m iddle o f a
rectangular room . A quadrangular channel surrounded the pillar as
in the royal v illa at Knossos. In the peighbouring ro om m an y v o tive
figures vvere found. T o the northvv^st o f the palae tvvo pillars stood
in one o f the room s used for burials in the Late M in o an III period.
An ou tdoor C retan pillar shrine is reported from P h ylako p i on
the island o f M elos, a M iddle M inoan III tovvn. (N ilsson 19 50 :
241, 242.) O n the m ainland, an interesting pillar ro om am e to light
at Asine, in a room com plex knovvn as the M ycenaean palae .
Standing in the centre o f a fairly large room , 7 X 5 m ., tvvo colum n
bases vvere found. In one corner there vvas a bench or ledge m ade o f
undressed stone slabs. O n this ledge a quantity o f m ale and fem ale
figurines, vessels and a stone axc oncc stood, som e o f vvhich had
fallen to the floor, (Persson and Frodin, A sin e : 298, 30 8 ; N ilsson
1950: 1 1 1 , 112 ) .
The vvorship ofstalagm ites in caves from the N eo lith ic period to
M inoan C rete and A ncient Greece vvas ve ry likely related to that o f
pillars. In G rotta Scaloria, in the G argano Peninsula o f Southern
Italy, a beautiful painted pot dating from about 6000 b c vvas standing
by a stalagm ite (A rchaeological M useum o f Fo ggia). A cave east o f
H eraklion dedicated to Eileithyia, goddess o f childbirth, contained
a stalagmite and a relatively smaller one next to it. In m an y other
caves on C rete, at Psychro, Kam ares, A rk alo k h o ri and elsevvhere,
the artifacts and sym bols attest the vvorship o f the G reat Goddess
(Alexiou 19 69: 79).
From the large n u m b e ro f pillar shrines, the engravings o f doubleaxes on lim estone pillars in M inoan palaces, and the presence o f
stepped or conical supports vvith holes for inserting the shaft o f a
double-axe, an em blem o f the Great Goddess, it is apparent that the
pillar cult vvas associatcd vvith the vvorship o f this d ivin ity.
Pictorial representations on M inoan-M yccnacan gold rings, in
which a trec grovvs out o f the shrine enclosing a pillar, indicate that

79

3 2 G o ld ring from M ycende.

O n the right: a small shrine
with an cncloscd pillar from
ii'hich grotvs a plant. O n the
h ft : a plant grotvs out from
the hody o fa w ild goat

>39

pillar and plant are sym b olically interrelated, both sym bolizing the
p o w e r o f life or the povver o f the goddess. This sym b olic notion is
strengthened b y other representations on M in oan -M ycenaean gold
rings in w hich the colum n is flanked by m ale anim als, usually lions
or griffms (replacing the dogs that flank the tree in C h alcolithic O ld
Europe). T h e same anim als flank the goddess in her epiphany as a
butterfly, i.e., a w o m an vvith a head o f a butterfly associated w ith
bu lls horns and a double-axe sym b ol. A pillar shrine p o rtrayin g a
sim ilar grou p o f sym bols can be recognized in a fresco in the palae
at K nossos; here the raised central colum n is fitted into a Socket o f
bu lls horns, b elo w w hich is the ideogram o f the G reat G oddess: the
split e g g , tw o sem icircular rosettes d ivided in the m iddle (A lexiou
1969: 82, Fig. 30). O ther colum ns o f the same fresco also had bullhorn sockets. T he M inoan and O ld European pillar was not an axis
o f the universe, not the axis mundi o f the A ltaic and northern E u ro
pean cosm ologies, but an incarnation o f the G reat Goddess in her
aspect as the source o f life-po w er.
M ost students o f M inoan cuiture are bevvildered b y the abundance o f cult practices. Shrines o f one kind or another are so num erous
that there is reason to believe that not on ly every palae but every
private house vvas put to som e such tise. Characteristic o f these
dom estic cults are the horns o f consecration and the tables for
offerings vvhich occu r alm ost everyvvhere (N ilsson 19 50 : 110 ). T o
ju d g e b y the frequency o f shrines, horns o f consecration and the
sym b ol o f the dou ble-axe, the vvhole palae o f Knossos must have
resem bled a sanctuary. W h erever you turn, pillars and sym bols
rem ind one o f the presence o f the Great Goddess or the Snake G o d
dess. T his situation is related to that found in N eolithic and C h alco
lithic E u ro p e : in houses there vvere sacred corners vvith ovens, altars
(benches) and offering places, and there vvere separate shrines
dedicatcd to certain goddesses.

) M iniature terracotta
hrones jro m Ruse. East
ilkan civilization.
'aranovo V I). M id-fifth
llennium b c

h r in e

e q u ip m e n t

an d

o b je c t s

related

to

cu lt

p r a c t ic e s

E xcavations in O ld Europe are continually brin gin g to light altarpieces, bucrania, libation vases, partitioned bovvls, ladles, peculiar
zoom orphic or ornithom orp h ic vases, and other elaborate artifacts
that could have found useful Service on ly in tem ples or dom estic
shrines. Life-size bucrania, real or m odelled in clay, vvere raised high
on w ooden posts and m ounted on altars or attached to the gable o f
a house or tem ple. A t Vina itself and at Ja k o v o -K o rm a d in vvest o f
B elgrade, life-size and h igh ly stylized bucrania have been unearthed.
I11 C ucuteni settlements a series o f life-size altars or altar screens have
been found. O ne o f the m ost spectacular, from the settlement o f
Tru$cti in M o ld avia, appears to bc a stylizcd rcplica o f the fasade o f

Sd

34 Reconstructioti o fa cult
talile supportiug a series o f
vases; fo u n d at tlie classical
Petrcjti settlement at P ianul
de Jo s , Transylt dnia. M id fifth inillennium 11 c

a sanctuary, vvith a vvide-arched central entrance and side entrances

indicated b y oval holes. A b o v e are tvvo sym bols shaped like an M ,
differing in sie but each capped vvith a basin-shaped lid vvhich m ay
represent sacrificial vessels. O ther large altarpieces from Trueti take
the shape o f a B ird Goddess or a goddess vvith upraised arms.
N u m erou s m iniature tables, thrones, ehairs and stools vvere
m odelled in clay. T h e y seem to have been m anufactured in conjunction vvith figurines, to provide dom estic com forts for divinities. In
exceptional circumstances the remains o f full-sized furniture have
been diseovered. In the Petre$ti settlement o f Pianul de Jo s at
Hunedoara, a fire, vvhich possibly occurred vvithin a strueture
housing a shrine, preserved parts o f a rough ly triangular table vvhich
vvas plastered vvith clay and displayed a decoratcd pancl in relief.
C areful excavation shovved that richly decorated pedestalled vases,
dishes, a ja r and several lids must have been standing on this table
and a large storage ja r under it, before the fire broke out. A t M ed vednjak, a Vina settlement in central Y u go slavia, in a rectangular
shrine 5 m. long, tvvo large groups o f ritual vases vvere uncovered
next to the burnt remains o f a vvooden strueture, probably an altar
table (1970 excavation by R . G alovic, unpublished). O n c o f the large
pots vvas packed vvith smaller vases o f various sizcs and shapes and
was covered vvith a lid. A nother house o f the same settlement yieldcd
81

43

44
45

jj

14

239

2 4 0 - 2 4 2 ; 17 0

a ritual grou p consisting o f three bull-legged vessels and a figurine.

Beside the w all, about i m. from this grou p, vvas a bieonical pot
filled w ith grains. T o w a rd s the m iddle o f the ro om , near the oven,
lay a heap o f 15 0 clay balls w ith a bull-legged vessel and a pot on
to p ; another pot, full o f grain, stood close by.
A particular type o f vessel seems to have been used in sacrificial
cerem onies. It consists o f a shallovv b o w l sunk into a flat slab w hich
m ay be triangular, standing on three legs, or rectangular and fou rlegged. Such vessels are decorated by incision, encrustation and
p ain tin g; they som etim es have anim al-head protom es projecting
fro m the corners and legs, and m ay take a hum an shape. Som e o f the
m ost im pressive are supported by m assive bull-legs or rest on stand
ing or crouching anim als. T h e buli or deer m odels from the East
B alkan civilization are outstanding illustrations o f this type o f vessel.
Libation vases m ake up another series o f cult vessels; these m ay be
ju g-sh ap ed , spouted, zoom orphic, bird-shaped or anthropom orphic,
and are o f fine fabric. T h e y are variously ornam ented, according to
local styles, being either incised or decorated w ith red, graphite, or
p olych rom e painting in com plex curvilinear and m eandroid designs.
C la y ladles, exquisitely shaped and decorated, occur in great num bers
in ali parts o f O ld Europe. Those found at the Classical Cucuteni
sites are beautifully painted. In the East Balkans som e have anthropo
m orp h ic handles p o rtrayin g m asked faces.
T h e abundant production o f small zoom orphic containers or
lam ps w ith projecting anim al heads usually o f rams, snakes or bulls
and vvith various engraved ideogram s suggests that they served as
v o tive offerings to particular deities, ju st as sim ilar objeets vvere
sacrificed during the M inoan and H elladic B ron ze A g e and in the
later Eleusinian M ysteries. Literary records m ention incense burners
and oil lamps am o n g the objeets sacrificed to D em eter o f Despoina
in Lykosu ra (Nilsson 19 57). T rad itio n ally, incense burners and lamps
vvere used as far back as pottery in E u ro pe: on close observation the
painted N eolithic ring-based and footed vessels exhibit loss o f slip
on the interior surfaces o w in g to som e unusual use to vvhich these
vessels vvere put, possibly burning (cf. study o f ceram ic tech n ology o f
Anza pottery o f c. 6000 b c b y Elizabcth Gardner).
In C ucuteni and East Balkan ceram ic art sophisticated anthropo
m orph ic vase supports are found. T h c y take the form o f either a
single hum an figure (headless, or clse vvith one o r tvvo faces) or a
gro u p o f interconnected bo w ed figures. T h e hum an body, particularly the shoulders and arm s, provided an appropriate sculptural
m o tif for m onum ental stand-supports m odelled b y Cucutcni artists.
A notable ex:amplc from Frum u$ica ineorporates five vvell-proportioned hum an figures standing erect on a single base, the upper part
o f their bodies connectcd b y their em bracing arms. T h e raising o f a

vessel is a com m on practice in ritual celebrations, usually associated

vvith fertility m agic and pleas for future prosperity. T h e Bulgarians
have retained a N evv Y e a r s custom in vvhich the three eldest w o m en
o f the fam ily thrice raise the trough containing the sacred Nevv
Y e a rs bread-dou gh ( R y bako v 1965). T h ere are statuettes p o rtrayin g
vvomen seated on a stool and holding conical containers fo r vvater.
A rem arkably w ell-preserved exam ple from B o rd jo in the lovver
Tisza valley shows a naked vvoman sitting stiffly, both hands firm ly
holding a dish on her lap. A n o th er exam ple, a seated figu re holding a
bow l and a dish w ith a ladle, comes from a Cucuteni site at N ezv isk o
in the vvestern U k rain e (R y b a k o v 19 6 5: Fig. 3). T h e E arly V ina
settlement o f Fafos yielde a sculpture o f a seated, m asked vvoman
perform ing a m agical rite o v er the vessel vvhich she is holding.
A v e ry distinctive sculpture o f a male figure vvas diseovered
during the excavation o f the Tisza settlement at Szegvar in southeastern H u n gary. H e vvears a flat mask and in his right hand holds a
sickle extending o ver his shoulder. O n both arms brac^lets are
indicated in relief, five on the right and one on the left. A broad,
decorated belt is incised round the vvaist o fh is stout body. T his figure
has attracted m uch attention, and recently K alicz (1970) term ed the
period o f the Tisza culture L e'poque du Dieu a la faucille , the epoch
o fth e Sickle G od, a dom inant m ale deity. M a k k a y (1964) considers
this figure an ancestor o f the G reek god Kronos. His dignified posture,
and his mask, sickle and festive attire, proelaim his im portant status;
his authoritative possession o f the sickle im plies that he, as central
figure o f the cult, is presiding over its rites. In ancient G reek festivals
devoted to A rtem is and D em eter the sickle vvas still displayed,
sym b olizing victo ry (N ilsson 1957). A curved stick o f copper or gold
knovvn from the third m illennium in the N ear East and the Caucasus
vvas an insignia o f povver, a sym bolic value inherited from an early
agricultural era, vvhen the sickle vvas regarded as a sacred cult
instrument. T h ere is archaeological evidence o f com posite sickles,
flint blades set in vvood or bone, and o f their utilization for reaping
from earliest N eo lith ic tim e s.T h a t they vvere used as cult or orna
menta! objeets in ritual festivities is revealed b y sickle im itations
vvhich vvere produced in copper in east central Europe about 5000
b c . T h e Szegvr figure vvould seem to be e x em p lifyin g the novel
and valuable produets o f a copper technology still in its infancy.
Bracelets m ade o f round copper vvire are knovvn from both the
Tisza and Vina cultural com plexes, and an enorm ous copper sickle,
54 cm. long, has been diseovered in H u n gary at Zaerszentm ihaly.
The sickle vvas an isolated find but its shape is v e ry m uch the same as
that b elonging to the statuette, suggesting that thcy are contem poraneous. T he S ze g v ar male sculpture is unique, the other Tisza
figurines being fem ale.

Flutes and triton shells appear in N eolithic and C h alcolithic

47

settlem en ts; on ly in exceptional circumstances are other m usical

Instrum ents such as citherns or lyres preserved. Fragm ents o f bone

46,
Seated m asked m an h o ld in g a
sickle. A r m -r in g s 011 bo th arm s.
S z e g v a r-T iiz k o v e s , T isza cuiture. c. 5000

flutes or pipes w ere diseovered in the auth ors o w n excavation

at Anza, M acedonia, belonging to the period p rior to 6000 b c
(Gimbutas, 1972). T riton shells were found in L en gyel settlements.
The above exam ples are but rem inders o f the use o f musical instruments in cult cerem onies as in M inoan C rete and in the C yclad es
(Zervos, C rete: 39 1, 445, 704). A priestess holding a triton shell is
depieted on a M inoan seal from the Idaean C a v e standing at an altar
topped vvith the horns o f consecration vvith the tree o flife representing the goddess epiphany in the m iddle. Flute-playin g is constantly
mentioned or pictorially depieted in m ythical scenes o f A ncient
Greece. T h e tradition must stem from a very early period. T h e role
o f music and dance in the religious cerem onies o f O ld Europe cannot
be fu lly assessed until marble sculptures like C yclad ic lyre- or fluteplayers, vvooden frames o f lyres or citherns or their portrayais on
frescoes or elsevvhere are diseovered.

b c ; detail o f the u p per part o f the

sculpture (46)

3 5 M inoan seal from the

Idaean C a ve. Priestess .
(? ) holding a triton shell.
On the right, an altar
topped with horns o f
consecration and a tree in the
middle

V O T IV E O F F E R IN G S: IN SC R IB ED FIG U R IN E S, V E SSE L S, SP IN D LF.-W H O R LS

A N D O TH ER O B JE C T S

.(N { u p p e r M ckle Ir o n i / . . k t a 'H ! m i haly,

u r s u iti i I m i g . i r v K u l . i n - d tm d.
prr'.tum 'd m l v ol v.im r iui .t* lipurin*
'slioun im l K. ,|fi. .(;

M an had to persuade the divinity he vvorshipped to be propitious to

him. H oards o f vo tive figurines, m iniature vessels and other objeets
are constantly being recovered in N eolithic, Chalcolithic, M inoan,
M ycenaean and Greek caves and sanctuaries, as vvell as those o f O ld
Europe. T h e m akers name, the name o f the goddess, or a sort o f
contract or prom ise, vvas sometimes inscribed on a figurine, plaque,
spindle-vvhorl or m iniature vessel. A pp ro xim ately one out o f every
hundred figurines vvas incised vvith the signs o f the Lincar O ld
European script (not religious sym bols and not ideogram s). Since
other objeets, such as spindle-vvhorls, m iniature vessels, plaques and
dishes or bovvls, vvere sim ilarly inscribed, they too must have been
votive offerings.
V ariou s signs are found 011 the front, back and sides o f O ld
European figurines. M inoan figurines vvere sinnlarly inscribed, and
an idol from the M iddle M inoan palae o f Tylissos bearing Linear A
signs is reproduced herc for com parison. Som e characters o f the
script, notably a triangular sign in conjunction vvith vertical lin.es,
are repeated quite often 011 figurines and other objeets. O n the Vina
figurine herc illustratcd, other signs - a m eander and chevrons - are
also en graved ; these are not script signs, but ideogram s o fth e Snake
and B ird Goddess, as w c shall sec from the discussion in the ehapters
that follovv. Inscribed spindle-vvhorls are know n from m any Vina
and East Balkan sites. spindles having been am ong the vo tive offer-

3 6 Late Vinca figurin e with

inscription on one side. c.
late fifth millennium b c

57 (top lift) M iddle M inoan fig u rin e fro m Tylissos, eastern C rete, bearing inscriptions
in Linear A . E arly second m illennium b c
S (above) Schematic fig urin e incised u/ith a meander or snake over fro n t and chevrons
over upper part oj back. O n low er part o f back, a triangle with vertical lines. Vina
mound. c. 4500 - 4000 ne: .

3 9 (U ft) Schematic fig u rin e inscribcd on the back u/ith signs composed o f a V or triangle
and a roir oj vertical lines. Vina mound. Late sixth millennium b c

ings in C h a lc o lith ic .O id Europe as they vvere in later periods. In

G reek times their association vvith the cult o f A rtem is is evident and
the notion o f spinning the thread o f life is very lik ely to have
originated when spinning vvas still in its infancy and was regarded as
im bued vvith a m agic povver. Inscribed m iniature vessels are abund an t; in the Vina m ound no less than 368 vvere found and m an y bore
inscriptions o f various kinds. Such vessels bear the same type o f linear
sign as do the spindle-vvhorls and figurines. T h e y are not decorative
m otifs and not sym b ols. T h e m iniature vessels, usually ve ry small
and cru d elv m ade, vvere m eant to im itate large vases and vvere
dedicated as gifts to goddcsses. O n the rims and vvalls o f larger bovvls
and dishes inscriptions also occur. T h e y cannot bc interpreted as
p o ttcrs m arks, since. they are not single geom etric signs, but a
sequence o f linear signs.
O ne o f the best exam ples o f O ld European script com es from the
C h alcolith ic site o f Gradenica near Vratsa in vvestern B u lgaria, vvhich
is contcm poran cous vvith the E arly Vina period o f the same culture in
R om an ia. O n a shallovv dish from this site, signs o f vvriting appear on
40 M iniature vessels
bearing inscriptions
(dedications?), from the
Vina mound, found
7 -6 .5 111. deep. Early
fifth millcnnium BC

both sides. O n the inner surface there are four ro w s d ivided b y

horizontal lines, and on the outside is a schematized anthropom orphic
figure, around vvhich the fam iliar script signs are grouped. A nalogous
grouping o f signs is knovvn on an object from an Early Vina site o f
Sukoro at Szekesfehervar in vvestern H ungary. O n a round plaque
f r o m K aran o vo V I in central B ulgaria, signs consisting ofstraigh t lines
were incised betvveen the cross arm s o f the quartered disc (V . I.
Georgiev, 1969).
A lth ough script signs on figurines, spindle-vvhorls and m iniature
vessels vvere knovvn and collected from the beginning o f the tvventieth
4 1 Inscribed spirtdle-u/horl
century (Schm idt 19 0 3 ; Vasi 19 10 , 19 36 ; R o sk a 19 4 1), discussions
from D ikilitash near P h ilip i,
northeastern Greece, East
concerning the possible existence o f a N eolithic-C h alcolith ic script
Balkan civilization. c.
only began after the three Tartaria plaques or pendants had been
4500 - 4000 BC
diseovered in the Mure rive r valley o f vvestern R o m an ia and vvere
published by Vlassa in 1963. These plaques, o f vvhich tvvo are perforated, vvere found in association vvith seorehed human bones,
tw enty-six schem atic E arly Vina clay figurines, tvvo alabaster
figurines, a clay anehor (possibly a fragm ent o f a figurine o r horns
o f consecration vvith a figure in the m iddle), and a Spondylus-shell
bracelet in an ash-filled, sacrificial pit located in the lovvest layer o f
the site. The pit vvas covered by tvvo occupation horizons: im m ed iately above vvas a lcvel o f the Petre?ti group and above this vvas a
Cojofeni habitation level o f the fourth m illcnnium b c . B y an alogy
vvith calibrated radiocarbon dates fo r Early Vina layers at other
sites, the d a te 'o f the lovvest occupation level cannot be later than the
early fifth m illennium . T h e Tartaria inscribed objeets are genuine
Vina artifacts, produced tvvo thousand years earlier than the
development o f Sum erian civilization and about three thousand
years before the appearance o f M inoan Palae culture.
O ne o f the Tartaria tablets shovvs the outlincs o f tvvo anim als and
a tree. O ne o f the animals in this sy m bolic scene is clearly a goat. T h e
association o f goat and tree suggcsts that the Tartaria ritual burial
may have been perform ed as part o f the rite o f annual dcath and
resurrection. I11 M inoan C rete and in the N ear East, the goat vvas
42 Shallou> vessel from
prominent as a sacrificial victim in the festival and the tree sym bolized
Gradenica near Vraa,
a nevv life. T h is also im plies the fact that O ld European vvriting vvas
ucstern Bulgaria, bearing
associatcd vvith religious funetions.
inscriptions on both sides.
(a ), outer side with signs
Inscribcd vo tive objeets clcarlv prove the existence o f O ld
around the symbolic fig u r e ;
European Linear signs and, in general, the very early incidence o f
(b ), inner side u'itli fo u r
vvriting. From the available m atcrial at the present tim e it is seen
lines o f signs. c. 5000 b c
Vina culture
that the bcginnings lic in the period o f transition from the N eolithic
to Chalcolithic (Late S ta r c v o -E a rly Vina in central Balkans), c.
5500-5000 b c :. M ore vvork on the script still avvaits the dedicated
seholar (but sce M ilton W inn. Dissertation, U C L A 1973 for
analysis o f signs; to appear in book form 111 19S2).

4 J Objeets fo u n d in a
sacrificial burial pit at
Tdrtaria, ivestern Rom ania.
a, inscribed plaques, the
upper one shoiving two
animals (goats?) and a tree,
suggesting a sacrifice in
celebration o f the return o f
new life ; b, alabaster
figurin es, a p illa r (phallic
sym lwl or fragm ent oj a clay
fig urin e) and a Spotidylus
hracelet. c. end oj sixlli
m illennium to c. 5 3 0 0 -5 0 0 0

BC

44 Inscribed clay objeets,

perhaps tveights, from
Su kori-T o radiili) east o f
Szekesfehervar, 1vestern
Hungary. 5000 li c

SUMMING UP

C la y m odels o f temples, kn ow n from ali parts o f O ld Europe,

p rob ab ly represent com m unal sanctuaries, dedicated to certain
goddesses. These inelude rectangular struetures vvith portals and
vvide entrances and fou r interconnected temples raised high on a
stereobate or an earthen terrace.
Shrines vvhose actual remains have bccn found take the fo rm o f
rectangular houses divided into tvvo room s one o f vvhich vvas furnished vvith an oven, an altar (dais), and som etim es a separate sacrificial area. These seem to be dom estic shrines. T h e pillar shrine at
Cascioarele, located in the m iddle o f the village, vvas probably a
com m unal sanctuary. T he cerem onial accoutrem ents ineluded lifesize bucrania, altar screens, large askoi, pithoi and other beautifully
decorated vases.
Figurines are found on altars, sim ple platform s like benehes,
usually built o f clay and covered vvith planks, arrangcd at the end or
corner o f the dom estic shrine, not far from the oven. This fmds close
an alogy vvith the M inoan dom estic shrines in vvhich figurines are
found standing on a dais. Figurines, ostensibly p erfo rm in g some
ritual, are cncountered also in other placcs, near the oven, b y the
entrance, beside grindstones and elsevvhere. Figurines also served as
vo tive offerings; thcy are found in sacrificial burials and, vvhere used
as gifts to certain divinities, vvere inscribed.

88

Cosm ogonical apd Cosm ological Images

H A striking developm ent in art at the inception o f the agricultural era

vvas its persistent representation o f a num ber o f conventionalized
I graphic designs sym bolizing abstract ideas. These ideogram s,
recurring on figurines, stamp seals, dishes, cult vessels, and as part o f
pictorial decoration o f vases and house vvalls, vvere used for thcuisands
ofyears throughout O ld European civilization, and help to expand
our understanding o f its cosm ogo n y and co sm o lo gy, and o f the
funetions o f the deities it sustained.
The sym bols fali into tvvo basic categories: those related to vvater
or rain, the snake and the bird ; and those associated vvith the m oon,
the vegetal life-cycle, the rotation o f seasons, the birth and grovvth
essential to the perpetuation o f life. The first category consists o f
symbols vvith sim ple parallel lines, V s, zigzags, chevrons and
meanders, and spirals. T h e second group ineludes the cross, the
encircled cross and m ore com plex derivations o f this basic m o tif
vvhich sym b olically connects the four corners o f the vvorld, the
crescent, horn, Caterpillar, egg and fish.

T h e fo u r c o r n e r s o f t h e vvo r ld , t h e m o o n a n d t h e b u l l

The cross, vvith its arms direeted to the four corners o ft h e eosm os,
is a universa] sym bol created or adopted by farm ing com m unitics in
the N eolithic and extending into present day folk art. It is based on
the b e lie f that the year is a jo u rn e y em bracing the four C a rd in a l
direetions. Its purpose is to prom ote and assure the contm uance o f
the cosm ic cycle, to help the vvorld through ali phases o f the m oon
and the ehanging seasons. Graphite-painted East Balkan dishes have
cross and cosm ic snake designs vvhich recurrently present identical
com positions o f the universc . The hooks or branehing lines
attached to the four arm s o f the cross reinforce its d ynam icexp ression.
These vital signs are cncountered on the bases, the insides o f dishes,
on figurines and stam p seals.

47 Schem atizedfigurine
having crou/n engraved u/ith
quartered design, fo u n d in a
clay silo fille d with wheat
grain. M edvedn jak, Vina
site near Smederevska
P alanka, Central Yugoslavia.
c. 5000 b c. Note chevrons
above eyes

'.V

45 Craphite-painted dishes
with cross and snake motifs
in the centre o f the cosmos.
Tangira mound, Rom ania.
East Balkan civilization.
M id-Jifth millennium b c

The cross and its various derivative sym bols are frequently
Jiountered in the incised or painted ceram ic decorations o f each
*f)lithic and C h alcolithic grou p . T h eir consistent appearance on
$ishes, bow ls, vases, stamp seals and the crow ns o f figurines strongly
||g ests that they are ideogram s necessary to prom ote the recurrent
irthand g ro w th o f plant, anim al, and hum an life. T h e y are sym bols
ilt h e continuum o f life w hich had to be ensured. Painted or engraved
! h the bases or insides o f dishes they must have served as go od -lu ck
sjm bols as they still do in the European peasant culture. Life is
'resent on ly w here there is no stagnation and the regularity o f nature
not obstructed b y the forces o f death. In E gyp tian hieroglyphics
the cross stands for life or liv in g and form s part o f such w ords as
fp!health and happiness . A related concept could have dom inated
S lh e minds o f early European farmers. A sm ooth transition from one
||)hase to another spelled happiness. T h e fourfold com positions,
K | ir c h e t y p a l o f perpetual renewal or wholeness and the m oon in the
Ms' symbolism o f O ld Europe, are associated vvith the Great Goddess o f
Life and Death, and the Goddess o f V egetation, m oon goddesses
Par excellence.
The sym bols o f b ecom in g - crescents, caterpillars and horns P lc c o m p a n y fou rfold designs. T h e y do not depict the end result o f
s m rwholeness but rather the continuous strivin g tovvards it, the active
a p .p r o c e s s o f creation. A painting on a Cucuteni dish from Valea
f* Lupului shovvs stylized horns o f four bulls, each quartered b y crossed
om lines, with a crescent o r a Caterpillar in each section, a sym bol related
S ' to the idea o f periodic regeneration. There is a m orphological
relationship betvveen the buli, on.account o f its fast-grow in g horns,
and the w a x in g aspect o f the m oon, vvhich is further evidence o f the
bulls sym b olic funetion as invigorator. T h e w orship o f the m oon
and horns is the w o r s h i p o f the C re a tiv e and fecund p o v v e rs o f nature.
In W estern Asia o f the fourth to second m illennia, the cross was
usually associated vvith the lunar crescent and was an alternative
symbol o f the m oon (Briffault 1 9 6 3 : 3 4 3 , Figs. 8 - 1 2 ) . Painted on a
Classical C u cuten i vase from Tru$eti are quartered d is c d e s ig n s
having a cross inside vvith knobbed extrem ities, p robably sym bolizing four phases o f the m oon, hooked to a horn. A portrayal o f the
head o f a buli vvith the lunar disc betvveen its horns occurs in relief
on a vase from a Late Cucuteni site o f Podei. T h e disc is quartcred by
Crossing lines possibly indicating the four phases o f the m oon. In the
low er section o f the vase, the bu lls horns are shovvn upside dovvn,
perhaps to sym b olize the dcad buli. In this and m any sim ilar portrayals w e m ay recognize the sacrificial aspect o f the act o f creation.
The G reat G oddess, as w e shall s c e later, em erges from the dead buli
in the shape o f a bee o r a butterfly. T h e life process o f creation and
destruetion is the basis fo r im m ortality.

6 F-ourjold signs inciscd on

titra! European Linear
ottery dishes. B ylany and
her sur.' in Bohemia. Umi
xthearly fifth millenniuni

91

2 3 CM

<-

4S Pottery stamp bearing a

quartered design. M ultiple
chevrons in each section.
Ruse, lou'er Danube. East
Balkan civilization.
(Karanovo V I). M id-fifth
millennium BC

5'

49 Q u atrefo il design painted on the inside o f a Late

C u cu ten i d ish : fo u r b u lls horn s e n v e lo p in g a qu artcrcd
disc w ith a crescent o r a Caterpillar in each section. V alea
L u p u lu i, M o ld a v ia , n orthcastern R o m a n ia . M id -fo u rth
m illen n iu m b c
50 Q u artered discs e m e rg in g fro m b u lls horn s (o n ly one
h o rn is visible.) P o ly c h ro m e painted C lassical C u c u ten i v ise .
T ru se jti, northcastern R o m a n ia . Late fifth m illen n iu m BC
5 1 P ainted Late C u cu ten i vase vvith b u lls head in relief. T h e
b u lls outsize horns en circle a q u artered disc. D a rk b ro w n
on w h ite. P od ei at T a r g u -O c n a , n ortheastcrn R o m a n ia .
M id -fo u rth m illenn iu m b c
52 H orn ed terracotta tand (one h o rn bro kcn ) vvith fem ale
breasts. It has a hole on top betvveen the horn s. M e d v e d n ja k ,
V in a site at S m ed erev sk a P alan ka, southeast o f B elg rad e.
c. 5000 BC
53 T erraco tta fig u r in e o f a b u li vvith e x a g g e r a t c d ly large
h o r n s (b o th b r o k e n off). V in a cuiture. Fafos, S o u th e rn
Y u g o s la v ia . Fifth m ille n n iu m bc

i!
i
f

jP-.

|
V

T he sacredness o f the buli is expressed in particular through the

emphasis on horns. T h e y are sometimes as large as the w h ole animai
figurine. R e p le te w ith a m ysterious p o w e r o f g ro w th , the horns
have becom e a lunar sym b ol, vvhich is presum ed to have com e into
being in the U p p e r Palaeolithic A u rig n a an vvhen reliefs o f naked
wom en holding a horn begin to appear (cf. the re lie f from the cave
o f Laussel in Southern France). In the m ythical im agery o f O ld
Europe the buli vvas as dom inant as elsevvhere in the M editerranean
vvorld. T erracotta figurines o f bulls in the C ucuteni civilization
usually have conical bosses on the forehead or a piece o f copper set
betvveen the horns (a figurine vvith copper on the forehead vvas
unearthed at B o lb o ch , a classical Cucuteni settlem ent near Kishenev).
The heads o f bulls vvith rosettes on the foreheads knovvn from M inoan
and M ycenaean art inherited this O ld European tradition. H orns o f
consecration, so frequent in M inoan art, vvere already present in the
Vina and East B alkan civilizations. H undreds o f horned stands vvith
a central hole for the insertion o f som e divine im age m ade o f perishable m aterial are found in V ina sites. In one case the breasts o f the go d dess are indicated on the tand. The abundance o f these stands vvould
.
suggest their association vvith some sort o f m yth -enacting cerem ony,
and the beginning o f this sym bol probably goes back to the prim ordial sacrifice vvith the underlying concept that out o f the sacrificed
bulls b o d y a new life em erges. The schematized buli horn represents
one o f the basic philosophical ideas o f O ld European religion ; per
haps this is w h y they are so num erous - as num erous as horns o f
consecration in the Palae o f Knossos. T h e tradition o f expressing
the same idea in shorthand continued in the Proto-palatial period o f
Crete. T h e so-called sheep-beH figurines vvith a suspension ring,
tvvo horn-like projeetions and eyes or a m asked face depieted on the
body, found at Knossos, Poros, Tylissos and V o ro u (Platon 1 9 4 9 :
833f.) p robably represent a divinity in com bination vvith the horns
sym bolical o f a sacrificed buli. In N eo-palatial C rete, the horns o f
consecration are alvvays associated vvith the epiphany o f the Goddess
in the shape o f a d oublc-axe (a butterfly), a tree or a pillar.
T he sn ake

The snake and its abstracted derivative, the spiral, are the dom inant
motifs o f the art o f O ld Europe, and their im agin ativc use in spiraliform design throughout the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods
remaincd unsurpasscd by any subsequent decorativc stylc until the
Minoan civilization, the sole inheritor o f O ld European lavishness.
The Chalcolithic B u tm ir, Cucuteni, and East Balkan peoples created
large bulbous vessels, adopting the snake-spiral as the basis o f the
entire ornam ental com position. This art rcachcd its peak o f unified
sym bolic and aesthetic cxpression c. 5000 b c .

93

49 M iniature terracotta
horns o j consecration from 1,
2 , Ruse, C um elnija
com p lex; 3 , Vina. Fifth
m illennium b c

54

55. 5<>
57

5. 59
60

5 1

5. 52
5.1

Sym p honies o f snakes appear in colours and in graphite or vvhiteencrusted incisions on cult vases, lamps, altar tables, hearth panels and
house vvalls. C o n cu rren tly, almost naturalistic m odels o f snakes were
produced b y ali the cultural groups o f O ld Europe in bone, w o o d or
clay. A coiled pottery snake, decorated vvith incised zigzag and
punctate designs, vvas found at the E arly Vina settlement o f Predio
nica. T h e entire inner surface o f a ritual dish vvith holes fro m K u ko va
M og ila in B ulgaria is covered b y a snake coil. T he zigzaggin g outer
coil contrasts witf\th,e inner spiral and suggests the radiating sun. A
form idable horned snake m odelled in re lie f vvinds around a N eo li
thic pot from the site' o f S u vo d o l-D ib el in Pelagonia. Snakes, their
bodies m arked by dots or com b-like stamps, h ave been found in
cised on a n u m b e ro f vases from the Vina m ound. T he V ina settle
m ent o f Potporanj at V rac yieldcd curling snakes carved out o f bone,
vvith triangular heads and cye-holes. Snake ornam entation dominates
the ceramics o f the N eo lith ic Linear P ottery culture in central Europe
and that o f the B iik k group in the Carpathian foothills, rangin g in
expression from naturalistic portrayals to elegantly cu rvin g geom etric designs. Snakes m odelled in relief, som etim es vvith fine
naturalistic detail, m eander across the inner surface o f dishes dis
eovered in gravcs at the D v o ry and ita v o u cem etery o f e le z o v c e ,
a variant o f the Linear Pottery culture in vvestern S lo vak ia. Sim ilar
snakes, but painted in black or brovvn on orange piriform vases, are
frequ en tly encountercd du ring the Late C ucuteni period. T h e snake
coil also appears 011 C ucuteni stam p seals.
T h e m ysterious dynam ism o f the snake, its extraordinary vitality
and periodic rejuvenation, must have provoked a povverful em otional response in the N eolithic agriculturists, and the snake vvas
consequently m yth o!ogized , attributed w ith a povver that can m ove
the entire cosmos. C om p osition s 011 the shoulders o f cult vases reveal
pairs o f snakes vvith opposed heads, m aking the vvorld ro ll vvith the
cn ergy o f their spiralling bodies. Tension betvvcen the tvvo is em phasized, since it is not ju st one snake that begins the m ovem ent. This
m o tif occurs in various degrees o f sehematization du ring the
N eolithic and C h alcolithic eras. T he m ore naturalistic tendency is to
distinguish the heads and bodies o f snakes and their tails, vvhich end
in vvidespread triangles, a contrivance to fill the space betvveen the
discs or ovals. The organization o ft h e m otifs dem onstrates that the
im agery is gcnuinely co sm o go n ic: the disc and snake com positions
appear in bands occu p yin g the m iddle o ft h e vases, associated vvith
belts o f the upper skies containing rain clouds, divine dogs and favvns.
T h e b ek o f earth is characterized b y plant motifs. O n som e vases
snake coils in the upper bands have diagonal stripes, p robably to
indicatc torrents o f rain. In som e cases the snake is portrayed vvinding
across the cosm ic d ou b le-egg.

94

The involved ornam entation o f Cucuteni and East B alkan cerafflic painting is a sym b olic glorification o f natures d ynam ism . Its
graphic expression is organized around the sym b ol o f the snake,
whose presence vvas a guarantee that natures enigm atic cycle w o u ld
be maintained and its life-g iv in g povvers not dim inish. T h e snake
vvas the vehicle o f im m ortality. Som e vases flaunt a gigan tic snake
vvinding or stretehing o ver the vvholc universe , o v er the sun or
moon, stars and rain torrents; elsevvhere the snake vvinds ab ove or
belovv a grovving plant or coils above the pregnant m oth ers belly.
Snakes coil in concentric circles coverin g e very protuberance, the
buttocks as w ell as the fem ale abdom en. The sanctity o f protuberance
is indicated b y the special attention given e ve ry co n vcx roundness o f
the fem ale b o d y - even a knee is encircled. S im ilarly, the snake is
usually present on a bu lls rum p or shoulders. The phallus, as vvell as
ithyphallic vases and lids, is also accom panied by snake coils. T h e
snake vvas stim ulator and guardian o f the spontancous life energy,
and this anatom ical association, so frequent that its sym b o lic m eaning cannot be doubted, dem onstrates the povver that vvas attributed
to bodily protuberances as its source.
In the N eolithic m ound o f Poroditi in M acedonia num erous
ceramic snakes vvere diseovered. O rigin ally they vvere attached to
vessels, perhaps vvater containers, used in ritual cerem onies. A
reconstruction o f such a vessel is here reproduced. S im ilar snake- or
phallus-shaped elongated heads h ave been diseovered in R a m a d ,
Level III, a sixth-m illennium villagc in Syria (Contenson 1 9 7 1 : 285).
The phallus, horns, snake, vvater bird, and vvater are closeIy
interrelated in m yth and cult. T h e m ystery o f life lies in vvater, in
oceans, deep seas, lakes o r rivers. G ods are born from vvater. D io n y sus com es from vvater, as do the B ird Goddess, Athcna, o r A ph rodite.
On pictorial Cucuteni vases and Tisza altars vvc sce bird-avved or
horned goddesses borne in the vvomb o f m ythical vvaters. T h e universal snake vvinds around the universal egg like a continuous flovv
o f vvater. T o the pocts and philosophers o fa n cie n t Greece vvater vvas
the prim ordial elem ent, able to produce life, stimulate its grovvth
and nurture it vvith dam p vvarmth. This concept o f the genesis o f
the universe from an elem ental aqua-substance surely extends back
in time to the N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic era.

54

196

55

110, 92
5 6

j o Snahe and disc motifs as

ornamentaI belts 011 the
shoulders o fa Classical
Cucuteni vase from the sile
o f H ib S fi'fti, M otdavia,
northeastern Romania. a,
va se; b , ornament around
tlte shoulders.

58, 59 Sn ake in a dish fro m the

cem etery o f D v o r y nad ita v o u ,
w estern S lo v ak ia (detail). E a rly
fifth m illenn iu m b c

54 Potcery snake fro m P red io n ica at Pritina,

Y u g o s la v ia . E a rly V in a. En d o f sixth m illen n iu m

bc

55, 56 P o ttery b o w l wich holes and a snake coil

inside sh o w n in relief. P ro b a b ly used in
Cerem onies of rain in vo catio n . K u k o v a M o g ila .
centra! B u lg a ria . K a ra n o v o Hl c o m p le x , East
B alk an civilization . End o f sixth m illen n iu m b c

57 A h o rn ed snake w ith la rg e c y c s fro m D ib el,

a Late N e o lith ic settlem ent near B ito la , vvestern
M accd o n ia. P o ttc ry re lie f on the sh ou ld er o f a vae

t;6o Painted snake o n a Late

gCucuteni vase from Bilcze Z lo te
;tail). First h a lf o f fourth
nillennium b c

6 1 , 62 Sn ak e heads as decoration
o f cult vessels. T errac o tta.
P o ro d in , S o u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia .
N e o lith ic S ta re v o c o m p le x .
c. 6 0 0 0 BC

63, 64 H o rn ed head in association vvith snakes

(head o f a S n ak e Goddess) shovvn in re lie f 011 a
vase from T e li A zm ak , central B u lgaria. East
Balkan (K a ra n o v o I) civilization . c. 6000 BC

6$

A n th ro p o m o rp h ic terracotta figu rin e o f a

crovvned S n a k e G od d ess from K a to lerapctra,
N eolithic C re te . T h e legs are fo rm ed like snakes.
D isconnectcd lines c o v e r the breasts and
shoulders and ex tcn d o v e r the lo w c r back

66 V ina lid vvith punetated sn ake-m ean d er, and

ehevrons on to p . c. sooo-carly fifth m illc n n iu m
Bc

R u tm k ig sn a k e-sp ira l
k , rain c'louds, d iv in e dogs
p la titi on p ain ted Late
Meni vases fro m
oin tsi, mestern U k ra in e.
mid-fourtk m lk n n iu m BC

T h e m vthical w ater snake and the vvater bird are vehicles o f an

energy w hich has its source in water. In O ld European sym bolism
these im ages are intim ately related, as w ili be seen from the next
chapter. The snake w inds on the w ings o f a bird and is depieted on
the beaked Vina lid,
F ro m the E arly N eo lith ic to ancient Greece the snake appears in an
anthropom orphic shape as a Snake Goddess. H er b o d y is usuallv
decorated w ith stripes or snake spirals, while her arms and legs are
portrayed as snakes, or she is entwined by one or m ore snakes. H er
anthropom orphized im age occurs on vases enveloped b y a snake. O n
a vase from the N eolithic stratum o f the m ound o f A zm ak in B u l
garia, her face is hum an but her eyebrow s resem ble horns. M o n strous horned heads w ith anthropom orphic features and birdclaw ed or snake-like hands reappear in Pre-palatial C rete (c f. A lexio u
19 5 8 : Pl. IA , 10). Snake spirals, agglom erations o f snakes or hybrids,
half-snake and half-hum an, vvith spiralling extrem ities are painted
in black on the cave vvalls o fP o rto Badisco in A pulia (Graziosi 19 7 1).

5 2 C u lt vessel with two

snahe heads attached to j'ro'nt
corners. Poroditi, Southern
Yugoslavia. c. 6000 15c

T h e p r im o r d ia l egg

Stories o f creation knovvn to European and non-European peoples

represent stages o f a lon g process o f developm ent. Because o f their
p rim ev al character they are considered to be ve ry old. T h e actual
record o f this prim ordial stage o f creation m yths is lim ited, since
not everyw h ere in prehistoric cultures vvere they expressed in
im ages. Ethnological parallels from fishing and hunting societies
indirectly prove the Palaeolithic origir. o f the cosm ogonical ideas
centring around vvater, vvater bird, egg, doe, and vvoman. D uring
the N eolithic and C halcolithic the stories o f creation vvere quite
com plex, as can be seen from vase paintings and frescoes.
T h e prim al elem ent o f the universe vvas conceived as vvater. The
abstract paintings on Cucuteni vases further reveal the form ation o f
the vvorld and the beginning o f life from an egg in the midst o f
vvhich a germ resided. T h e egg is enveloped 111 vvater, represented

5 j Snakes coiling across

rain torrents'. Painted
abstract design on a Classical
Cucuteni vase from
Vladim irouka, Southern Bug
V alley, u'estern Ukraine.
Iind o f fifth niillenniuni b c

101

4 Snake ivinding across

juble-eggs enveloped in
oiving ivater: painted
nnpositions on Late
'ucuteni dishes from
"omashevka, ivestern
Jkraine. c. mid-fourth
ii l leti ni um k c

15 Stiake 'adagio' on a
<rap hi te-pai nted G um e I ui(a
ase from the Tangira
nound lowvr D anube region.
ihoie, reconstrmted pase
vith profile indicated on left
id e ; heloiv, exploded
irauing o f decoration.

by parallel lines. T h e sym b ol o f life energy - the snake - winds

across or around the cosm ic egg. T h e beginning o f life w ithin an egg
is eaused b y the orbitin g o f tw o snakes or fav/ns. T he animals are
alw ays in opposition, w hich creates a tension. It w o u ld appear that
a cross o r an X vvithin an o v a l con veys the same idea. T h e germ is
show n as a dot or a le-ns. A lens vvithin the enfolding egg layers is
som etim es show n flanked b y spirals, a probable association with
floral m otifs; this sym bolizes the rudim ent o f a livin g organism
taking its form from fio w cr buds or grains. A germ vvithin an egg or
a vu lva m ay sprout into a plant w ith buds or vvith bean-like projections. T h e idea o f a prim ordial eg g or vulva is likew ise expressed by
sculpture. T h e Lepenski V ir sandstone sculptures dating from around
6000 b c are alm ost ali egg-shaped and one has a vu lva en graved in
the centre.
A ncient m yth ologies - E gyp tian , B abylon ian , H indu, G reek have preserved m yths o f the universe as a cosm ic egg from vvhich
gods arie and vvhich was created b y a cosm ic snake or bird. Ancient
G reek m yths o b vio u sly enlarge on elements that are closely allied to
cosm ological representations on Balkan N eolithic and Chalcolithic
ccram ics. A thenagoras in the second century A D recordcd the follo w ing m y th : First ali was vvater. From the w ater em erged a snake with
the head o f both a lion and a buli, and between these vvas the face o f
a giant, H crakles or K h ronos. T h e G iant created an e gg, and the egg
split in tw o . From the upper part ame the sky and from the low er
part, the earth (Lukas 18 9 4 : 230). Som e 5000 years before Athena
goras the m yth could h ave gone like this: First, ali vvas water. From
the vvater em erged a cosm ic snake with a horned head. T h e snake (or
the buli, or the giant) created the cosm ic egg. Then the eg g split in
tw o.
A cosm ic egg m ay also bc laid by a m ythical w ater b ird : this
m yth is alm ost u niversally knovvn betwcen A frica and the Arctic
zone; it is recorded in ancient civilizations and was kn ow n am ong
hunting and fishing tribes. In an A ncient E gyptian m yth , the cosm ic
eg g vvas laid b y a N.il.e goose which vvas vvorshipped as the great
chatterer, the creator o f the w o rld . A ccord in g to the O rp h ic story,
unereated N y x (N ight) existed first and was regarded as a great
black-vvingcd bird h o verin g o ver a vast darkness. T h ou gh unmated,
she laid an egg from vvhich flevv go ld -w in ged Eros, vvhile from the
tvvo parts o f the shell O uranos and Gaia (H eaven and Earth) were
created. T h e beginning o f the m yth must lic in the Palaeolithic era.
En graved and sculpted im ages vvith silhouetted egg-shaped buttocks
are frequcnt in vvestern and central Europe from the early A u rig nacian and on into the M agdalenian period. T he m ore rcalistically
rendered figures have b ird s heads and long breasts (M arshack 19 72:

5 6 Cosmic snake and

cosmic egg compositions
painted on Late Cucuteni
vases from Sipintsi, vvestern
Ukraine. c. mid-fourth
millennium b c

5 7 Quartered egg and disc

motifs on black-oti-redpainted Late Cucuteni vases
from Sipin tsi, western
Ukraine. M id-fourth
millennium BC

58 Design over the hody o f

Cucuteni vae, shou'ing eg%s
with a germ (lens) in the
centre flanked with spirals.
Dtm hul M o rii at Cucuteni,
northcastern Rom ania. c.
4000 b c

3 0 5 rt'.).

102

103

67
A plant vvithin an e g g o r
v u lv a . Late C u c u ten i pain ted vase
fro m B ilc z e Z lo t e , -western
U k ra in e

<5o, 70 B ird -sh ap ed vase w ith the

head o f a d oe (?) T h e V in a
site. c. 4000 bc

7 1 B n d -slu p e d v.tse \vuh \vings.

T h e h o d v is rounded like .m egg
C ascio arele site, Southern
R o m .im .1. (iu in clim .i I.iver.
c. 4000 n<

Large Vinca askos from

\za, Macedonia.
constructed. c. j j o o - j i o o

69, 70

61

T h e idea o f a w ater bird, or a fo rm ofan th ro p o m o rp h ized bird,

as a creator o f the cosm ic egg is clearly represented in N eolithic
figurine art. It must have been a dom inating them e am ong the
cosm ogo n ic m yths.
Vessels taking the fo rm o f a bird are an early tradition in the
Balkans. A skoi, vases o f w ater-bird shape, occur at N ea N ikom ed eia,
a site w h ich dates from no later than 6000 b c . T h e same tradition vvas
follovved th rou gh out the Balkan Peninsula and the D anube region
during the sixth m illen nium and later. The m ost peculiar aspect o f
these representations is that the ja r is shaped not sim ply in the form
o f a bird, but that o f a bird carryin g an eg g w ithin its body. Such a
vessel is usually rounded like an egg. W ith the askos, the N eolithic
artist expressed a fem ale d ivin ity in the form o f a bird-shaped vvater
ja r containing an egg as a fluid substance. She represented the universal Creative force. A n o th er im age having a sim ilar kind o f potentiality is the doe. Vases in the shape o fa deer have an egg-sha ped b o d y .
Som e bird-shaped vases rounded to resem ble an egg have teriom orph ic heads. Such a peculiar com bination can be seen 011 a vessel
from V in a: the b o d y is shaped like an egg, the neck belongs to a
crane or grebe, and the head to a co w or a doe.
T h e sym b olism o f a bird carryin g a cosm ic eg g recurs considerably later, in C yclad ic, M in oan and H elladic art: the bodies o ffly in g
birds painted on E arly and M iddle M inoan vases are seen to contain
a large egg.
In the Palaeolithic period the m y th o f the genesis ofth e vvorld from a
cosm ic eg g laid by a bird g ave rise to an im portant series o f so-called
steatopygous figurines. T h e nam e is derived from steatopygia ,
w h ich is defined as an excessive developm ent o f fat on the buttocks,
especially o f fem ales. A rchaeologists erroneously adopted this name
for the figurines, thinking that they represented a natural portrayal o f
vvom en vvith ab n o rm ally large buttocks. This is a false interpretation.
Steato p ygo u s im ages continued from the M agdalcnian cpoch into
the N eo lith ic and beyond.

62 Figurine u/ith an egg

(Itollou ) inside the buttocks
and a snake u/inding around
them (shown in relief).
Donja Braujevina near
D eronj, nortliern
Yugoslavia. Starevo
complex. Central Balkan
N eolithic. E ar!y sixtli
inillennium ne:

This large grou p o f standing or stooping figurines represents the

sculptural realization o f the concept o f the B ird Goddess, abstracting
and fusing elements o f hum an and bird form . Her body contains an
egg, and even the most schem atic representation must be a con ven tionalized expression o f this idea. From the seventh to the fifth
m illennium b c these figurines conservatively display the same fea
tures. T h e y are not truly obese; above the vvaist they are univcrsally
slender, their breasts o f norm a! or even much reduced sie. Except
in v e ry small figurines, the buttocks are usually hollovv and shaped
like an e g g . T h e label steatopygous is applied also to seated figurines
vvhose buttocks are exaggerated and flattened fo r a practical reason :
to balance them on a ehair o r dais.
Interest in steatopygia inereased in the nineteenth century vvith
the first descriptions o f steatopygous Hottentots and B ushm en, both
vvomen and men. H ovvever, H ottentot ladies have no place in the
art o f O ld E u rope and it is crroneous and m isleading to describe
N eolithic and Chalcolithic figurines as steatopygous. T h e hybridization o f vvoman and bird cndovvs the figures vvith a grcatcr d ignity,
the d ign ity o f the supernatural, and it is unfortunate that the term
ever bccam c associated vvith Palaeolithic and N eolithic figurines.

106

0 1

j e

6 j Figurine representing a
bird-u'oman Iiybrid ii'ijti
eg^-shaped buttocks. Cai'dar,
east o f S o fia , Bulgaria. East
Balkan Neolithic. E a iiy
sixth millennium b c

V
T

6 0 , 6 1 Designs o f birds with

large eggs inside them.
piiinled in hl,u h 011 a ii'liite
ground 011 M inoan vases

he

fish

The usual sym bolism connected vvith the fish ranges from its being
an em blem o f the vu lva, or the phallus, to a sym bol o fth e soul or the
m ystic ship o f life . B y m icroscopic analvsis o f engravings on Late
M agdalcnian bone objeets M arshack has reccntly shovvn that fish
(salmon) and snake typically appear in the context o f a seasonal
m anifestation representative o f earlv spring and frequently in
association vvith nevv shoots, yo u n g anim als and ibexcs (M arshack
19 7 2 : i6 yff.). T h e fish is also inseparable from the form o f a phallus
since the phallus offers a visual and kinesthetic com parison vvith the
fish and snake (cf. a baton head from the G o rg e d Enfer in D o rd o g n e:

107

!
64 Schematic representations
ofth e Bird ( toddess trith an
ifl the buttocks. 1,
Lepenski V ir (Starevo
com p lcx); 2, Neolithic,
('.rete; ?, Karanoro I,
Bulgaria

74 F ragm en t o f a vessel in the fo n n o f a tish. V ina

c ivilizatio n . M ala (ira b o v n ic a near L e sk o v ac. centra)
Y u go slavia
75 A n th ro p o m o rp h iz ed I;isii G od d ess ol stone
\vitli head. arm s and breasts chiselled out. M ou th
and ev es are those o f .1 tish. the nose is hum an.
Lepcnski V ir II, Harlv sixth m illen n iu m ih:
{Opjiositv) Ston e sculpture o f .i tish-faccd \vater
d iv in itv from l.ep em ki Vir. /.ii/.iis. d iam on d s and
ch cv ro n s represent stream s o f \vater. I.u lv sixth
m illenn ium ih

14 1

72,73,75.7(>

76

id .: 330). A n en gravin g in the M agdalenian cave o f Lortet shovvs fish

nuzzling a reindeers gehitals (Hentze 19 3 2 : 1 1 3 ) . M a n y thousands
o f years later, in G reek G eom etric art, the fish continued to be portrayed hanging on the genitals o fh o rse s; the fish is also placed vvithin
the w o m b o f the B ee G oddess painted on a Boeotian vase around
700 b c . Its role there m ust have been related to the idea o f cyclic
regeneration, since the goddess is shovvn in the shape o f a bee and is
associated vvith the head o f a sacrificial buli.
In N eo lith ic art the fish assumes the shape o f an eg g and is
anthropom orphized. T his is exem plified b y the sculptures recently
diseovered at Lepenski V ir near the Iron Gates in northern Y u g o sla v ia
(S rejo vi 1969). T h ere, in the late seventh and early sixth m illennia
b c , fishing and hunting peoples had dug their houses into the bank
o f the D anube, houses vvhich had trapezoidal floor plans and con
tained rectangular hearths sunk belovv the floor level, lined vvith
stones, and outlined vvith thin slabs o f stone set vertically in a pattern
o f continuous triangles. L arge stone sculptures vvere placed in the
lim e-plaster floors in fro n t o f the hearths. F ifty-fo u r o f these m onum ental sculptures, m ost o f them tvvice as large as a hum an head, vvere
found, and fifteen o f them reveal half-hum an, half-fish features.
G eom etric ornam ent is pecked on m an y o f them, vvhile others are
plain. A li appear to possess aspeets o f either the hum an figure, the
fish, or the egg, and vvere p rob ab ly seleeted for this reason. The
shape o f the river bou lder had a significance o fits ovvn; the artist did
not alter this, but on ly ga v e it the features o f the m ythical being he
venerated. He addcd the m outh and large round eyes o f a fish and
the nose and e ycb ro w s o f a man. T h e m outh vvith dovvnvvardd ro op in g corners m akes the facial features stern, even dram atically
tense. B u t it is d oub tful vvhether this painful grim ace vvas really vvhat
the Lepenski V ir artist sought to p o rtray; the sternness results from a
peculiar com bination o f fish and hum an features and does not necessarily reflect the artists conscious intent. In his book 011 Lepenski V ir,
D. S rejo vi calls one o f the egg-shaped and fish-faced sculptures
D anubiu s . T h e nam e im plies a m ale river d ivin ity, but does the
sculpture really represent a m ale and avve-inspiring god?
G eom etric m otifs en graved on stone sculptures, such as zigzags,
interconnected lozenges each vvith a dot in it, chevrons and labyrinthinc designs on round stones vvith depressions (probably used
for sacrifice) are related to the sym bolism vvhich appcars on aquatic
divinitics associated vvith cosm ogonical im agery. T h e Lepenski V ir
statuary seems to represent a d ivin ity o f a fem inine gender - one o f
the sculptures rcproduced here has fem ale brcasts - vvhich ineorporates aspeets o f an egg, a fish and a vvoman and vvhich could have been
a p rim eval creator or a m ythical ancestress. Standing at the hearth
she vvas p robably a guardian o f the house.

110

O n ly here, in this D anube go rge in the region o f the Iron Gates,

have these rem arkable m onum ental sculptures so far been found,
and they m ay vvell be specifically connected vvith the cult practices
o f a people vvhose main concern and subsistence vvas fishing. Fish
effigies, hovvever, have been found elsevvhere in the N eo lith ic sites
vvhere farm in g activities vvere evident. E ven in the flourishing
civilization o f Vina the fish must have played a part in m ythical
im agery, since som e cult vessels vvere form ed in the shape o f a fish.

74

66 Pictorial representations
o fth e Bird Goddess1 fa ce in
association with wafer
streams on Late Cucuteni
vases. Tomashevka and
Staraja Buda sites, u/estern
U kraine. First h a lf o fth e
fourth millennium B C

7 Mistresses of VVaters:
the Bird and Snake Goddess

65
66
67

68

T h e presence o f the B ird and Snake Goddess is felt every w here - on

earth, in the skies and beyond the clouds, w here prim ordial waters
lie. H er abode is beyon d the upper vvaters, i.e., beyond m eandrous
labyrinths. She rules over the life-g iv in g force o f w ater, and her
im age is consequently associated w ith w ater containers. O n Cucuteni
vases, the goddess eyes, or her eyes and beak, appear above representations o f vvater or falling rain. T h e eyes o f the B ird or Snake Goddess
even stare from the v e ry centre o f the w o rld - a sphere vvith a m y thical
vvater stream in the centre. H er cosm ic character is emphasized b y
a series o f abstract com positions painted on Cucuteni vases.
T h e Snake Goddess and the B ird Goddess appear as separate
figures and as a single d ivin ity. T h eir functions are so intim ately
related that their separate treatm ent is im possible. She is one and
she is tw o , som etim es snake, som etim es bird. She is the goddess o f
vvaters and air, assum ing the shape o f a snake, a crane, a goose, a duck,
a d ivin g bird. T he com bination o f a w ater snake and a w ater bird is a
peculiarity o f the O ld European sym bolism representing divine
am bivalence.

Part o f vessel with a

Hcsentation o fa ntasked
st Balkan Bird Goddess.
,f.ana at O ltenifa,
tiania. G um elnifa
plex. c. 4000 BC

112

he

ird

in v o c a tio n

of

r a in

the

bear

and

the

id e o g r a m s

of

the

oddess

Parallel lines, V s, chevrons, belts o f zigzags, and groups o f parallel

lines are frequently found on figurines, stamp seals, cult vases and
vase lids. Their consistent appearance 011 figurine masks and bodies,
anthropom orphic vases, m iniature cult vessels and zoom orphic
containers suggests the existence o f a coherent system o f sym bolic
expression: the relationship betvveen the depietion o f rain torrents,
the m ythical bear and the B ird Goddess is obvious.
T h e desiccation o f the elimate during the sixth m illennium b c
shovvn by palaeobotanical and geological research (clearly rcvcalcd
by results o f the auth ors ow n recent excavation at Anza, M acedonia)
is also refleeted in sym b olic com m unication. The centuries-long lack
o f w ater resulted in the creation o fsym b o lic images related to streams
and m ythical creatures considered to be the source o f water. The
M istress o f W aters, the B ird Goddess, and the bcar, vvho seems to
have been also connected vvith water, are very frequent im ages ali
over the Balkan Pcninsula, particularly in its driest regions, Greece,

6 7 (omposite pictorial
representation oj a B in i or
Snake C oddess' eyes and
u'ttlet streams. Staraja Buda,
u'csteni Ukraine. Late
Cucuteni

Abstract compositions o f
Bird Goddess' eyes and
( or only her benk) in
cialion m th a cosmic
Painted on Late
uteni vases. Sipintsi,
tem Ukraine. Early
th millennium bc

B ird Goddess' eyes and

: above groups o f
g lit painted lines (falling
?) as fo u n d on ritual
:d vessels p ainted in darh
i'u on orange-red. A n za
Macedonia. Central
um N eolithic III. c.

7 1 Painted black-oti-red ornamental motifs,

probably sym bolizing rain, on Late Starevo
vases from northern Yugoslavia. c. 5 5 0 0 bc
72 C la y seals engraved ivith zigza g and parallel
lines from Starevo and Karanovo / sjtes:
1 , Grabovac, Yugoslavia; 2 , 3 , 5 , C a vda r,
ivestern B u lga ria ; 4, Rug B a ir, Macedonia.
c. 5500 bc
73 Zoom orphic pottery lid ivith clusters o f
diagonal incisions (streaming rain?). Early
Vina. Par\a, Tim ifoara district ivestern
Romania. c. 5000 bc
74 Pottery lid in half-hum an, half-anim al form
ivith beaked nose, depression fo r mouth (source
o f w ater?), and incised m arkings.from Mala
near N i, Southern Yugoslavia. E arly Vina,
late sixth millennium bc

Beoiter tt'itli hlacktcd design o feyes

ciated irith hair
rayed lik e snakt'S or
ng rain. I'iangli,
ssaly. Late Neolithic,
sixth millennium lu:

M acedon ia, Southern Y u g o sla v ia and the A driatic seaboard. Even

the p ottery decoration refleets an obsession w ith rain and w ater
sym b olism . Floral and spiral m otifs o f the earlier N eolithic w cre
replaced in Sesklo, D anilo, late Starevo and Vina com plexes by
rig id ly geom etric d eco ra tio n : bands or groups o f vertical or diagonal
parallel lines, striated and punetated bands and chevrons. T h e
go d dess eyes em erge in association w ith rain torrents o r lines representing w ater. Stam p seals o f this period reveal the same tendency:
alm ost ali o f the knovvn seals are engraved vvith either straight lines,
w a v y lines or zigzags. T orrents o f vvater show n as vertical zigzaggin g
lines in separate panels depieted 011 an early Vina funnel-shaped vase

114

ACM

m ay be related to the ritual o f rain invocation. O n masked Vina

heads or zoom orp hic lids the incised parallel lines m ergin g on the
nose ridge and the forehead g ive an im pression o f torrents o f w ater

5 Torsos with inverted

/ $ ) and crosses (76)
'e breasts, triple verticle
and chevrons. Sitagroi
acedonia. c. 4000 BC

. iead o f a Bird Goddess

1 pointed beak and
tige-shaped eycs. R u g Maccdonia. E arly

1 C.

5500~5100 B C

Bird-headed fig u re ( a
cl protome) with an
ram on the body
osed o f chest bands and
. ons. The Vina site.

running d o w n the m ask.

T h e cat-headed V ina lids have puzzled archaeologists since the
d iscovery o f the V ina site. T h e y certainly do not p ortray cats, since
the cat was not knovvn in prehistoric Europe. A re they bears? Birds?
The puzzle can be solved o n ly b y studying ali the accum ulated
sym bols. T h e y have large incised, usually sem icircular, hum an eyes,
ears, b ird s beak and a V or ch evron engraved ab ove the beak.
Bands o f striations, punctuated bands, or parallel lines clearly show
their connection vvith vvater. T h e y are not given m ouths, but som e
times h ave a round depression belovv the beak, as on m any other bird
masks from vvhich vvater flo w s in ali fou r directions .
T h e relationship betvveen vvater and the bear is further indicated
b y bear-shaped cult vases, abundantly represented in the D anilo,
Sesklo, B u tm ir and L e n gy e l cultures. T h e D anilo bear-shaped vases
are solid ly covered vvith belts o f zigzags, chevrons and striated
diam onds, sym b olic o f flovving vvater. Large pavvs o f bears from the
B u tm ir settlem ent at O b re, p robably once part o f a vvater Container,
are also decorated vvith incised parallel lines.
T h e presence th rou gh o u t the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods
in Europe and A natolia o f V s, chevrons or cross signs on fem ale
breasts o r im m ed iately belovv them , o r on arms supporting breasts,
suggests an identification o f rain vvith m ilk, an old and vvidespread
b elief vvhich induced people to see vvom ens breasts o r covv udders
in the clouds. T his b e lie f still extant am on g the A rctic hunters points
to its origin in Palaeolithic times. V s are m arked on the breasts o f a
painted clay figu re o f a goddess from shrine V I in C atal H i\yiik
(M ellaart 19 6 7 : 18 2 , Fig. 50, Plate 79), and m an y o f the P roto-Sesklo
goddesses o f T hessaly have red-painted V s on their breasts or
chevrons incised on their hands. T h ere appears to have been an
association betvveen a fem ale d ivin ity and divine m oisture from the
skies. A beaked figu rin e from Porodin has, in addition to her norm al
breasts, breast-like protuberances on the ncck, perhaps to invigorate
the influence o f her m agical breasts. T h e double-headed B ird
Goddess from V ina has breasts m arked vvith V s and her body is
covered vvith a m eandrous design. A m o n g C ucuteni vessels, breasts
sprout from basins held b y a fem ale figure and from ja rs; they are
usually depieted in the centre o f bands or parallel lines sym bolizin g
rain torrents. T vvo o f the m an y figurines found in the Chalcolithic
levels o f the Sitagroi teli in northeastern G reece illustrate the
arrangem ent o f these rain- or m ilk -in v o k in g sym bols. U n fortu nateIy, they are headless but other East Balkan figurines bearing the same
signs have bird heads. N o te that there are three parallel lines betvveen

i i (5
0

a <

the breasts and chevrons on these figurines; an identical sign o f three

lines connected on top b y a horizontal line recurs on the figures in
E arly Vina reliefs. O n the neck o f an anthropom orphic vessel from
the B iik k site o f Kenezlo in northeastern H u n gary, there is a mask
vvith three lines incised betvveen the eyes and three m ore belovv the
m outh. T h e body is incised vvith zigzagging and m eandering lines,
sim ulating torrents o f vvater : tiny arm stumps s.uggest the goddess
vvings. Signs o f three interconnected lines engraved on hum an
figures are present in the M agdalenian era o f the U p p er Palaeolithic.
R ectan gles consisting o f three lines connected at the ends appear
en graved on a hum an figure on the bone point from the A b ri M ege
at T e y ja t (D ordogne). T h e hum an im age, p robably an abstract
rendering o f a goddess, has a tiny head, double ovalo id vu lv a vvith
tvvo lines belovv it, a serpentine decoration along the sides and strokes
dovvn the legs (M arshack 19 7 2 : 3 15 ). T h e serpentine stroked design
along each side seems to be a snake or vvater im age. T h e sym bolic
connection vvith the abstract Snake or B ird Goddess im ages o f the
N eo lith ic is apparent.
C h evro n s (m ultiple V s), tvvo, three or m ore parallel lines and a
crossed chest band characterize the bird-headed or bird-m asked
figurines. These signs are either incised or painted on their masks,
heads, arm s o r b o d y. A crossed band vvith chevrons appears incised
on the chest o f a bird-shaped figurine from V ina, and a sim ilar
chest-band sign, associated vvith sym bols o f three connected lines,
occurs on the b o d y o f a double-headed B ird Goddess. T h e chestband sign is also found incised on double-headed stands and consistently occurs in com bination vvith chevrons on bird-headed or
bird-m asked figurines, clay stamps and flat plaques. A n E arly Vina
anth ropom orph ic lid from Par^a bears, belovv the goddess eyes and
nose, an X , p robably sign ifyin g chest bands, and a chevron appears
in the upper segm ent. A Tisza pot vvith a spout, p robably used as a
libation vase in ritual cerem onies, has the same ideogram incised on
one p an e l; a second pauci contains four groups o f three parallel lines
and a third panel large meanders. A n altar table from V ina, sup
p ortin g a fem ale figure seated in front o f a vessel, p robably portraying a vvater-invocation scene, vvas also decorated vvith V s, a chest
band and m eander m otifs. U nfortunately, the upper part o f the
seated figure is lost. A nother altar table from Fafos portrays a bearor bull-legged altar table. T h e vvoman holding the vessel seems to
be vvearing a mask representing a bear or a bird. The altar is decorated
vvith chevrons. A rain-invocation or vvater-divination scene can be
recognized in the sculpture from B ord jo in northern Y u go slavia,
representing a nude vvoman seated on a stool vvith a large basin on
her lap. T h e stool is decorated vvith a m eander design. From vvhat
follovvs vve shall scc that the m eander sym bolizes vvater.
117

79 D ouble-headed Vina
tand with hole in the
middle incised with crossed
chest bands and chevrons.
Crnokalaka Bara,
southeastem Yugoslavia.
c. 5000 BC

So C la y seal bearing an
ideogram o f a Bird Goddess:
crossed chest bands and
chevrons. Predionica, E arly
Vina site near Pritina,
Southern Yugoslavia. E n d o f
sixth millennium BC

8 1 Lid, bearing symbols o f

Bird G oddess: chevrons and
incised chest bands. Early
Vina. Parja site, uiestern
Rom ania, end o f sixth
millennium BC

7 7 Late V in a vase w ith panels still sh o w in g the

rain -to rre n t m o tif. M ean d er pan el on the other
side. T h e V in a site

80. 81 B ear-sh ap ed vase, incised vvith

bands o f z ig z a g g iu g lines and striated
triangles. S m ili site near Z a d a r. D an ilo
culture. Se co n d h n lfo fs ix t h
m illen n iu m ik :

78 , 79 Z o o m o r p h ic V in a lids w ith a b ird s beak

and inciscd bands o f stream in g rain . V in a site:
E a rly V in a (78), Late V in a (79)

N j B e a r ' < p .ivv d e c o r a t e d vv it h b a n d s o t

p a r a l l e l li n e s . O b r e II. l i .i r l v B u t m i r .
l i. t r l v f i f t h m i l l e t m i u m 11c

83, 84 B u st o f a bird -h ead ed goddess w ith lo n g

cy lin d ric al neck, cap o r h air bun , la rg e breasts
and incised chevron s o v e r lo w e r arm s.
T h essaly. A y c a A n n a (M eg. V ry si) at T irn av o s,
Sesk lo . c. 6000 b c

86 D ou b le-h ead cd goddess. E arly Vina.

Rastu, w cstern R om an ia. End sixth
m illennium BC
87 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic pot su ggestin g a
bird-sh aped vvater d ivin ity. T h e god d ess
m ask is m arked vvith chevrons and triple
lines. K en ezlo, B iik k gro u p , northcastern
H u n g ary. End sixth m illennium BC

85 U p p e r torso o f a fig u rin e w ith cy lin d rical

head and b ird s beak. P o ro d in , Southern
Y u g o s la v ia . C en tra l B alk an N e o lith ic , S ta r e vo
c o m p lc x . E a rly sixth m illen n iu m b c

88 Ja r featuring breasts set in rain to rren t'

bands. Early C u cu ten i, N cgresti, northeastem
R o m a n ia . Late fifth m illennium b c

yo D ou b le-h ea d ed B ird
G od d ess m arked vvith
chest-band sign, chevrons
and signs con sisting o f
three con n ected lines. The
V in a site. a r ly fifth
m illenn ium B<:

<;l A ltar table vvith figure

o f a vvom an h o ld in g a
vessel. B oth d am aged .
I ossib lv a r.iin-in vocation
scene. B ird G o d d ess
svm b o l 011 front tace
o f altar. T h e V ina site.

,92 A ltar table in fo rm o f an an im ai-m ask ed

;woman h o ld in g a vessel d ecorated vvith
meandering bands. L egs are b e ar- or
bull-shaped. E a rly V in a. Fafos !, Southern
Yugoslavia

94 Seated n u d e vvom an h o ld in g a la rg e basin.

P ossib ly a rain -in v o c atio n sccnc. Elab orate
d iam on d -sh ap ed design incised 011 the side o f
stool. T isza culture. B o rd jo , northern
Y u g o s la v ia

82 Terracotta head ivith Bird Goddess* mask

decorated ivith meanders over the top and
parallel lines (rain torrents?) round the eyes.
Potporanj, northeastern Yugoslavia.
Classical Vina. Fifth millennium b c
T he m ean d er s ym bo l o f co sm ic w aters

? U ppcr torso o f an Early

tea figurine ivith a large
tner incised over the
'y and face (mask).
otporanj at Vrsac,
,rtheastern Yugoslavia

T h e m eander vvas incised on figurines vvith bird-m asks or birdheads, snake-arm s or snake-legs, and on masks, cult vessels and altars
in ali cultural groups o f O ld Europe. Vina statues representing
dignified personages, som e seated and som e standing, vvear a discshaped pendant and h ave the m eander sym b ol m arked either on the
abdom en or on the back or front o f the skirt. T h e same type o f
incised pattern occurs on the forehead o f m ore elaborate masks, at
the upper right corner o f the mask, or betvveen the eyes and extending dovvn the bridge o f the nose. T he front and the back o f the tvvoheaded Vina goddess from G o m o lava is decorated vvith a large
m eander, vvhile a m eander incised on the back o f a vvater bird from
V ina refleets its association vvith a bird d ivin ity and vvith vvater.
T h e enlarged or double m eander m o tif must have originated as
tvvo opposing lines - like tvvo snakcs vvith their heads m ceting but
not touching - subsequently elaborated into an enorm ous meander
design vvhich appears incised on body, pedim ent and throne. D ouble
m eanders and double snakcs vvere also incised upon dises. Frequently
the m eander is associated vvith striated triangles, chevrons, bands o f
parallel lines and sem icircles; zoom orphic lids from Vina sites and
an o v a l plaque from the Vina settlem ent o f Banjica servc as
cxam plcs. T h e double m eander, incised vvith vvhitc-cncrusted lines
at the centre o f the latter must have been a sign ofessential im portance
in the cult o f the goddesses.

_ Figure o f ivater-bird
ciscd ivith mcanders on
ick and ivings, V s iti
it. Perforations piercc the
y at neck and tail. The
ia site, Classical Vina

124

A Linear B tablet (G g 702) from Knossos, deciphered b y Palm er

1- (1965), inform s us that the labyrinth must have been a sym b ol o f the
| abode or palae o f the M istress o f the L ab yrin th (da-pu-ri-to-jo; p 0-ti-ni-ja). This palae o r cult place, i.e. the labyrinth, is thought to
be depieted on a tablet from Pylos. T h e Pylian labyrin th is m ore
com ple* than the meanders o f the Vina, Gumelni^a, Tisza, Lengyel,
B iikk and Cucuteni civilizations, and dates from 2000-3000 years
later, but the link betvveen them is nevcrtheless apparent. T h e role
o f the labyrinth in gam es and dances vvas still strong in R o m a n ,
Hellemstic and even later times. Com parison o f the interlaced m o vcments o f an Ancient Greek dance know n as the Ceranos (erane) to
the labyrinth strueture (H arrison 1894: C X X V II I) leads to an
understandm g o f the connection betvveen the labynnth and its
Mistress, the prehistoric B ird Goddess. The erane m ay have been one
o f the incarnations o f a vvater d ivinity, and the N eolithic figurines
vvith flattened posteriors, stiff legs and long neeks p robably represent
eranes o r vvater birds o f a sim ilar kind. W ater birds vvith long legs
and neeks are depieted on C ucuteni vases and sim ilar bird-form s
have been found m odelled in clay. Indeed, ali the evidence seems to
indicate that the d ivin ity associated vvith the m eander had the
attributes o f a vvater bird.
Panels o f labyrinthinc design associated vvith gate and vvaterstream sym bols appear on anthropom orphic vases and figurines o f
enthroned goddesses from Szegvar, a settlement o f the Tisza cuiture
located near Szentes in H u n gary. There is a system atically repeated
arrangem ent o f the incised m otifs on these artifacts. T h e b o d y and
throne o f the seated Szegvar goddess is covered vvith meanders
organized in vertical and horizonta] panels, interspersed vvith parallel
vertical lines and narrovv panels o f zigzags. A lth ough the panelled
design is suggestive o f a garm ent made up o f m any pieces o f cloth
sevvn together, it is unlikely that the entire decorative com position
vvas m erely a copy o f an em broidered costume. T h e design appears
to sym bolize several levels o f m ythical vvaters. C orresponding
sym bolism is encountered on vessels from the Tisza sites o f S zegvar
and K o k en y d o m b , cult vases vvhich vvere apparently used in ritual
or festivals dedicated to the vvater d ivinity. T h e Szegvar footed
vessel is divided by vertical lines into four alternating broad and
narrovv panels containing diffcrent patterns o f incised labyrinthine
meanders. S ix holes at the top and bottom o f the narrovv front panel
must have had some spccial significance associated vvith the funetions
o f the goddess. Incised patterns on the cylindrical body o f the vase
from K o k en yd o m b scem to shovv meanders superim posed upon
gates. O n the uppcr part o f the cylinder is a sign com posed o f scven
horizonta! lines vvith six dots belovv and a vertical line above branehing into three dots 011 top.

8,5 Schem atizedfigurine (a

tand) with meanders and
chevrons in fron t and at the
back o f the neck. M asked
head with peaked hat. E arly
Vina. T u rda fsite,
Transylvania

86 Low er part o f standing

Vina figurin e bearing
meander sign in front. A gino
Brdo site near Belgrade

87 Low cr part oj Itroken

terracotta portraying an
enthroned goddess. Meanders
incised on the sides o f the
throne. The Vina site.
Classical Vina

95 V in a m ask w ith v crtica l lines and a m eander

fram ed vvith V s incised a b o v e the rig h t eyc.
C rn o k a la k a B ara, sou theastem Y u g o s la v ia
96 Pen tagon al V ina mask vvith m eanders ab o ve
eyes and snakes belovv. M e d v e d n ja k , central
Y u g o sla v ia c. 5000 bc
97 B ird G od d ess fro m V in a vvith a m ed allion in
the centre o f the chest bands, an o th er at the nape
o f the n cck, and a m ean d er on fro n t an d 'b a c k o f
skirt and on top o f m ask, c. 4500 - 4000 bc

98 F rag m en t o f a clay disc inciscd vvith meanders

and spirals. T h e V in a site. c. 4500 BC
99 U p p e r torso o f a V in a fig u rin e w e m ng a
p en tagon al m ask. A m ean d er s y m b o l i: added
a b o v e the n ose. M e d v e d n ja k , central Yugoslavia
100 , 10 1 D ou b le-h ea d ed god d ess fro m Gom olava,
n orthern Y u g o s la v ia . M ean d ers inciscd at front and
b ack. P erfo ratio n s p ro b a b ly fo r attachm ent of
pcrishablc m aterials (vvings, plu m es?). Vinca,
m id -fifth m illcnnium ec

10 2 , 10 3 T h e S z e g v a r en th ron ed goddess.
T isza culture. S z e g v a r-T u z k o v e s at Szentes,
southeastem H u n g a ry . c. 5000 b c

10 4 F o o tcd vase d ecorated w ith m eander

panels and six dots at top o f p anel. T isza
cu lture. S z e g v a r-T u z k o v e s, southeastem
H u n g a ry

10 5 - 1 0 7 L a rg e vase in shape o f an en thron ed

god d ess.d ecoratcd \vith m ean ders, gate
sym b o l and z ig z ag s; a co m b sign featurin g
three dots o n -top , six ai b o tto m , is incised in
the upp er p art. T isza culture. K d k e n y d o m b
at H o d m cso vasarh ely, southeastem H u n g ary.
End sixth m illenn ium BC

io 8 , 10 9 A lta r d ep ictin g several

spheres o f the u n iverse. It
p ro b a b ly p o rtray s a cosm o gon ical
m yth (birth o f w a te r d iv in ity h o rn ed snake?). T isza culture.
K o k e n y d o m b , southeastem
H u n g a ry

1 10 V ase w ith large m ean d er

pattcrn on u p p er part and figurine
o f goddess b e tw cen snake spirals
in the m id d le band. P ainted in
d ark brovvn and w h itc. Late
C lassical C u cu ten i. T raian ,
northeastern R o m a n ia . c. 4000 bc

The rich ly incised decoration on the Tisza altar from K o k e n y donib m ay relatc to cosm ogonical myths. Its triangular front is
covered by meanders and divided into tw o levcls by a horizontal
band o f m eandering lines. In the centre o f the lo w er register tvvo
eyes and a nose are set in a triangle. T w o vertical lines above the nose
m ay sym bolize horns (a horned Snake Goddess?). G roups o f parallel
lines arranged in threcs form panels along each side o f the altar. The
decorativc organization suggests several levels o f cosm ic vvaters with
the goddess abodc or birthplace at the lovvest level. Furtherm ore the
triangle m ay represent a schematic rendering o f a fem ale goddess.
Sim ilar and sym bolically idcntical designs are found on vvhiteenerusted East Balkan Boian and V.idastra vases and m odels o f
shrines, and on the Cucuteni polych rom e painted w ares from M o ldavia. A n outstanding m odel o f a shrine, 40 cm. high, ve ry p robably
dedicated to either the B ird or the Snake Goddess vvas unearthed
in the settlement o f Vadastra. in the lovver Danube region. Its fasade,
solidly covered vvith zigzagging labvrinthine m eanders in relief, has
a gate in the centre. Several necklaces in relief adom the goddess
neck. T h e head, as the illustration shows,. is reconstructed. The
model is hollovv inside. The vvhole com plicated sym b olic design,
resem bling that on the Szegvar ceramics and identical vvith finds
from sites vvhich are separated by the Carpathian M ountains and a
distance o f about 600 km ., must have been reinforced and m aintained b y com m on m ythical beliefs and im agery.

88 E arly Vina zoomorphic

lid (broken at the bottom)
incised with meanders,
chevrons and parallel lines.
A iu d , central Romania

89 O v a l clay plaque u/ith a

meander incised in the
centre, surrottnded by
chevrons and semicircles.
Early Vina. Banjica site
near Belgrade

90 l'ahlct front Pylos

marked ii'itlt labyrinlh
pat tem. c. 120 0 bc;

g i M o d e le :i temple
decorated witn excised
meanders filled witlt ivhite
paste. I adastra,
sontliu'esfern Romania. First
h a lf o f fifth millettnitnn b c

U*

92 Vase decoration comprising a belt o f large meanders (meandcring snakes)

intcrrupted by closed bracket signs, containiug human figures centrally situated
above the vessel's handles. Painted in dark broivn and white. Late Classical
Cucuteni vase from T raian, northcastern Rom ania. c. 4000 lic

110

T h e C ucu teni painted vases represent etiological m yths, perhaps

depieting the birth or abode o f a vvater d ivinity. T his d ivin ity has an
anthropom orphic form enclosed in a bracket-shaped design which
in turn is contained w ithin a belt o f large rhom bic meanders. This
type o f narrative m o tif vvas encountered on several vases from the
T raian settlement in northern M old avia. T h e reconstructed part o f
such a vase shows four large snake meanders and a standing goddess
consisting o f tvvo opposed triangles, her figure fram ed b y a closed
brackct-like sym bol. T h e fu lly reconstructed vase from Traian
illustrates the organization o f the cosm os: meanders occu p yin g the
upper levels and b elow theni the goddess abode vvith her im age
fram ed by spiralling snakes. H um an figures consisting o f tvvo
triangles and vvith bird -claw ed hands are fam iliar to M inoan art
(A lexiou 19 58 : Pl. IA ). These and other com positions conncct the
labyrinthine m otifs vvith the m ythical vvater sphere bcyond or belovv
vvhich the goddess resides. M any cult vessels are decorated vvith the
m eander pattern and m ust have served the vvater cult either as
containers for h o ly vvater or w h cn in v o k in g the vvater deity.
T hi- o rig in

of

the

B ir d G o d d e s s

and

her

im a g e

d u r in g

thf.

N eo lit h ic

T h e m eander and chevron vvere not invented by the early agriculturists. S ym m etric and rh yth m ic meanders and bands o f chevrons
are cncountered on M agdalenian bone and iv o ry objeets. T h e m otifs
appear in association vvith each other and vvith bands o f parallel lines.
Even infm itc, cndless interconnccted meanders are already present
011 U p p er Palaeolithic sculptures and ornam ents. Best exam ples
com c from M ezin, an early M agdalenian or Kostenki I V site 011 the
bank o f the Desna in the U kraine, excavatcd in 1908/9. T h e iv o ry
figurines bearing chevrons and m eanders appear to p ortray vvater

1 1 2 M arb le sculpture
w ith lo n g p h allic neck
and pron ou n ce
b uttocks. S lig h tly
sto o p in g position
rcm in iscent o f a bird.
A ttica, G reece.
T y p o lo g ic a ily
P ro to -S e sk lo

the vvell-being o f the people depended to a great extent on its regular

return from the south in the sprmg. T h e d ivim ty sym bolized by a
I
water bird must have been a giver o f nourishm ent. Portrayals o f
II St
vvater birds in stone and bone are knovvn from U p p er Palaeolithic
I
11
sites in E u ro pe and Siberia. It is the notion o f hybridization o f bird
| f IfJ
and vvoman vvhich led to the creation o f a rig id ly schem atized type
1 : '
found in M ezin and Pctersfels. T h e geom etric signs vvere necessary
1
to invigorate the effectivencss o f these amulets. C h evro n s emphasize
P
f
the avian character, and the meander, the m ythical vvaters or the
1
energy o f vvaters and their mistress, the snake.
C h ik alen k o regards the M ezin meanders as a nevv artistic design,
hitherto unknovvn to the art o f mankind, vvhich shovvs in graphic
form the understanding or feeling o f rhythm and sym m etry. He
|
further calls this art rh yth m ograph ic, akin to m usic and dance. In
fact, in the beginn ing it is the dance o f a hand upon a sm ooth surface
- a hand arm ed vvith a ch ise l-in order to eliminate unvvanted sm oothness. T h en , subsequently, there arises a play, an am usem ent, a spo rt
(Chikalenko 1953 : 534). H ese e sh e re th e b e g in n in g o fp u re a rt, vvhere
rhythm and sym m etry existed in a most naked form vvith 110 concealed acccssories. T his art, he says, does not im itate anyth in g in
its designs, nor does it express any idea. In view o f the consistent and
persistent association o f the m eander and the vvater bird and the
vvater snake, it is difficult to see mere amusement or sport in the
chiselling o f endlcss meanders by the Palaeolithic artist and to concede a com pletely independent discovery, divorced from religious
belief, fo r this m otif. I fcel there vvas an inspiration - the ripp lin g o f
vvater, the sinuous m ovem ent o f a snake, or a dance im itating vvater
birds - and a linking o f the d ivin ity vvith its o w n aquatic sphere.
T h e bisexualism o f the vvater-bird d ivin ity is apparent in the
emphasis on the long neck o f the bird sym bolicaIly linked vvith the
phallus or the snake from U pper Palaeolithic times and onvvards
throughout m an y m illennia. This bisexualism m ay derive from the
fusion o f tvvo aspeets o f the divinity, that o f a bird and that o f a snake,
and not from fem ale and male principles. The im age o fa phallic B ird
Goddess dom inates during the seventh and sixth m illennia in the
Acgcan area and the Balkans. Som etim es she is a life-like erect phallus
vvith small vvings and a posterior o fa vvoman, vvhich, ifseen in profile,
is readily identifiable as a b ird s body and tail. O r she m ay take the
form o f a nude fem ale figurine vvith a disproportionatcly long and
m assive neck vvhich ob vio u sly represents a phallus, as in a m arble
figurine from Attica. Bisexualism is refleeted in bird-shaped vases
vvith cylindrical necks and in containers shaped like a b ird s body
attachcd to a fem ale human figurine having a cylindrical head. The
concept o f the fusion o f the sexes occasionally rcappears in repre
sentations o fh erm a p h ro d itic figurines o ft h e Vina culture having

1 <" V

a
pper Palaeolithic ivory
ties decorated with
d meanders, chevrons
larallel lines. a, back;
nt (exploded design) ;
M e . Bottom r o w : loiver
unthout necks. M ez in ,
rn Ukraine. c. 14 ,0 0 0
:hronology not
y established)

3 CM

birds w ith long nccks. T h c y unqucstionably have characteristics o f

a bird and must be grou p ed together vvith the schematized fem ale
figurines or fem ale hum an and bird h vbrids o f the M agdalcnian
Petersfcls type (M arshack 19 7 2 : 284, 306-308) and vvith the N eolithic
steato pygo u s figurines dcscribcd in the previous ehapter. W ater
birds, such as the erane, heron, w ild goose, vvild duck or grebe, vvere
sacred to the northern hunting tribes. T o geth er with the bear and
the elk thcy vvere venerated th roughout the prehistory o f northern
Eurasia, and in m yth have not lo.st their im portancc to this day. For
the northern hunters the vvater bird vvas the m ajor food supply, and

135

94 Proto-Scsklo terracotta
figurine lt'ith neck in the
form o f a phallus and ii'ith
birds u'ings and tail.
Tsa n gli, Thcssal}'. c. 6000

BC

male genital organs and fem ale breasts. Such figures have beaked
heads and sharply protruding posteriors, notably in the E arly Vina
com plex.
Bird-vvom an h ybrids vary in the degree o f their sehematization.
O ne m ay be a bird vvith the breasts o f a w o m a n ; another m ay have
vvings and the b o d y o f a bird, but the head o f a w o m an . In an
o v erw h elm in g m ajority o f cases, she is a hybrid h avin g fem ale
buttocks outlined in the shape o f a b ird s b o d y , fem ale breasts, a b ird s
beak, a lon g neck and either w in gs or arm stumps. Her erect posture,
vvith the upper part o f the b o d y bent forw ard , is that o f a bird. A
figurine from Anza dem onstrates typical h ybridized features o f the
B ird G oddess: the torso takes the form o fa b ird s b o d y and even the
vvings are indicated; yet the figure has naturalistically rendered
fem ale buttocks.
T h e L a d y B ir d a n d t h e L a d y S n a k e o f t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c era

rly Vina Bird

$s from A n z a in the
o /a large rase. A n z a
Macedonia. c. 5 3 0 0 -

3c

116 , 117

W hen the O ld European civilization reached its cultural peak around

5000 BC there em erged a sophisticated im age o f the B ird and Snake
Goddess. She is n o w either an exquisitely shaped vase vvearing a mask
or a lady w earing an elaborate dress and a m ask.
T h e E arly Vina settlem ent at Anza in M acedonia yielded a
num ber o f vases vvith the goddess eyes m oulded in re lie f on a
cylindrical neck. A li w ere grouped together on the floor o f a house.
Associated w ith another house was a vase, 92 cm. high, vvith a
goddess face engraved and painted on the neck. B e lo w it, a pendant
necklace is indicated in relief. T h e body o f the vase was solidly painted
in red and cream bands m eeting in the centre. A n overvvhelm ing
m ajority o f ali the figurines found in this settlem ent belonged to the
standing o r enthroned B ird Goddess. She seems to be the m ost
im portant goddess o f the Vina people since her im age dom inates in
ali k n o w n settlements. O fa ll the articulate sculptures fro m the Vina
site, m ore than fo rty per cent had ornithom orph ic features.
T h e goddess cpiphany cxprcsscd in bird form fmds its most
evocative m anifestation in the fam ous Vina H yd e vase , a gracefully
floating duck, vvhich has tvvo rounded protuberances on the top o f
its head and wcars a m ask. This askos, about 40 cm. long, is hollovv
inside, and its yellow ish -o ran ge vvalls are surprisingly thin. The
surface is channelled throughout, apparently im itative o f rippling
vvater. W ings and plum age are indicated by raised arehes and black
painted bands. A noth er vase representing the goddess from the same
site and phase and h aving a sim ilar rippled surface o f oran gy colour,
takes the form o f a standing fem ale vvith b ird s posterior and vvearing
a large pentagonal mask. Knovvn as the Venus o f V in a, she has
hum an breasts, abdom en and legs. Each o f the arm stumps has tvvo
1 3f>

perforations, p robably for the attachm ent o f vvings. A n outstanding

ornithom orphic vase unearthed in G rivac in central Y u g o sla v ia , has
nearly life-like characteristics o f a bird vvith p lum age indicated b y
engraved parallel lines along the w h ole length o f the b o d y, but the
stout legs are shaped like those o f a vvoman (K ragu jevac M useum ).
T he m issing lid p robably bore the masked head o f the goddess.
T h e eyes and arehed b ro w -rid ges o f the goddess persistently recur
on neeks and lids o f East Balkan and Cucuteni vases. T h e num inous
nature o f the dom inating eyes, vvhich together vvith the arch o f the
eyebrow s and beak o r nose (usually connected vvith the brovv-ridges
in the shape o f an anehor o r letter T) contribute to the bird-like
character, persist throughout several millennia in the archaeological
record. T h e y are fam iliar th roughout the fourth and third m illennia
b c and are vvell knovvn from the early settlements o f T ro y . The
ow lish features m ay stem origin ally from the representation o f the
horned head o f a snake.
A type o f late Vina figurine o f the B ird Goddess depiets a vvoman
vvearing an elaborate dress and a bird s mask. W here the mask
represents the head o fd u c k or other vvater bird, these becam e masterpieces o f detail during this period. The chic coiffure o f one East
Balkan B ird Goddess consists o f a pony-tail or a peaked cap, others
vvear a double spiral or snake coil. A spiralling snake rnay also be
engraved on the neck or the upper part o f the b o d y o f a figurine, as
fo r exam ple on the m asterful little sculpture o f a masked goddess
from Vadastra in R o m an ia. A m eander vvas excised on the back o f
her neck and filled vvith vvhite paste. Snake spirals, meanders, dotted
bands or parallel horizonta! painted bands often decorate the costum e
o f the standing or seated L ad y Snake.
A t ali periods and in ali regions o f O ld Europe one, three or six
holes or notehes vvere frequently cut into the throat o f the Snake or
Bird Goddess. O ne, three or six holes or notehes (and som etim es
seven, perhaps by mistake) also occur on vases decorated vvith
meanders or parallel lines sym b olizin g vvater (sce Pls. 77, 10 4 - 10 7 ;
Fig. 84). T h ree lines or a vertical line in the m iddle o f the V sign are
associated vvith the figurines o f the B ird Goddess on ly (see Pls. 9 3 ,9 5 ,
10 5 - 10 7 , 1 2 1 ; Figs. 7 5 -7 7 . 82, 88). T h e Snake and B ird Goddess
usually vvcars three or six necklaces (see Pls. 124 , 1 3 1 ; Figs. 85, 9 1)
and three arm rings (see Pl. 12 1) . S ix chevrons cover the upper part
o f the gracile Lady o f C ucuteni. The num ber three and its
duplication apparently possessed a certain sym bolic significancc
vvhere the goddess vvas concerned. The M inoan bell-shape idols
vvith snake hands on breasts are decorated vvith painted horizonta]
bands in groups o f three (Evans, Palae o f Minos, IV , 1, Fig. 12 0 : 7)
and, in M inoan and Greek art, three colum ns are associated vvith
birds, and vvith Athena. T h ree figures, three lines and three dots

119

12 0 , 12 1

124
12 7

126, 128

129,130

f .

- ii'

6, 1 1 7 C u lt vase in fo rm o f a d u c k , w ith a hum an

askcd head and vvearing a c ro w n . C h an n cl-d eco rate d
id painted in black bands. T h e V in a site. M id -V in a ,
st h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m bc

>

i i s Stan d in g B ird G oddess in the fo rm o f a

vessel. C h an n el led surface. o ran gc c o lo u r. T h e
V in ca site. M id -V in a . first h a l f o f fifch
m illenn iu in bc

120 L a d y B ir d fro m V in a. Late V in a

i 2 i Late V in ca B ird G od d ess vvearing d u c k s m ask.

V sign vvith a vertical line on the ehest. Su p ska at
u p rija , central Y u g o s la v u

12 2 , 12 3 B ird Goddess* mask

in the fo rm o f a d u e k s head.
Late V in a. V in a m ound

i i<; l.ves and beak o f B ird G od d ess fro m ihc

neck of .i vase. R u g in o a sa . C u cu toin A site.
northeastern R o m a n u . <. late fifth
m illeu niiu n iu

12 9 , 13 0 01as$ic.t! C u cu ten i
B ir d o r Sn ak e G o d d ess: the
fig u rin e has no arm s, an
a n o n y m o u s head. and leans
forvvard. C h e v ro n design on
fro n t and back. striped legs.
N o rth ern M o ld a via . c. end of
fifth m illenn ium bc

12 4 M in iatu re head o f a B ird G od d ess w ith a

tu ft o r crest and channels fo r n ccklaces. S itag ro i
m ou n d (P erio d III), northeastern G reece. East
B alk an civilizatio n . c. 4000 b c

l- S I he B ird o r Sn ak e (oddess fro m Vadastra,

lovver D an ube. Rom ania-. R e lie f design ine lude
Mlake c o ik in fron t. m eander at the back

12 6 , 12 7 H eads vvith snake-spiral coiffu re. S itag ro i m oun d (Period

1 3 1 Sn ak e o r B ird G od d ess o f
L e n g y e l typ e, vvearing six
necklaces, fro m Strelice,
Z n o jm o district. M o ra v ia .
M id -fifth m illen n iu m bc

consistently appear on C orinth ian and B oeotian sculptures and vase

paintings. A sculptural masterpiece o f the seventh century b c was
diseovered in the tem ple o f Poseidon on Isthm ia. It is com posed o f
three fem inine figures standing 011 a round base and supporting a
large vase encircled b y a snake. In each com partm ent betvveen the
figures, heads o fra m s vvith large vvinding horns appear (M useum o f
C o rin th ). P ro to -C o rin th ian vases frequen tly display w ater-bird
figures in association w ith three vertical lines, undulating lines and a
net pattern. A B oeotian Snake Goddess dated to 5 7 5 -5 5 0 b c is
depieted w ith hair falling on her shoulders in three clusters. H er arms
are snakes, her dress and tiara are decorated vvith dotted lines (H iggins
1963 : 3). A snake-headed figurine holdin g a baby snake (or a l o a f o f
bread) fro m the H ellenistic period in C o rin th has a headdress
decorated w ith three dises.
Each cultural area o f O ld Europe had its ow n m ethod o f p ortraying the Snake and B ird Goddess, but the sym b olic signs and the
general conception o f the im age w ere the same throughout. (For
classical representations o f the V ina civilization, seePls. 9 7 ,1 2 0 ,1 2 2 ,
1 2 3 ; for those o f the East Balkan civilization, see Pls. 1 2 5 - 1 2 7 ; for
those fro m the C ucuteni and L e n gy e l cultures, see Pls. 12 8 - 1 3 0
respectively). These exam ples are from contexts w id e ly separated in
tim e and space, refleeting the pervasive sym b olic im portance o f the
L a d y B ir d or L ady Snake m o tif in the m ythical im agery o f O ld
Europe.

T h e S n a k e a n d B ir d G o d d e s s as n u r s e

In contrast to the Indo-Europeans, to w h o m Earth vvas the G reat

M oth er, the O ld Europeans created maternal im ages out o f vvater
and air divinities, the Snake and B ird Goddess. A d ivin ity vvho
nurtures the w o rld vvith m oisture, g iv in g rain, the divine food vvhich
m etaph orically vvas also understood as m others m ilk, naturally
becam c a nurse or m other. Indeed, the terracotta figurines o f an
anth ropom orp h ic snake or bird holding a baby are encountered at
various periods and in m an y regions o f O ld Europe, and in M inoan,
C y p rio te , and M ycenaean cultures as vvell. This is exem plified by
the D im in i seated N u rse or M other, striped like a snake and vvith a
spiralling snake o ver the abdom en, from the site o f Scsklo, as vvell as
by an an th ropom orphic figure vvearing a bird mask and holding a
baby sim ilarly m asked, from V ina. B ird-h eaded figurines frequently have hum ps on their backs, and m ay v e ry vvell be stylized renderings o f sacks fo r babies.

1 3 2 B ir d -n u s k c d u o i n . m h o ld in g .1 bird-m .tsked b.ihv. PI.imu- d iv o r.u ion o f

.1 l.irgo v.isc. M id-ViiK \. Tlu* V iiu'm site

this d ivin ity could also be a separate Snake Goddess or B ird Goddess.
She is the fem inine principle. .
H er status is shovvn by crossed chest bands and a m edallion hung
round the neck, as w ell as by an elaborate dress and head-gear. H er
avian characteristics are stressed b y a fo rv va rd -le a n in g o r stooping
posture, arm stumps vvith perforations fo r the attachm ent o f feathers,
letter V signs and m ultiple chevrons o ver her b o d y or m ask. V s,
chevrons, and crossed chest bands becam e the ideogram s o f the B ird
Goddess and appear on figurines, stands, stamp seals, plaques, cult
vessels, altar tables, and other cult objeets. T h e snake characteristics
vvere emphasized b y parallel or zigzag .lines, dotted bands, and m ost
frequently, by snakes spiralling o ver the body and b y a snake-spiral
coiffure.
T h e upper and lovver vvaters vvhich she controlled vvere. repre
sented b y labyrinthine meanders and snake spirals. As a source o f
rain she vvas invoked as docum ented b y the sculptures o f nude
rain -in vok in g w o m cn holding large basins, altar tables in the shape
o f anim al-m asked vvomen holding vessels, bear-shaped cult vessels,
and a persistently rccurring decorative m o tif m ade up o f rain-torrent
parallel lines, zigzags, and dotted bands. The bear must have been
connected also vvith the m ythical source o f vvater, a m o tif p robably
inherited from the Palaeolithic era. R ain -b earin g and m iik -g ivin g
m otifs vvere intervvoven. R a in torrents and breasts appear on jars
and basins used for rain invocation, and the goddess appears as a
snake-m asked and bird-m asked nurse holding a snake- or birdmasked baby. H er abode or birthplace is beyond the upper vvaters.
T he epiphany o f this goddess m ainly took the form o f a snake, a
vvater bird, a duck, goosc, erane, diver bird, or perhaps an ow l. In
sculptural representations she is shovvn as an ornithom orphic vessel
vvearing a mask vvith human cyes and a bird s beak. H er num inous
eyes and a triangular beak, or the snake, appear in cosm ological
representations vvhich shovvs that she vvas a Mistress o f life-generating cosm ic forces. As the E gyptian Great Goddess N ut, she vvas the
flovving unity o f celestial pnm ordial vvaters. As an ovvlshe vvas also
connected vvith the aspect o f death.

throned Goddess
a ehild. Striped and
ainted, she may
t a Snake Goddess.
.ite, Thcssaly. Late

T h e B ir d G o d d e s s a n d S n a k e G o d d e s s in M i n o a n C r e t e a n d in

iiic

A n c ien t G reece

The Snake and B ird Goddess vvas a predom inant im age in the
pantheon o f O ld Europe. As a com bined snake and vvater bird vvith
a lon g phallic neck she vvas inherited from the M agdalenian cuiture
o f the U p p cr Palaeolithic. T h o u g h usually portrayed as a hybrid,

H4

T h e Indo-European infiltration into the vvestern U kraine, M oldavia,

and early the vvhole Dam ibe region in the fourth m illennium b c
resulted in the enthronem ent o f im portant local goddesses and gods
and m ost conspicuously, the universal vvater d ivinity in the shape o f
a snake or bird. The great tradition o f sculpting Lady B ird ' figurines
145

ceased in east central Europe. O n ly occasionally does her im age reem erge at the end o f the fourth m illennium and the early third
m illennium , notably in T r o y and in the Baden com plex in eastem
H u n gary. T h e situation was different in M inoan C rete, the Aegean
Islands and in ali areas w here M inoan influence was strong, including
the Greek m ainland.
M inoan and M in o an -M ycen aean art generally abounds in birds,
snakes, and w o m e n vvith vvings o r w ith snakes craw lin g up their arms
o r on top o f their heads, the epiphanies and the anthropom orphic
im ages o f the goddess inherited from the O ld European pantheon.
In the Proto-p alatial period (20 0 0 -170 0 b c ) the Snake and B ird
Goddess is a fam iliar representation on cult vases, dishes, and altar
tables. She is a beaked lady vvith snake curls or crest on her head and
o i 2 i cm has snake arm s as depieted on a stem o f a round altar table and a dish
in Phaistos. Peculiar Pre-palatial (Early M inoan) anthropom orphic
!noan Snake Goddess
devotee ifith a birds
vases vvith hollovv breasts, o w l-lik e eyes, and m any necklaces,
tainted ori leg o f an
decorated vvith bands o f zigzags and meanders, as found at M allia
r.ble. Phaistos, Proto(Z ervos 19 5 6 : Fig. 116 ) o r M ochlos in eastern C rete (id .: Fig. 187),
i! period, early second
considered to be divinities o f the sea , p rob ab ly originate in the
muni b c
C h alcolith ic O ld European vvater d iv in ity . D u rin g the Palatial period
in Crete, the M istress o f vvaters appears as a sophisticated lady, best
knovvn from the iv o ry and faience statuettes called Snake Goddesses, one holdin g snakes. in her hands, another w ith snakes intertw ined around the abdom en and breasts, and both h avin g exposed
breasts. T h e snake, like the bird, was a form in vvhich the goddess
becam e m anifest. N ilsson in M inoan-Mycenaean Religion provides
evidence o f the presence o f idols vvith bird-like attitudes and terra
cotta birds in 'M in o an shrines (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 3 3 o ff.). T h e large bellshaped idol from the Shrine o f the D ouble A xes at Knossos has a bird
perehed upon its head, vvhich p rob ab ly is an im age o f the B ird
Goddess. In the shrine o f Gazi, three idols carry birds on their heads.
A bird perehes on an earlier Proto-palatial altar from the sanctuary
o f the D o ve Goddess o f Knossos. A noth er expression o f the same
idea is the small gold m odel o f a shrine from sh aft-gravc IV at
M ycenae, vvhere birds perch on the horns o f consecration. T h ere are
tvvo pieccs o f gold le a f from shaft-grave III at M ycenae representing
a nude vvoman w ith her arms held in front o f her breast. O ne figure
has a bird apparently in flight upon her head, the other has birds
attached to her elbovvs by their tails. In the shrine o f G ournia in
eastern C rete three terracotta birds w erc found togcthei w ith the
anth ropom orp h ic im ages o f Snake Goddesses. T h ree terracotta
birds vvere also diseovered in the southvvest w in g o f the palae o f
H agia T riadh a. A room at Palaikastro yielded three fem ale figures
and a lyre p layer in a grou p w ith six terracotta birds, and on an iv o ry
plaque from the same Late M inoan I palae, a beautiful vvinged

146

Wff: water bird is portrayed vvith a crest o f three feathers (Z ervos 19 56 :

| pig, 528). Three small terracotta birds vvere found in the cave at
Patso am o n g other vo tive anim al figurines. T h e num ber three, it
vvould seem vvas not accidental and vvas indeed connected vvith the
m ythical num ber o f three vvhich in the N eolithic and C h alcolithic
era is evidenced b y the continuous recurrcnce o f three or six holes on
the m outh or neck o f the goddess, or three parallel lines or three
chevrons. B ird s portrayed on vases are exclu sively w atcr fovvl, seagulls, ducks, eranes, or diver birds. T heir bodies, vvings or necks are
decorated vvith striations and chevrons or snake zigzags (cf. Z e rv o s
19 56: Figs. 734 and 7 3 8 ; Z e rv o s 19 5 7 : Fig. 336). Ju g s o f the N e o palatial period o f C rete are shaped like vvater birds and the painted
decoration on them is conspicuously sym bolic o f flovving water,
including chevrons, striations, bands o f dots and groups o f three
vertical lines (cf. Z e rv o s 19 56 : 5 7 1, 727, 729, 7 3 1).
M ycenaean art abounds 111 vvinged bird -w o m an im ages and
snake-headed figures with round eyes, standing or seated on a throne
and frequently vvearing a c ro w n ; during Late M ycenaean (Late
H elladic III) times, small terracotta figurines vvith cylindrical bodies
and w in gs becom e v e ry com m on (M ylonas 1956). T h e posture o f the
standing figures, leaning forvvard, their buttocks naturally upraised
or o f the h a lf seated and seated figures, is surprisingly sim ilar to that
o f the N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic figurines. Som e o f these M ycenaean
figures are m ultiple, double-headed or double-bodied, a fam iliar
trait o f V ina art. Painted on the figurines are usually vertical, som e
times undulating stripes, rem iniscent o f the sym bols o f rain vvater or
the sinuous m ovem ent o f vvater snakes on N eolith ic-C h alcolith ic
figurines, cult-vases or altars, and thrones vvhich accom m odate
seated figures and are decorated vvith striations or undulating patterns.
Since these form s and decorative m otifs have no direct antecedents in
the earlier M ycenaean (Indo-European) period, their appearance can
best be explained as a re-em ergence o f the enduring, local p re-In doEuropean tradition. It is feasible that these form s, vvhich during the
in tervening period are absent from the archaeological record, vvere
p roduced vvithout a brcak but in a pcrishablc m ate ria l; alternatively,
the Snake Goddess and B ird Goddess m ay have been secretly w o rshipped fo r som e tim e after the advent o f the Indo-Europeans, before
m anifesting them selves again in graphic and sculptural form at a
later date.
T h e B ird Goddess or m cm ories o f her original im age continued
into the Iron A ge. M eanders and vvater birds re-em erge in the art o f
the G eom etric period and the B ird Goddess h erself appears in the 'art
o f A ncient Greece as A th e n a ; the b ird -form has been shed but A thena
is occasionally vvinged and the bird is her attribute. She som etim es
appears in the sem blancc o f a sea eagle, a guli, a sw a llo w , a vulture.

147

133-135

136
13 7

or a d ove, thereby perpetuating the M in oan-M ycenaean tradition.

O n a C o rin th ian aryballos dating from about the beginning o f the
sixth century b c , a bird w ith a w o m a n s head is shovvn perching
behind A thena and at the side o f the goddess is clearly w ritten Fous,
a variant fo rm o f a nam e given to the D iver-b ird , Aithuia. In M egara
there is a c liff called the c liff o f A thena Aithuia, A thena the D iverbird (H arrison 1 9 6 1 : 303 ; N ilsson 19 5 0 : 492). In the earliest knovvn
vase-painted representation o fth e rape o f Cassandra a large humanheaded bird stands behind the figure o f Athena (JH S 18 8 4 : Pl. X L ).
In the tim e o f A ristophanes it vvas a popular b e lie f that Athena
appeared as an o w l in the battle against the Persians. H e sa y s: W e
conquered tovvard evening, fo r an ovvl flevv through the ranks before
the battle began (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 493). A small red -figu re ju g in the
L o u v re shovvs the o w l arm ed vvith helm et and spear, vvhile on a blackfigu re vase at U ppsala a b ig o w l perches on the altar tow ards vvhich
a ram is led to be sacrificed ( J H S X X X I I , 1 9 1 2 : 174 , Fig. 1). O n a
b lack-figu re vase fro m the British M useum a buli is led to sacrifice,
follovved b y a procession o f men tovvards the altar on which a bird,
a sea-gull o r a d uck, perches. N e x t to the altar stands Athena, equipped
vvith a shield and spear, and behind her is none other than the snake
(Stengel 18 9 0 : Pl. I, 4). T h e ram and buli sacrifice to the B ird and
Snake Goddess is o f great antiquity, since in the settlements o f the
East B alk an and V ina civilizations, cult vases w ith the protom es in
the shape o f a ra m s or bu lls head and figurines p ortrayin g a ram
vvith three(!) horns or a neck decorated vvith groups o f three horizontal lines w ere found in association vvith the im ages o f the B ird and
Snake Goddess. A sm all v o tiv e cult vase from Vina was incised w ith
V s and chevrons, the ideogram s o f the B ird Goddess, and so vvas the
ram -headed vessel from Banjata in B ulgaria. T he anim als head vvas
incised vvith chevrons and horns - vvith parallel lines. A noth er aspect
o f the G reek ovvl vvhich m ay have its beginnings in the N eolithic era
is her association vvith the craft o f spinning and hence vvith the sheep.
A series o f terracotta plaques shovv an ovvl vvith hum an arms spinning
w o o l (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 4 9 3 -4 ; an illustration in : B C H X X X I I , 1908:
5 4 1, Pl. V II, 3). A n askos fro m an E a rly H elladic II site at Z y g o u ries
near C o rin th has a spout form ed in the shape o f a horned ram s head
(M useum o f C orinth ).
P ortrayals o f A thena on black- or red-figure vases o f A ncient
G reece reveal her intim acy not on ly vvith birds but also vvith snakes.
A snake craw ls on or is concealed undcr her shield, or appears b y her
side, equal in height and m ajesty, as her double (H arrison 19 6 1 : 306).
W h y are Athena and the snake related in this w a y ? Is this im agery
not an inheritance fro m a deeper antiquity, from times vvhen the
cosm ic B ird Goddess had as her counterpart a cosm ic snake? Her
association vvith the snake is old and intim ate; the M inoan house
148

goddess also appeared as a snake and as a bird, and the same associations go at least three m illennia farther back.
H o w did Athena becom e a goddess o f w ar, vvhile the M inoan and
O ld European B ird Goddess vvas not? W h y , too, it m ay be asked, is
the eh ief w a r deity o f the Greeks fem ale? T h e ansvver is: Athena, as
a direct descendant o f the M inoan palae goddess and as the distant
heir o f O ld Europe, becam c Indo-Europeanized and Orientalized
during the course o f tvvo m illennia o f Indo-European and Oriental
influence in Greece. T h e proteetress o f a city naturally becam e engaged in w ar. T h e nam e Athena is pre-G reek. T h e tovvn Athenai is
named after the goddess (Nilsson 1 9 2 1 ; 19 50 : 4898".).
A ph rodite U rania, born from the sea, vvas p ortrayed as flying
through the air standing or sitting on a goose or being accom panied
by three geese in the G reek terracottas o f the sixth and fifth centuries
b c ; like A thena, she m aintains certain O ld European features o f the
B ird Goddess. H o m er regarded C yp ru s as her true hom e, but prePhoenician C yp ru s vvas vvithin the sphere o f M inoan cuiture. There
is strong reason to believe that A p h ro d ite vvas a goddess-nam e
origin ally com m on to the language o f both islands. It is also believed
that the Cretan nam e A riad ne , the v e ry H o ly O n e , w as an early
H ellenic description fo r A phrodite h erself (Farnell 19 2 7 : 18).
A n d vvho vvas H era, the ob viously un-H ellenic goddess o f the
ancient Greeks? In m yths and legends she frequently appears to
gether w ith A th ena; the tvvo are almost inseparable or are rivals. In
Paestum, the temples o f Athena and H era tand next to one another.
A lth o u gh Hera m arried Zeus (the Indo-European T h und er God)
during the B ronze A g e (probably before the thirteenth century since
in the Linear B tablets both names appear side by side), archaeological
records reveal her as one o f the most revered and pre-em inent god
desses. In sanctuaries and pictorial representations, H era is shown in
the central position; she occupies the throne, not Zeus vvho stands at
her side. T h e sanctuaries dedicated to Hera vvere built in valleys at the
estuaries o friv e rs , near the sea, and surrounded by pastureland. Such
locations o f Hera tem ples can be observed in Perachora at C orinth,
A rgo s in the Peloponnese, 011 the islands o f Sam os and Lesbos, at
Foe del Sele in vvestern Italy, Sybaris, and elsevvhere (Sim on 1969:
4of.). She vvas the guardian o f scamen and ruler over the pastureland.
T h e vo tive offerings in her sanctuaries include terracotta snakes,
horned anim ai figurines, calves, anthropom orphic idols vvith large
eyes and decorated vvith spirals and m eanders, and shrine m odels
im itating the plan o f a D oric tem ple or an apsidal house vvith vvalls
or r o o f decorated vvith bands o f m eandering lines, striations or
parallel vertical lines (exam plcs o f the latter from Perachora and
A rg o s are reproduced b y Sim on 1969: 39). She, the N oble O n e and
G iv e r o f AH, vvas sculpted and described as tali and bcautiful Hera
149

or R o m a n Ju n o . M o re signiflcantly, H o m er called her fiocbnit,, the

c o w -e y e d . H er hair curls like snakes in m any o f her portrayals, and
a snake w inds or zigzags vertically in the m iddle o f her skirt (cf. a
w ooden re lie f from the H eraion II in Sam os, c. 6 10 b c , Sim on 1969:
50; or the Boeotian bell-shaped idol o f c. 700 B c housed in the Louvre,
portrayed w ith lon g snake curls and a panel in front in vvhich the
snake as a band o f criss-cross lines is fram ed vvith zigzags and parallel
lines and then flanked vvith vvater birds holding snakes in their beaks);
or else her an th ropom orp h ic im age vvith cu rly hair, eyebrovvs in the
shape o fh o rn s, and upraised hands is flanked b y a snake (as painted on a
plaque from a p ro to -A ttic v o tive deposit in a house o f the G eom etric
period in G reece: Hesperia 19 3 3 , 2 : 604). A cco rd in g to Herodotus,
Hera vvas taken o v er b y the G reeks fro m the Pelasgians, the indigenous people in northern G reece. H er nam e, e-ra, as it appears in the
Linear B tablet, is not o f In do-E u ropean origin. H o m er and Plato
connected her nam e vvith the air. Ludvvig Preller in 18 54 in his book
on Greek M ythology described H era as a fem inine aspect o f the sky,
the air, vvhich encom passes the aspect o f fem ale fertility. His defm itition does not run counter to the functions o f the prehistoric Snake
Goddess, the ruler o f ali cosm ic or heavenly vvaters. A rch aic features
to be found in portrayals o f H era betray m uch that links her vvith the
O ld European Snake Goddess. B oth , Hera and A thena, are true
heircsses o f the O ld European pantheon.

1 3 3 , 1 3 4 H ead o f a ram , p ro to m c fro m a ritual vessel. O rig in a lly

painted in red and vvhite, it has three h orn s in the back o f the
head. Foun d in 'association vvith o rn ith o m o rp h ic vases. A nza,
M aced on ia. E a rly V in a. c. 530 0 -5 0 0 0 b c
13 5 H ead o f a ram , part o f a ritual vessel. D istinguished b y tvvo
grou p s o f three parallel lines (chevron s) on the neck. Sitagro i
m oun d, M aced on ia, G reece. East B alk an civ iliza tio n . c. 4000 b c
13 6 C lassical V in a ritual vessel vvith a ra m s head at one end. It
is co vered vvith incised V s and ch evro n s. T h e V in a site
1 3 7 R itu a l vessel vvith r a m s head at on e end. T h e re are incised
chevron s on the an im a ls head and p arallel lines on the horn s and
b o d y . B an iata, central B u lg a ria , East B a lk a n civilization

8 The Great Goddess of Life, Death

and Regeneration
T h e Fertility G oddess or M oth er G oddess is a m ore com plex
im age than m ost people think. She was not on ly the M o th er Goddess
w h o com m ands fertility, or the Lady o f the Beasts vvho govern s the
fecu n d ity o f animals and ali w ild nature, o r the frightening M oth er
T errib le, but a com posite im age vvith traits accum ulated from both
the pre-agricultural and agricultural eras.. D u rin g the latter she
becam e essentially a Goddess o f R egen eratio n , i.e. a M o o n Goddess,
p roduet o f a sedentary, m atrilinear com m u n ity, encom passing the
archetypal iinity and m ultiplicity o f fem inine nature. She was giver
o f life and ali that prom otes fertility, and at the same tim e she vvas the
vvielder o f the destruetive povvers o f nature. T h e fem inine nature,
like the m o o n , is ligh t as vvell as dark.
T h e a n d r o g y n o u s a n d c o r p u l e n t g oddess w it h fo ld ed arm s of
the

N eo l it h ic period

T h e N eo lith ic v irg in is alm ost as corpulent as the Palaeolithic

V en u s , p articu larly in central A natolia and around the A egean.
T y p ic a l seventh-m illennium sculptures from G^tal H u yiik in central
A n ato lia take the form o f a m assively fat vvoman, either standing or
seated, supported by leopards. She usually either holds her hands up
to her large breasts o r rests them on the heads o f accom panying
anim als (M ellaart 19 6 7 : 184, Figs. 52, 53). D u rin g the sixth m illen
nium the goddess bccom es m ore vigorous and less obese vvith her
shoulders, upper arms and breasts acccntuatcd. The forearm s are
fold ed and the hands are placed on or belovv the breasts. These
characteristics are not found on figurines portraying the B ird G o d
dess. Folded arm s are a characteristic feature o f goddess figurines
from the H acilar, Sesklo and Starevo com plexes o f central A natolia,
the A egean area and the Balkan Peninsula. T h ro u gh o u t the N eolithic
period her head is phallus-shaped suggesting her androgynous nature,
and its derivation from Palaeolithic tim es (cf phallic fem ales:
M arshack 19 7 2 : 29 2-9 3).

Five clay sculptures o f vigorous and fat, but not steatopygous,

ladies vvith phallic heads and folded arm s vvere found in the largest
early building at N ea N ikom edeia in northern Greece, a settlement
dating fro m c. 6300 b c (Rodden 19 6 5 : 8 8 ) . T h e content, sie and
central location o f the building im p ly its use as a shrine. T h e shrine
also yielded three toads carved from green and blue serpentine,
prob ab ly representing the shape o f the goddess manifest. O ne o f the
best preserved figurines from N ea N ikom edeia is a povverful erect
vvoman vvith broad shoulders, folded arms and hands on breasts. The
head takes the form o f a sligh tly flattened cylinder vvith a prom inent
pinehed-up nose and slit-eyes incised in applied clay eyeballs. T h e
hips and buttocks are constru ted from tvvo stout, alm ost cylindrical
pieces vvhich vvere m odelled ind ivid ually and pegged together before
firing. O n top o fth e fig u re s head is a round protuberance suggesting
a head-dress sim ilar to the round or conical caps found on Central
Anatolian figurines. O ther phallus-shaped heads reveal a circum cision around the top and central hole suggesting that the cylind er
head w as m eant to be a phallus and vvas set in a fem ale torso. This type
o fh e a d vvas m odelled separately and pegged to the torso before the
clay hardened. Som e o f these p illar heads have obvious facial features
-in c is e d eyes, pronounccd nose and brovv-ridge, but no m outh. In a
num ber o f them the hair is shovvn. A nother category o f phallusshaped heads is characterized b y facial features o f animals.
S om e phallic heads are no m ore than blank pillars. A lm o st ali the
figurines o f the H am angia culture have cylindrical phallus-shaped
heads vvithout any facial features. T h eir deploym ent in graves, and
the fold ed -arm posture, suggest an association vvith death or regenera
tion. S om e standing figures o f c. 5000 B C vvith huge torsos supported
by strong stum p legs and breasts cushioned vvith the arehes o f massive
arms are true sculptural masterpieces. The H am angian figurines are
related to sixth-m illennium H acilar sculptures vvhich also have very
strong!y built bodies, m uscular upper arms, huge abdom ens and
thighs, and folded arms. Elaborate ones vvear a conical cap and full
dress. O ne class o f figurines reveals the goddess dressed in a loin oth
and cap, holding a leopard cub.
M ainland Greek figurines, as vvell as the H am angian, are form ally
related to those found at H acilar, em phasizing the analogies that exist
betvveen the European and central Anatolian portrayals o f this go d
dess. A beautiful long-haired v irg in , her head perfectly preserved,
and several fragm entary torsos vvith extrem ely massive shoulders
and upper arms vvere found at Sesklo. M any N eolithic m arble
figurines in a standing o r seated position from the Aegean area also
have phallus-shaped heads vvith or vvithout a prom inent nose. O thers
have m odelled heads vvith facial features and a cap and som e o f them
m ay represent masked heads. H orizontal forearm s, m assive arms and
'53

138

139

gf
gg

143

n><>
1 41

13 8 F igiirin c o f a goddess w ith phallus-shaped

head arid hands on breasts. N ea N ik o m ed eia,
northern G reece. c. 620 0 bc o r earlier
13 9 Phallus-shaped head o f a fig u rin e vvith a
p in eh ed -u p nose, slit e y es, d eep in cision near
the top, and a can al d o w n the m id d le. R u d n ik ,
sou th w estern Y u g o s la v ia . c. 600 0 b c

14 1 M a rb le fig u rin e vvith fold ed arm s and

vvearing a cap. Sp arta, Peloponnese. c. 6000 bc
142 M a rb le fig u rin e o f a goddess vvith
folded arm s, c o lu m n a r n eck and a large
pubic trian gle. A eg ea n area, exact
p roven ience not knovvn
143 U p p e r torso o f a goddess vvith m assive
shoulders and arm s. H an d s in typ ical
position on breasts. S e sk lo . T hessaly.
c. 6000 bc :

14 0 P illar-h ead ed god d ess vvith fo ld ed arm s.

H er back is Hat. H a n ian g ia cu itu re, cem eterv
o f C e r n a v o d a , eastern R o m a n ia . c. 5000 Itc

144
M a rb le fig u rin e vvith exaggerated
p u b ic trian gle and schcm .iri/od arm s.
IVII A zm ak . Central B ulgaria. Earlv sixth
m illenn ium bc

shoulders, and the huge abdom en o f the m arble figurines are typical
o f the G reat Goddess. T h e physical strength o f the fem ale b o d y was
an ideal. T h e O ld Europeans never held in esteem the m eagre fem i
nine appearance fashionable in our ow n day.
T h e m arble idols w ith lon g cylindrical necks from the C yclad ic
islands o f A m o rg o s and N a x o s are usually sitting or squatting vvith
arms folded. T h e m ost rigid ly schematized ones resem ble a pear or a
violin and have been dubbed fiddle-shaped idols . From the Aegean
area num bers o f ve ry schem atic w hite m arble figurines are k n ow n some m ere cylinders or cones, and som e adjoined to a schem atically
m odelled b o d y (Z ervos, 19 6 3 : 3 4 1, 346, 350). Schem atized white
m arble figurines are also kn ow n from the N eo lith ic strata in central
B u lgaria. T h e beautifully carved sculptures from the m ounds o f
Kazanlik and A zm ak have schematized arms and heads and an
accentuated supernatural pubic triangle.

T h e c h r y s a lid goddess w it h fo ld ed arms of t h e C h a lc o lit h ic

period

g S t gg Tti'O Uroni;Iy built and youiljitlgoddesscs with folded tirnis, tovariti# a cap and
loi'n-clotli, from Hacilar, ccntral Anatolia. O ne o f than 'holdf a leopard ctib. c. 6000 BC

T he im age o f the goddess vvith arms folded becam e increasingly

stereotyped during the fifth and fourth m illennia BC . She is portrayed standing or seated, arm s tightly pressed to the body, breasts
barely indicated and legs schematized and usually narrow at the end.
T he m asked head has supernatural features. East Balkan sculptures
have flattened oval masked heads vvith large sem icircular eyes, a nose,
and from tvvo to ten im pressions or holes belovv the m outh. H oles on
either side o f the head support ear-rings o f copper or gold. C yp rio te
clay figurines w ith large pubic triangles from the third m illennium
also have enorm ous ears vvith holes for ear-rings. M arble seems to
have been especially cherished in B ulgaria as a m aterial for fashioning
Great Goddesses, and som e m arble figurines are o v er 30 cm . high.
Sheet go ld was also used for figurines and a fine exam p!e com es from
R u se in northern B ulgaria. Regardless o f the m aterial used, clay,
bone, m arble, or gold, the G reat Goddess alw ays appeared in a rigid
pose, the pose o f a chrysalis. O n ly in cxccptional cases is her appear
ance m ore anim ate; the superb figurine from N eolithic Lem a in
the eastern Peloponncse reveals a headless nude body o f near!y
naturalistic proportions.
C y cla d ic m arble figurines o f the third m illennium b c ob viously
represent the same divine im age. T h eir stiffhess betrays the same
chrysalid character. Folded arm s, small breasts, tapering lifeless legs
and supernatural heads continue ideological and stylistic traditions
o f several m illennia. O val or triangular heads, probably representing
masks, w ere som etim es painted red. C yclad ic figurines vvere placed
in graves. It used to bc thought that th cy w ere connected vvith
157

100 IVhite marble figurira'

with a massive phallus- i.
shaped head and fo ld ed a ms.
Cyclades. Typologically it
can be dated to c. 6000 c
or earlier

1 45 - 1 4 7 , 1 52
101

, 102

4 6 , 102

102

10 1 Fragment o fa seated
marble figurine with folded
arms from R use, northeni
Bulgaria. liast Balkan
civilization. c. 4500 - 4000

BC

1 4 9 - 1 5 1 , j 53

iojj

anccstor w orship or w ere com panions or concubines leading a dead

person to the other w o rld (H ogarth 1927), but it is n o w apparent that
they m ust represent the G reat Goddess o f a deepiy rooted O ld
European tradition. Analysis o f the reproduced illustrations o f this
goddess reveals on ly a ve ry gradual stylistic change during the course
o f n early fou r m illennia; the im age o f the G reat G oddess remains
rem arkablv stable.
T o the same ca tcgo rv belong Cucuteni, Vm a and Gumelni^a
figurines vvith schem atized arms and an accentuated, even enorm ous,
pubic triangle. In the East B alkan civilization, particu larly in the
G um elnita com plex, schem atized bone figurines w ith a pubic
triangle, ear-ring holes, tw o dots or depressions on the back (trigonum
tumbale) p rob ab ly representing eggs, and arm stum ps or perforated
arm stum ps w h ich are stylized renderings o f folded arm s, are found
in both settlements and graves.
G reat Goddess figurines vvere placed in graves sin gly, in pairs or
even dozens. E xqu isitely decorated vases p o rtrayin g cosm ological
scenes w ere also offered as gifts to the dead. T h e grave inventory
from the cem etery o f V yk h vatin tsi in M oldavia yielded five vases,
three clay figurines o f the same type, shell beads and a spin dlc-w h orl.
T h e presence o f a spind le-w horl suggests the aspect o f a spinning
goddess, i.c. the Goddess o f Fate. T h e spindle is an attribute o f the
east M editerranean G reat Goddess and is also an aspect o f Artem is
as portrayed on C orinthian vases (Tucker 19 6 3: 56, pl. 20 : 3).

M arble srame from

tu'vo at R a~ yf(i,
aria. East Balkan
U'ati on. e. 4500 - 4000

< sS5SSSss5>

0 1 2 3 4 CM

t o j Schem atized bone

figurines from Ruse,
northern Bulgaria.
c. 4500 - 4000 BC

5 C M

T h e large sie o f m any figurines (in the C yclades som e are nearly
150 cm . high) suggests that they are portrayals o f a goddess. T h e
supernatural triangle and the nudity do not reveal her sexuality.
Breasts and belly are not stressed. T h ro u gh the act o f e n gravin g an
enorm ous triangle in the centre o f the sculpture the artist perhaps
visualized the universai w o m b , the inexhaustible source o f life, to
w hich the dead man returns in order to be born again. In this sense
t!ie G reat Goddess is the m agician-m other. The folded and pressed
arm position (the attitude o f the e m b rvo in the m atrix?) is tvpica! o f
the dead buried in the ccm eteries o f O ld Europe. B abies and ehildren
squeezed into egg-shaped pithoi for burial had arm s tigh tly pressed
to the b.ody, a natural foetal position. A pithos vvas a vvomb as was the
grave pit from which the ehild or adult could be born again. For this
purposc m iniature vessels filled vvith red colour vvere laid in graves
(G eorgiev and A n g e lo v , Ruse, 19 5 7 : 127). The colour o fb lo o d vvas
as efteetive as the real blood necessarv for restoration o f life.

159

149 -150

; T o r so o f a terracotta fig u rin e vvith fo ld ed arm s fro m P ianu l de

s, T ran sy lv a n ia. c. m id -fifth m illen n iu m b c
') M arb le fig u rin e fro m the teli o f S u lica near Stara Z a g o r a ,
ltral B u lg a ria . East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 - 4000 b c
47 M arb le fig u rin e vvith fo ld ed arm s fro m B o rets near P lo v d iv ,
:ntral B u lgaria. East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 - 4000 BC
i C y cla d ic m arble figu rin e. S y ro s. E a rly third m illen n iu m b c
19, 15 0 E lo n gated terracotta fig u rin e vvith large p u b ic trian gle
o m the Late C u cu ten i cem etery o f V y k h v a tin ts i, S o v ie t M o ld a v ia .
ly fourth m illenn iu m b c
> 1 T ria n g le-cen tred flat bone fig u rin e fro m L o vc ts near Stara
ago ra, B u lgaria. East B alkan civilizatio n . r. 4500 - 4000 bc
1 T erracotta figu rin e w ith fold ed arm s fro m N e o lith ic Lcrn a,
tem Peloponnese
53 Fiat figu rin e vvith breasts and en o rm o u s trian gle as cen tre o f
:us. T h ere is a hole on top fo r insertion o f a go d d ess head. F ro m
na
54 M arb le fig u rin e o f a goddess vvith a b a b y on top o f her head.
:yc!adcs. E a r!y third m illcn n ium b c
14 7

T h e beginn ing o f the concept o f continuous life/death duality and

o f d ivine am bivalence as expressed in ancient G reek m ythical im ages
such as H ekate-A rtem is, D em eter-K o re or Persephone, goes back to
the N eo lith ic-C h alco lith ic era. D o uble figurines in C ycla d ic art, in
vvhich a baby stands on top o fa norm al-sized sculpture are connected
w ith the idea o f rebirth (Th im m e 1965, 7 1). T h ere are m any sculp
tures vvith double heads or m other-and-daughter figures in each
category o f goddesses (cf. Pls. 86, 90, 100, 10 1).

he

m a g ica l

hands

Liirc C.uciiteiti
w lye) g r iv e invenw ry
tiiig:
otta Jig im n e s ; 4, sliell
; 5 , spin dlc-ii'horl;
lili and hfack-on-red
d vases (only one
1 in delail). Cem etery
khvatiutsi, Soviet
aviti

an d

source

of

life

w it h in

the

go dd ess

her

m o u th

eggs

A n anth ropom orph ic vase standing on stout legs from Sultana in

Southern R o m a n ia is interesting because o f its painted sym bolic
designs. It is 32.3 cm . high and has huge sem icircular eyes, beak-nose,
large ears w ith holes fo r ear-rings and a m outh vvith ten round
impressed holes, and rings indicatcd in vvhite paint. T h e holes, vvhich
are o f various sizes w ith the largest near the m iddle, are ostensibly
m eant to suggest panpipes, the rings being added for decoration. T h e
arms are rendered ve ry schem atically but the three fm gers o f the left
hand are held to the m usical instrum ent. T h e focal point is the
abdom inal area vvhich depicts a vu lva vvith three rings on top, flanked
by crescents, ali extravagan tly painted in w hite. O n the back are
painted tw o enorm ous eggs. A negative design o f four-fm gered
hands is depieted on the back o f the neck, and spirals decorate the
back o f the head. T his arriazing accum ulation o f sym bols sheds m ore
light on the nature o f the goddess than m any schem atized clay or
bone figurines. From this vase, a representation o f the w o m b o f the
Great M oth er, w e learn that the goddess vvas also a m usician holding
panpipes adorned vvith rings. As the possessor ofth e secret o f life, her
music or utteranccs must have had m agic and binding significance.
A n oth er anthropom orphic vase from the G um elnifa settlement
o f V idra is a bu lky Container, 42.5 cm. high, m ade in the im age o f the
goddess vvith folded arms and hands belovv the breasts. T h e goddess
head is not apparent but was p robably ineorporated in the lid, vvhich
is m issing. Concentric circles or circles vvithin lozenges are inciscd
and vvhite-encrusted in the area o f the navel, on both sides o f the
pubic triangle, o ver the buttocks and hips and in the m iddle o f the
neck. T h e hands and the incised circles and lozenges m ust have had
sym b olic significance. G lobular vases vvith m agical hands on the
belly are knovvn from H acilar (M ellaart 1970), from the ProtoSesklo com plex in Thessaly (Theocharis 19 6 7: 1 5 1 , Figs. 87 and 88),
from the Starevo com p lex in Y u go sIavia (the Anza site in M acedonia), and from Lepenski V ir 011 the Danube (Srejovi 19 69: Pl. X I).

163

10 5 Anthropomorphic vase
ivith arms held belou/
breasts, concentric circles and
lozenge m arks,from Vidra,
northern Rom ania. East
Balkan civilization.
Chalcolithic

155 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic vase w ith sy m b o lic design painted in u hite on reddish-hrosvn h.n.kgroim d.

T h e G re a t G o d d ess left h an d is h eld to the lovver lip o r to ;i p.m -pipe deeor.ited svidi r in g v Sultana,
Southern R om an ia. East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 is<
15 6 , 15 7 M asked goddess p o rtray ed in a position th.it suggests g isin g hirth. M cd v c d n ja k . southe.ist of
B elgra d e . V in a c iv iliza tio n . c. 5000 b c

15 8 Stran g e fo u r-fin g e re d hands on a vase from

B an jata, a C h alco lith ic settlem ent in Central B u lgaria.
East B alk an civilization , c. 4500 bc:
16 0 Late C u c u ten i b in o c u la r vase fro m B ilcze Z lo te ,
vvestern U krain e. E a rly fou rth m illenn iu m bc

i Sy A n th ro p o m o rp liie vase svith tlu- e g g thighs and p ubic trian gle characteri/in s; the
(ire.it ( lo d d esv M tild av a. central B u lgaria.

Hast B a l k a n ( K a r a n o v o I). c i v i l i z a t i o n . , . C1000 fe

4 double-egg m otif
ss' buttoks?) in
ite painting on the
o fa dish: Pietrele
'ucharest. East Balkan
ation. c. 4000 BC

double-egg m otif with

c u'inding across. Dish
i black-on-rcd on
Late Cucuteni.
i, western Ukraitie.
r millennium c

10 9 , 1 to

T h e persistence o f m agical hands either sculptured in re lie f or painted

is a continuing tradition fo r several thousands o f years. In the East
B alkan civilization in particular, the large four-fingered hands occur
in re lie f or are painted on large vases h avin g a h ypn o tic quality.
Superposed stylized figures vvith enorm ous arms and hands are show n
on a C ucuten i vase fro m P e tren i; they o ccup y the entire height o f
the frieze, alternating vvith quartered discs and rain torrents ( R y b a k o v
19 6 5 : Fig. 36).
V ina and East B alkan figurines o f w o m en in squatting position
vvith emphasized upraised egg-shaped thighs evid ently depict a
natural b irth -givin g position. T h e masked vvoman in a contracted
position from the V ina settlem ent o f M ed ved njak, southeast o f
B elgrad e, has one hand lifted to the m outh, in the m anner o f the
Goddess o f Sultana. Incised on the buttocks and thighs are spiral lines
and circles vvith a dot in the m iddle. A small sculpture from
Cascioarele in Southern R o m a n ia shovvs a vvoman in n early identical
squatting position (D um itrescu, 19 66 : Pl. 88). A beautifully m oulded
fem ale figurine sitting on a stool shaped like an exposed vu lv a vvas
unearthed during the 19 7 1 excavation in D renovac, a V ina site at
S vetozarevo in central Y u g o sla v ia . A Pre-palatial pot from M allia in
C rete has incised on it a likeness o f the naked goddess vvith legs spread
to shovv the pudenda (A lexiou 1969: 85). T h e exposure o fth e genital
region m ust have been sym b olic o f b irth -givin g. T h e pregnant
vvom b is conspicuously absent in representations o f the goddess in
her b irth -givin g funetion.
T h e tvvo large eggs or circles on the back o f the b o d y o f the G reat
G oddess represent her potential. T h e y tand fo r the source o f subsequent developm ent and thus could be called sym bols o f b eco m in g .
T h e eg g is readily observable on vases that vvere p robably connected
vvith the cult o f the Great Goddess. A n th rop om orp h ic vases have
egg-shaped thighs and buttocks. Lids, dishes, bovvls and jars are
incised o r painted vvith eg g m otifs, and pots frequently have a doubleeg g shape. T y p ic a lly Cucutenian are the so-called binocular vases. In
ali p robability they served in rituals dedicated to the G reat G oddess;
sym b olic figures depieted on them inciude dogs, deer and m oon
crcscents, her constant com panions.
T h e d ouble-egg sym b ol found on the back or the front o f the
East Balkan and C ucuteni figurines is one o f the m ost frequently
encountered. T h e tvvo dotsju st above the buttocks (knovvn to Science
as trigonum lumbalc) m ay have originated the idea ofsh ovvin g the eggs
in this particular place. I f such a figurine is scctioncd one actually finds
a d ou b le-egg inside. T h c y tand herc fo r a universal life source, not
fo r hum an foetuses. Countless anth ropom orp h ic vases carry the tw in
egg sym b ol and it is found,. in abstract com positions, on large C u cu teni vases. This sym b ol is associated vvith or surrounded b y vvater

166

10 9 , 1 1 0 D ouble-eggs
u/ithin the bellies offigurines
which have double-egg
motifs incised on fron t and
back. Classical Cucuteni.
N o v y e Ruseshty, Soviet
M oldavia. End o f fifth
millennium B C
10 8 A double-egg (or
buttockj-shaped bou l witli a
handle, painted in concentric
semicireles. Pietrele near
Bucharest. East Balkan
civilization

/ / / Vase in the shape o f

buttocks. Sectiotied multiple
m otif painted in white on
red. Classical Cucuteni.
Izvo are, M oldavia

1 1 2 Sectioned multiple egg

design u'itli crcscents and
' rain torrents' painted in
black-on-rcd interior o fa
hon'1. Late Cucuteni.
Koszylow ce, upper Dniester
V aliey. U kraine. Fourth
millennium hc:

1 1 1 Decorative motifs 011

shoulders o fla tc Cucuteni
vases. ' Sonatas o f becoming :
sectioned and splitting eggs,
crcscents, full moons and
snakes. Sipintsi, u'cstcrn
( lkraine. Fourth millennium

1 12

12 1

ii5 , n 6

u4

116

snakes, crescents or schem atized does or faw ns. A true fabric o f

b eco m in g is expressed in painting on a Cucuteni b o w l from
K o sz y lo w c e : the sectioned egg m o tif is surrounded b y smaller and
larger m oon crescents amid the w ater bands. Sectioned or ruptured
eg g m otifs, painted in three or m ore concentric and parallel lines,
occur in the m ain zone o f the vase decoration. T h e y alternate vvith
diagonal bands m ade up o f parallel lines (rainvvater torrents?), above
vvhich runs the w h o le procession o f animals associated vvith the
goddess.
T h e sectioned egg m o tif is firm ly w o ve n into the ornam ental
pattern o f vase decoration. In the fourth m illennium b c , the conju n ctio n o f the e gg, d ou b le-egg, lens, crescent, snake, and spiral
m otifs on vases o f the Cucuteni civilization reached a rare level o f
exquisite design. In the abstract and com posite designs, dictated by
m ythical thinking, a harm onious com bination o f germ cell and
cosm ic snakes and favvns is apparent. T h e sign o f a sectioned doubleeg g as an ideogram o f the G reat Goddess persisted into M inoanM ycen aean times. T h e m o tif reappears as a decoration on the festival
attire o f the goddess in a procession holding a double axe in each
hand, on one o f the frescoes o f the Late M inoan Palae o f Knossos,
and painted on M id d le and Late M inoan vases. It can also be seen
carved out o f lim estone as frieze decoration in the M iddle M inoan
III Palae at Knossos, and at M ycen ae as part o f the decoration above
the d o o rw a y o f the Treasu ry o f Atrcus.

1 14 Pattern painted in bine, red,

yel!ow and black 011 the hem o f skirt
ivom by goddess. From a fresco
representing processional scenes in the
ivestern w ing o f the palae o f Knossos.
Late M inoan. The ruptured-egg
m otif in the loiver band is signifeant

1 1 5 Egg-and-germ -splitting m otif

painted in tivo rows on a Late Minoan
ampliora from the R oyal Tomb o f
Isopata at Knossos. Vertical lines may
sym bolize a snake

1 1 6 Half-rosettes and triglyphs m otif on a limestone frie z e from the

northucstern angle o f the palae o f
Knossos. M iddle M inoan I II

168

1 1 7 R itual vase in the shape

o f a dog. The Vina site,
Early Vina period

1 1 8 L id handle in the form

o f a dog ivith human mask.
C orn i Pasarel, central
Bulgaria. East Balkan
civilization. c. 4000 BC
T

he

1 1 9 D og on the lid o f a
steatite vase from early
M inoan site o f Mochlos.
Th ird millennium b c :

ep ip h a n ie s

The dog, a double o f the Moon Goddess

D o g , the hovvlcr by night, vvas the goddess principa] anim ai. H o w
im portant a role it p!ayed in the m y th o lo g y o f O ld Europe is
cmphasized in figurines o f m arble, rock crystal and terracotta, p ortraying the anim ai as a vvhole or its head alone in the form o f cult
vases shaped like a dog, or dog-figurines attached to vessels or fo rm ing the handles o f vases or cups. T h e handle o f a graphite-painted
vase from G orni Pasarel in central B ulgaria shovvs a dog vvearing a
human m ask. Its body is notehed on the back and front p rob ab ly to
emphasize the d o g s aggressive characteristics. A large vase dis
eovered at the Cucuteni site o f Podei has a handle o f a dog vvith forelegs stretehed out and the hind part o f the body raised up as i f about
to attack. A close parallel, about one thousand years later in date,
from the E arly M inoan II site o f M ochlos shovvs a sculptured d og on
the lid o f a steatitc vase decorated in zones o f striated triangles. Four
dogs are portrayed holding the neck o f a large black vase found in the
Lengyel settlem ent o f Strelice in ccntral Czcchoslovakia (V ildom ec,
1940). Ferocious-lookin g dogs vvith three-clavved paws, fur bristling
and tails raised, flying through cosm ic space, appear painted in black
or chocolate bro w n on late Cucuteni oehre-red vases, n otably on
large pear-shaped pithoi and on binocular pots. M asterfully schem a
tized, they aptly portray the dynam ism and gracility o f the anim als
body.
i

169

12 0 M ythical dog painted in

black on a large pear-shaped
vase from Varvarovka, a
Late Cucuteni site near
Kishenev, Soviet M oldavia.
Fourth millennium B c

1 2 1 Anim ai ivith Caterpillar

frie z e painted in black
large vase fr o m
Krutoborodintsi, tvesteri
Ukraine. Late Cucuten

i 6 1 R eclin in g
Pietrelc,
Southern k a im n ia . Mast Balkan
cuiture. ((.u m ieln ija-K aran o vo
VI). M id -filth m illennium ih:
K i D o g im attackin g position,
tlu - h rok cn -o lFh atu fle ot a vase.
Late (!u cu ten i. I odci at T ;irguO cn a. nor(hea\tvr Rom ania.
I-.irlv fourth m illennium ne

T h e m enacing dogs ob vio u sly belonged to the M o o n Goddess

w h o, like the nightm arish H ekate o f early historic times, w as w o rshipped b y dogs barking at the m oon, and whose principal sacrificial
anim ai was the dog. T h eir lunar character is stressed b y crescents
depieted around or b e lo w the figures o f dogs.. O ther C ucuten i vases
display processions o f dogs, a deer, a billy goat, a nanny goat, and a
w o o lly Caterpillar in the upper sp h ere above the main zone in the
centre o f the vase, the central m o tif o f w hich is the sectioned e g g and
the id eogram o f the G reat Goddess. D o gs are portrayed leaping high
on either side o f a tree, perhaps a life-tree, the sym b ol o f ali life, w ild
and cultivated. T h e representations o f the life-tree guarded b y ferocious anim als on C ucuteni vases are the earliest in European art, and
later persisted through ali o f prehistoric and early historic times. T h e
guardian dogs, h ow ever, w ere replaced b y lions, he-goats or other
male animals. In folklore, the O ld European m ythical dog has lasted
to this day. In the B alk an countries it is believed that eclipses o f the
sun and m oon are caused b y dog-headed monsters. In M acedonia, a
Chetvorok, a dog w ith a w h o rl o f hair over each eye, m ak in g him
appear fou r-eyed , is the enem y o f a vam pire. H ence w e have several
aspeets o f the d o g : dangerous, nocturnal and punitive on the one
hand, and a proteetor against the forces o f evil on the other. T h e
northern European b e lie f in the existence o f a corn pirit in the shape
o f a d o g or w o lf m ay also have originated in the N eolithic period. In
fact, d o g s original role in m yth m ay ve ry w ell be derived from its
im portance as a guardian, proteeting m ans hom e, his seedlings and
yo u n g crops against the early farm ers ow n herds and w ild animals
- as was righ tly observed b y B o gaevskij (1937) and after him b y
R y b a k o v (1965).
2 The doe, a double o f the Goddess o f Regeneration
The prestige o f the deer in sym bolism is not sim ply connected vvith
its appearance - beauty, grace, agility - but also w ith the phenom enon o f the cycle o f regeneration and gro w th o fits antlers. T h e latter
aspect lay deep in the m ind o f N eolithic peasants. D e ers antlers play
an im portant ro le : reliefs o f stags vvith enorm ous antlers are frequent
on vases o f the Starevo co m plcx. Even in m iniature figurine art
there w ere attempts to p ortray stags. T h e role o f a deer in O ld E u ro
pean m yth vvas not a creation o f N eolithic agriculturists. T h e im
portance o f a pregnant doe must have been inherited from a preagricultural era. The northern people in the hunting stage still believe
in the m other o f the universe as a doe-elk or w ild reindeer-doc.
M yths speak o f pregnant w o m en w h o rule the vvorld and vvho look
like d e e r: covered vvith hair and vvith branehing deers horns on their
heads (A n isim ov 19 5 9 : 28, 4 9 ff.; R y b a k o v 1965, 2 :35 ). In the U p p er
Paleolithic era, sim ilar im ages probably existed ali o ver Europe.

164 l.attf C u c u ten i vase bearing .1 design

d ivid ed in to three m etopes. each in clu d in g a
d o g and caterpillars Valea l.u p u h n . n ortlieas'tern R om an ia. l'arlv fourth ! 11 ilk-mlim) 1 1

K is I )ogs Hy ab o v e tlu* vomiih di^i * m ii f n 1

D esign painted in black 011 tlu' o ih re -re d m m I.hv
ot a piril'orm vase. Late l u i u u m . ISiK/c / Ime. n orlh \vestcrn U krain e. Kariv tourili m illenm im i m

12 2 Dogs fia n k in g a
Caterpillar. Painting on the
upper part o f a vase from
Valea L u pulu i, northeastern
Rom ania. Late Cucuteni.
H eight, 5 2 .8 cm. Fourth
millennium BC

<d___ I

^ ____ i

1 2 3 Dogs guarding the lifetree. Paintings on Late

Cucuteni vases from
Sipintsi, western Ukraine

Does in the shape o f

crcscents ( ? ) turu in
ire directions. Painted
t 011 red on the inner
lce o f bou'ls. i ,
tsheuka; 2 , 4, 7,
ia B u da ; 3 , 6, 8,
:s i; s , Podolia.
Hem U kraine. Late
nteni. Fourth
.nititn BC

16 7 , 168

12 4

E xcep tion ally beautiful are cult vases in the shape o f a doe. O utstanding is the large vase from M u ld ava in central B u lgaria. As a
sculpture, the M u ld ava deer o f the N eolithic period com petes vvith
the ceram ic m odels o f deer m ade som e five thousand years later, for
instance w ith those o f the p roto-G eom etric o r G eom etric period o f
G reece (cf. a sculpture o f a doe from a grave o f the tenth century BC
in the cem etery o f K eram eikos in A thens: K u b ler 1943 : Pl. 26). As
an anim al sacred to A rtem is and Diana, the doe continued to be
sculpted in ancient G reece and R o m e (Hoehn 19 46 : Pls. III, V , V I,
Figs 17 and 2 1). T h e b o d y o f the doe o f M u ld ava is decorated with
crcscents in a negative d esig n ; hence the anim al is shovvn to be cIosely
related to the m oon sym bolism .
In the pictorial representations on Late C ucuteni b o w ls the
schem atically portrayed b o d y o f a deer is transform ed into a crescent.
Like snakes or tails o f com ets, tw o deer w h irl in oppositc directions
o v er the spherical surface o f the bow l. Heads like crescent m oons and
small crcscents repeated on abstract bodies cmphasize the lunar
characteristics. T h e com b -likc signs encountcred on som e representa
tions m ay sym bolizc the udders o f a doe, the source o f rainw ater.
Painted in parallel lines, the bodies o f the deer give an im pression o f
rain clouds, w hile through the m iddle a snake winds. hi som e portravals deer antlers and crescent m oons m erge together as they spin

69 A n th ro p o m o rp h iz e d toad vvith
aised arm s fro m the V in a sito.
c, 5000 BC

5 D eer or deer antlers

nning around a central
<s-sign fojem an abstract
tern on tlte inner surface
i deep boit'l. The
dess dog appears on one
Tu>o pairs o f crcscents,
<mentary sym'bols o f
om ing' are on opposite
s. Late Cucuteni. B ilcze
'te, northpestern Ukraine.
Iy fourth millennium b c

170 B ir t h -g iv in g G o d d ess in the

shape o f a toad. M a rb le fig u rin e from
Anza, sou theastem Y u g o sla v ia .
Central B a lk a n N e o lith ic. c. 5800 BC
1 7 1 S ty liz e d toad carv ed o u t o f
blueish serpentin e fro m the N e o lith ic
settlem ent at N e a N ik o m e d e ia ,
northern G reece . E n d o f seventh
m illenn ium b c

T w o schematized
or snakesispin in
site directions in eggd containers,
ated witfit.caterpillars
iple lines. Late
teni. Sipintsi,
rn Ukraine. E arly
i millennium BC

25

1 26

l6 y . 17 0

71.

127

around a cross vvith knobbed extrem ities sh ow in g the fou r Cardinal

points o fth e w o rld . T w o pairs o fo p p o sed crcscents and the goddess
d og can also be seen. G eom etricized to a shape beyond recognition,
tvvo deer, like vvater snakes or rain clouds, spin w ithin egg-shaped
containers. T h ro u g h association vvith the egg and vvater their role
as instrum ents o f the Goddess o f R egen eratio n is clear.
j The toad and the turtle: the goddess in the shape o f a human foetus
T h e goddess as life-g iv er assumed the shape o f a toad. A h yb rid o f
w o m an and toad carved out o f greenstone or m arble or m ade o f clay
is found in C entral and East Balkan civilizations, the Pro to -Sesk lo,
Starevo, V ina, K a ran o vo and Gum elni(a com plexes. In schema
tized versions her outspread legs and pubic triangle are accentuated
w h ile her head is ju st a cone or is entirely negleeted. T h e beautifully
carved figures o f grccn and blue serpentine from N ea N ikom ed eia
are ccrtainly frogs o r toads but thcy are either stylized, o r have a hole
in the head, p rob ab ly to accom m odate the inscrtion o f a goddess
hum an head. T h at these toads or frogs represent the G reat Goddess
is suggcsted b y their form al sim ilarity to a grou p o f peculiar female
figurines from H acilar. These com bine a toadlikc trunk vvith a
vvom ans chest, head and coif. Like the standing virgin s they hold
their hands 011 their breasts.
174

1 7 2 T v v o figu res vvith raised arm s an d parted legs shovvn

in re lie f on a V in a vase fro m G o m o la v a . northern
Y u g o s Ia v ia . Sn ak es ap p ea r betvveen the tvvo figu res and
to the left o f t h e la rg er fig u re. Ei.irlv o r m id -titth
m illen n iu m ne
17.1 Goddess" im age on th e neek o f a large vase. H er feet
take the form o l handles. Szentes. southeastern lU m g arv .
I'Mi.i si\th m illennium i
174 T erraco tta turtle fron t the V in ca site

T h e life-g iv in g goddess, her legs w id ely parted, appears in relief

on the vvalls o f a ta l H u y u k shrines, frequently in association vvith
bulls heads or bulls horns (M ellaart 19 6 7: 10 2 -3 , 109, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 127,
13 4 - 3 5 ) . B u lls heads vvith enorm ous horns, or the horns alone, w ere
attached to vvalls or to special pedim ents, and in several shrines one
or m ore huge buli heads w ere placed ju st b elo w the goddess as i f to
assert and strengthen her pow ers. T h e b elly o f the goddess is usually
m arked vvith a circle or concentric circles. A lth ou gh no shrines o f
com parab le antiquity or State o f preservation have been found in
Europe, it can be surm ised from reliefs o f the goddess vvith upraised
arm s and outstretched legs on sixth-m illennium vases o f the P ro to Sesklo and Starevo com plexes that her im age vvas as frequent there
as in A natolia. T h e re lie f o f a figure vvith w id ely parted legs and
upraised arm s on a Starevo potsherd from the site o f Sarva in
northern Y u go slav ia is undoubtedly related id eolo gically to the
C atal H u y iik shrine reliefs. Pottery bearing reliefs or incised repre
sentations o f figures vvith upraised arms and parted legs is found from
T hessaly and M acedonia to northern H u n gary and G erm an y, vvhere
the goddess is schem atically en graved on vessels o f the B iik k and
Linear D anubian com plexes o f the fifth m illennium b c (m any
illustrations o f these are given by G ulder 1962). T h e stylized toad
1 2g Sh rin e from Qatal H iiyu k , central A natolia, ivith ' Birth-giving Goddess1 in relief
above buli heads, Seventh millennium BC
Zreat Goddess in the
' f a toad. Statuette
acilar, west central
a, a sixth~
ni um settlement

e lief o f'B irth -g iv in g

s on a pottery
cnt from Sarva,
rn Yugoslavia.
Balkan Neolithic.
' sixth millennium

176

m o tif on central European Linear Danubian pots is so frequent that

B u tler in his m onograp h o f 1938 assumed this creature to be sacred
(B utler 19 38 : 56). T h at the upraised arms and outstretched legs had
a m agical significance is evident from pottery reliefs o f tw o figures
associated vvith snakes on a Vina vase from G o m o lava. Parted legs
and pubic triangle, in shorthand resem bling the letter M , becam e
the ideogram o f the G reat Goddess. T h e M sign occurs on vases,
engraved or painted, and in com bination vvith the im age o f the
goddess face on pithoi from Szentes in southeastern H u n gary. The
face, incised on the neck o f the pithos, is flanked by snakes. T h e handle
ends are m odelled as upraised hum an arms and a small M sign is
incised on the underside o f each arm , belovv the hand. Vases bearing
such representations in engravings or reliefs could have played a part
in the cult o f the dead. T h e m ysterious p ow er o ver life processes
vvhich the toad is thought to possess consistently recurs in the
consciousness o f the European people long after the dissolution o f
O ld Europe. Thus the toad appears painted on am phorae o f Palatial
Crete. O f particular interest is the L ady T o a d from Maissau, a
Bronze A g e urnfield in lovver Austria, vvhich dates from around
110 0 b c (G ulder 1962). This terracotta has a hum an face, fem ale
breasts and an exposed vu lva on the underside o f the nearly naturalistically portrayed anim ai. Terracotta, bronze, am ber and iv o ry
toads are knovvn from Etruscan, Greek and R o m a n sanctuaries and
graves. A bronze sculpture o f a toad vvith an inscription vvas found
as a vo tive offering at C orinth and a beautiful tiny figurine o f a toad
carved out o fa m b e r vvas diseovered in a grave at Vetulonia at P o g g io
alla G uardia in Italy. Its being carved in am ber, an im ported and
expensive m aterial, proves the high esteem in vvhich the toad vvas
held during the E arly Iron A ge. Ivories from the sixth-century b c
sanctuary o f A rtem is O rthia at Sparta in the Peloponnese inelude
toads and turtles as vo tive offerings. T h e turtle cult vvas no less ancient
and significant than the toad s: a terracotta turtle vvas found in Vina
and another com es from D im ini at V olos in Thessaly (N ational
M useum , Athcns 3 7 : 6019). A t G rivac, a Vina site in central Y u g o slavia, a representation o f a turtle vvith a p ig s head am e to light
(K ragu jevac M useum , Inv. 4, 288).
T oad s made o f w a x , iron, silver and vvood are to be found to this
day as vo tive offerings to the V irgin M ary in ehurehes in Bavaria,
A ustria, H u n gary, M oravia and Y u g o sla v ia ; cthnographers have
recorded m ore than a hundred instances in Bavaria alone (Gulder
19 6 2 :2 6 ). Som e o f these ex-vo to s have human heads, others bcar the
sign o f a vulva 011 the underside, vvhile m any have a cross on the back.
E xam ples from the eastern A lps are o f astonishing antiquity. T h ey
vvere intended as a proteetion against barrenness and to ensure safe
pregnancy. T o a d s m eat vvas eaten until recently to in vok c labour

177

31

i j o Schem atized 'Birthg iv in g Goddess engraved on

a potsherd from Borsod,
northeastern Hungary. \
Biikk cuiture. End o f sipali
millennium 8 c

1 3 1 ' Birth-giving Goddess'

in the shape o f a toad.
Engravitig on the base o fa
Linear Pot(ery dish from the
settlement o f K o lesovia
Bohemia. End o f sixth
millennium b c

iphora decorated u'itli

: sym bol and toad,
ace o j Phaistos,
i Crete. M iddle

iI

pains, toads blood was used as an aphrodisiac and d ry toads were

hung up to protect the house against ali evil. Such beliefs suggest a
benevolent goddess, but the toad as a nocturnal and m ysterious
creature can cause madness, can take a w a y the m ilk and suck the
blood from humans w hile they sleep. In Baltic and Slavic (i.e. IndoEuropean) m ythologies, she is the main incarnation o f the chthonic
m agician goddess. In the Indo-Europcan m yth ologies she is basically
an incarnation o f a goddess o f death, w h ile in the south, w h ere O ld
European ( i.e . pre-Indo-European) m y th o lo g y was firm ly rooted,
the m ost prcvalent beliefs conccrning the toad are those connected
vvith birth, pregnancv or tlie w o m b (uterus).
European peasants still speak about a travelling uterus in the
w o m a n s body. Sim ilar beliefs are recorded in Greek and R o m a n
times. H ippocrates, Plato and Aristotle com pared the uterus to an
anim al vvhich m oves in the lo w er part o f a vvom ans b o d y (Blind
19 0 2: 69; G u ld cr 19 62: 36). I f this anim al is not satisfied, it m ay rnove
up and hinder breathing, and cause fright or other disorders.

E gyp tian s also knevv o f the travelling uterus (R ein h ard 1 9 1 7 : 340).
W h o is this anim al m o vin g about in a w o m a n s b o d y ? Equipped w ith
docum entation from present folk, m edieval, G reek, R o m a n and
E gyp tian beliefs, G uld er (1962) in his treadse on the M aissau toad
presented a very convincing interpretation: this m ysterious anim al,
must, he concluded, be a toad. The foetus was a toad w hich craw led
into the w o m b (the real cause o f conception w as not knovvn in prehistory). N eo lith ic or even U p p er Palaeolithic m an m ust have seen
the hum an e m b ryo at the age o f one or tvvo m onths: it is about 3.5
cm. in length, has a big head, tvvo dark points fo r eyes, black holes
fo r a nose, tw o depressions for ears, a long opening for the m outh
and stumps for arms and legs. Such a creature can easily be taken fo r
a toad ! A n d this is w h at apparently happened far back in time,
p ro b ab ly m ore than ten thousand years ago, and the b e lie f has still
not com pletely died out. T h e idea that a toad causes pregnancy m ay
have originated before the N eolithic period since representations o f
toads (or lizards) engraved on bone artifacts are knovvn fro m the
M esolithic M aglem ose culture.

13 6 lvo ry toad (a) and

turile (b ) from the G reek
sanctuary o f Orthia at
Sparta. Sixth ccntury b c

1 3 7 M odem votive toads

and w a x turtle. i , M u n ic h ,
2, upper A ustria, 3 ,
Austrian A lp s

1 1 4 The L ady T oad from

M aissau, a B ronse A ge
cemetery in loircr Atistria.
c. 1000 i h ;
t u Bronze votii'e toad
/roni Corinth ( ? ) ,
Pvlopouucsc, s ix i 11 caitury
n i:

i !.s Anilicr toad from

[ cm loiiiii, uvstern tetura!
Uiily. litniscan

17

4 The hedgehog: the goddess in the shape o f an animal uterus or foetus

A n o th er h ybrid is the Lady H ed geh o g. W e reproduce a lid in the
shape o f a hedgehog vvhich bears the unm istakablc im print o f a
goddess face (mask). T h e im portance o f the hedgeh og in m ythical
im a g e ry is w cll at.tested and terracotta figurines o f hedgehogs are
recorded in V ina, East Balkan and Cucuteni sites. A beautifully
carved alabaster hedgeh og, dedicated to A rtem is B rauronia dating
fro m around 600 b c is housed in the Brauron M useum in Attica. In
European folk m edicine the hedgehog plays an exceptional ro le: a
vvound rubbcd w ith hedgehog fat is believed to hea! instantly, and
also to rejuvenate and beautify a person. Supcrstitions and proverbs
point to the h cd g ch o gs prom inent role in scxual life. A hedgeh og is
179

176

a nocturnal anim ai; it does not em erge during d ayligh t and when
startled in its n ightly forages it rolls itself up in a bali, from w hich
sharp spines stick out in every direetion. N o w o n d er it is endovved
w ith m agical pow ers.
A k ey to understanding w h y the G reat Goddess ehose the hedge
hog as her double again lies in parallels o f e x -v o to im ages. In Southern
T iro l, instead o f an im itation toad, a so-called Stachelkugel, a spiky
bali , w as brought to ehurehes or chapels and also placed in graves.
Such balls made o f w o o d and painted red, are usualiy 8 -19 cm .
across, round or oval in shape, and are called uteri . A b o u t fifty
years ago m any such Stachelkugeln w ere to be seen; n o w on ly old
ones still rem ain (Gulder 19 6 2 : 25). T h e prototype possibly derives
fro m the uterus o f a co w , vvhich after parturition rem ains sw ollen
and covered vvith warts (know n in G erm an as Igeln , hedgeh ogs).
Indeed in som e areas o f Southern T iro l the c o w s uterus is called
Ig elk alb , h ed geh ogs c a lf (i d 30). T h e association o f a c o w s
uterus w ith the hedgehog is certainly not recent and m ay date from
the period o f the beginning o f anim ai dom estication. T h e arehaeological evidence shows the G reat G oddess epiphany in the form
o f a hedgeh og to be not later than the fifth m illennium b c . V o tive
offerings in the shape o f a uterus - fiat and oval a y objeets w ith a
ridged surface - occur am ong the Etruscan and R o m a n antiquities.

17 6 T erraco tta h e d g e h o g fro m

C is c io a re le , S o u th e rn R o m a n ia .
East B alkan civilization
(G u m eln i[a-K aran o v o V I).
M id -fifth m illenn ium bc

77 P o tte ry lid in the fo rm o f a

h e d g e h o g w ith g o d d ess' facc.
V id ra , Southern R o m a n ia . East
B alkan civilization .
(G u m c ln ip -K a r a n o v o V I).
M id-Fifth m illenn ium b c (see
Fig. 138 )

3 The bee and the butterfly: the bull-born Goddess o f Transformatiort and
Regeneration
B efo re w e discuss the epiphany o f the G reat Goddess in the shape o f
a bee or a butterfly w e must m ention the ancient b elief that bees are
begotten o f bulls. O ne o f the earliest writers to m ention the bullborn bee is A ntigonos o f K arystos, about 250 BC, w h o says:
In Egypt if you bury the ox in certain places, so that only his horns project
above the ground and then saw them off, they say that bees fiy out; for
the ox putrefies and is resolved into bees.
(Antigonos, Hist. mir. 19 ; quoted by Cook Zeus I, 514 ;
Ransome 1937: 114).
T h e m ost appropriate tim e fo r this m ethod o f reproducing bees vvas
said to be w hen the sun entered the sign o f the buli (Taurus). N e a rly
three centuries later O vid speaks o f Aristaeus, the H on ey L o rd w h o
vvas w eep in g because ali his bees had died, leaving the honeycom bs
unfm ished. O n the advice o f his m other he captured Proteus, the
m agician, w h o told Aristaeus that he must bury the carcase o f a
slaughtered o x, and that from it he w o uld obtain w hat he wanted,
fo r w hen the carcase decayed, sw arm s o f bees vvould issue from it.
T h e dcath o f one produccd a thousand lives . (O vid , Fasti I, 39 3;
quoted b y R an som e 19 3 7 : 112 ) . In his fourth Georgic, V crg il (7 0 -19

181

13 8 Profile o f terracotta
hedgehog from Cascioarele,
Southern Rom ania. East
Balkan civilization. See
P l. i 77

b c) likew ise recounts this m ethod o f obtaining the o x -b o rn bees. A

further explanation o f vital im portance is given b y P o rp h y ry (a d
233 to c. 304), w h o w rites:

h iyx gem from

>5 portraying the Bee
ssflanke\by u/inged
iu lls horns and
* a x e} (biitterfiy)
the goddess head.
o bc
jf

arly M inoan threeead seal o f yellow

portraying the
' i ti the shape o f a bee.
ier two fdf.es shou> a
id the foreparts o f tu/o
spectivelf. Kateli
a, southept o f

140

17 9

The ancients gave the name o f Melissae (bees) to the priestesses o f

Demeter who were initiates ofthe chthonian goddess; the name Melitodes
to Kore herself: the moon (Artemis) too, whose province it was to bring to the
birth, they called Melissa, because the moon being a buli and its ascension the
buli, bees are begotten ofbulls. And souls thatpass to the earth are bull-begotten.
[M y italics]
(Porphyry, De ant. nym. : 18;
quoted by Ransome 1937: 107).
From this passage w e learn that A rtem is is a bee, M elissa, and that both
she and the buli belong to the m oon. Hence both are connected vvith
the idea o f a periodic regeneration. W e also learn that souls are bees
and that M elissa dravvs souls dovvn to be born. T h e idea o f a life in
death in this sin gu larly interesting concept is expressed b y the belief
that the life o f the buli passed into that o f the bees. H ere w e have the
v e ry essence o f the m eaning o f sacrifice vvhich is also applicable to
N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic Europe as vvell as to the M inoan
civilization.
The im age o f the Great Goddess in the shape o f a bee appears on
the head o f a buli carved out o f bone from the Late Cucuteni site o f
B ilcze Z lo te in the vvestern U kraine. H er upraised and bifurcated
arms are defm itely those o f a bee. H er head is a dot and the conical
lovver b o d y (vvithout indication o f legs) is clearly an im itation o f a
bees b o d y. Sim ilar representations, though less schem atized, are
knovvn fro m M in oan, M ycenaean, G eom etric and A rch aic Greek
art. M an y go ld rings o f M inoan vvorkmanship from C rete and Greece
p ortray the bee-headed goddess or the same goddess h old in g bu lls
horns above her head. A steatite bead-seal from Kateli Pedeada,
southeast o f Knossos, shovvs the goddess vvith legs parted and a long
conical projection vvhich o b vio u sly is the lovver part o f the b o d y o f a
bee. H er arm s are upraised and the head is hum an. T h e other side o f
this seal portrays a bu lls head. Greek jevvelry o f the seventh to fifth
centuries b c fro m R h o d e s and Thera includes gold plaques o f the
B ee-G o d d ess . She has a pair o f hands in addition to her vvings, and
there is a rosette on either side o f her ridged abdom en. T h e fam ous
painted B oeotian am phora dating from c. 700 b c portrays the Lady
o f the W ild T h in g s , or the Mistress o f A n im als , as she is usually
called, flanked by tvvo lions, a (decapitated) bu lls head, a bottleshapcd object (a uterus?), birds and svvastikas. It is significant that she
has the arm s o f an insect. Z ig z a g g in g hair and a serrated line around
the lovver part o f the body suggest the hairy b o d y o f a bee. In this casc
the titles M istress o f A n im als or the L ady o f the W ild T h in g s are

182

m isleading. She is here the Goddess o f Periodic R e g e n eratio n . She

is shovvn vvith a fish inside her, a sym b ol o f fecundity related to
vvater. T h e loose bulls head is that o f a sacrificed buli. T h e buli is
dead and the nevv life begins. T h e svvastikas (vvheels, concentric
circles, rosettes) turn, the snakes era w l, the beasts hovvl (by the m iddle
o f the third m illennium b c lions had replaced the m ore ancient dogs).
T h e epiph an y o f the goddess is inseparable from the noise o f hovvling
and clashing, and the vvhirling dances. Kuretes, the male devotees o f
the goddess, dance vigo ro u sly, rattling their arm s as C allim achus,
the G reek poet o f c. 260 b c , says in his Hymn to Jo v e : 32. V erg il,
describing the noise made to attract svvarm ing bees, says they clash
the cym bals o f the G reat-M o th er (V e rg ils fourth Georgic: 63). A t
Ephesus, A rtem is vvas associated vvith the bee as her cult anim al. In
fact, the vvhole organization o f the sanctuary in classical tim es seems
to have rested on the sym b olic analogy o f a beehive, vvith svvarms o f
priestesses called bees, melissai, and num erous eunuch priests called
drones , essertes (Barnett 19 56 : 218).
W h y vvas the bee ehosen for the sym bol o f regeneration? W e
m ay ask the same question vvhere the Egyptian beetle or scarab is
conccrn ed; it too sym bolizes the m oon and eternal renevval. The
reason p robably is because both have antennae like buli horns and
vvings in the form o f a lunar crescent. T h e periodic svvarm ing and
buzzing o f bees, vvhen a nevv generation is born, and the Creative
activity associated vvith the produetion o f honey must h ave greatly
im pressed our forefathers vvho regarded it as the food o f the gods.
This is suggestcd by the fam ous gold pendant from a tom b at M allia
in C rete dating from the early sccond m illcnnium b c , a superb piccc
o f M inoan goldvvork, in vvhich tvvo bees hold a h on eycom b in the
shape o f a disc. T h ree other discs are suspended 011 the vvings and at
the point vvhere the bodies o f the tvvo b eesjoin (M atz 19 6 2 : 126).
Knovvn portrayals o f bees from antiquity are m ade o f metal,
usually g o ld , or take the form o f engravings, reliefs and paintings.
H itherto. probable representations o f bees painted o r indicatcd in
re lie f on vases from the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods o f O ld
Europe have been either com pIet!y overlopkcd or confused vvith the

F rieze (partiy
strueted) o f Bee Goddess
inted on Proto-Sesklo
Dtzaki, Thessaly.
o - 6200 BC

1 1'

lI

\ \

\ \

\\

v\ ' \

| I

\ 1i

i / 1/

'

/
/

'\

/<

Schematized Bee
>s< on a potsherd from
iv ic e , Linear Pottery
n Czechoslovakia

3.ee Goddess, a
'ry relief from Trufefti.
sical Cucuteni. Second
ffifth millennium BC

jCfiii dressed iti bee

< h old ju g s over horns
uhich a plant groivs.
naean geni

portrayals o f schematized toads or dancing figu res. T h e im age o f

the goddess in the shape o f a bee or som e other kind o f insect has a
v e rv lo n g h is to ry : earlicst representations occur in the N eolithic
P roto-Sesklo and Starevo com plexes. A creature vvith w in g-lik e
arm s and a protruding cone betvveen the parted legs painted in cherry
red on a w h ite background on a ja r from O tzaki, a P ro to -Sesk lo site
in Thessaly, m ay be one o f the earliest representations o f a Lady
B e e . Schem atic figures vvith upraised arms and bifurcated heads
have long been k n ow n in the Starevo com plex o f H u n gary. W hat
m ay be a headless bee appears in re lie f on a large vessel fro m the same
site o f Kopancs. Headless bees portrayed on rosettes are knovvn from
the A rtem isium o f Ephesus (m ore than 5000 years later) w here they
vvere p robably used as eharms. In R o m a n times, headless bees to
gether w ith headless toads also occur on rosettes used as talismans to
avert the evil eye (R an som e 19 3 7 : 110 ). A figure o f a goddess in the
shape o f a bee (?) is painted in red on a Tisza dish from Ilonapart at
Szentes. H er bee-like attributes are a bifurcated insect-type head,
legs and a sting (a tail). Schem atized figures o f bees, h aving the
characteristic ridged b o d y, are quite frequent on Linear pottery.
A n alogo u s representations often appear in relief on C ucuteni vases.
O n a M ycenaean gem o f M inoan vvorkm anship tvvo lion-headed
genii clad in bee skins hold ju g s o ver horns from w hich a new life
springs in the shape o fa plant. W hat do these ju g s c o n ta in ? -p ro b a b ly
foo d o f the gods produced by the bee. T h at mead vvas used as a
libation is w cll knovvn from Classical G reek w riters. Sacrificial honcy
vvas am ong the sober o fferin gs, the nephalia, but it was also knovvn
as an intoxicant. H oney w as alw ays considered to be a food that
conduces to a long and healthy life. Pythagoras, vvhosc life spanned
the grcater part o f the sixth century b c attributed his lo n gevity to a
constant use o f h oney in his dict. H on ey was a healing substance.
Glaucus, the son o f M inos and Pasiphae, vvas restored to life when
buried in a h oncy ja r.
T h e apiculture o f the M inoans is docum cntcd b y hieroglyphs,
representations o factu al beehives, engraved im ages, and m yths. The
Greeks, w h o like the rest o f the Indo-Europeans k n ew on ly o f w ild
honey, inherited bee-kecping from the M inoans. T h e y borrovved
i4

even the m ost im portant nam es: sphex (bee), simblos (h iv e ) and
propolis (kerinthos) (R ansom e 19 3 7 : 64). T h e y also inherited the
m ythical im age o f the G reat Goddess as a bee, the Goddess o f
R egen eratio n , the im age o f her virgin priestesses or nym phs as bees,
and m an y other m yths and beliefs connected w ith the bee and honey.
T h e Cretans on the other hand, must have held bees in high esteem
from the beginning o f the N eolithic era.
T h e fact that w e have been considering the bee rather than the
butterfly does not im p ly that in ancient m y th o lo g y the bee vvas the
m ore im portant o fth e t w o ; both vvere equally ancient and essential in
the sym b olism associated w ith the goddess. The difficulty is that in
schem atic prehistoric reliefs or paintings o f the goddess vve can
recognize little m ore than an insect head or insect hands. W hether
she is L a d y B e e or L ad y B u tterfly cannot be determ ined. In most
N eolithic reliefs, such as that from K otacpart, the im age o f the
goddess can be interpreted as representing either a bee or a butterfly.
The scene on the gold ring from the grave o f Isopata near Knossos,
dating from c. 1500 b c , ineludes four fem ale figures in festival attire,
perhaps p o rtrayin g the goddess and her devotees, usually assumcd
to be melissae, or bees. T h eir heads and hands are certainly those o f an
insect, but vve cannot be sure o f vvhat kind.

G o ld cHrysalis jrorn a
ber tomb at M ycenae.

oo bc ||

Scal inipression from

'0, eastern Crete,
aying gbddess ivith the
s o f an iy e d butter(1y.
ilc M inoan III

1 50

151

T h e m otifs o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and d ou ble-axes are vvell

knovvn to the student o f M inoan-M ycenaean art. It vvas indeed Sir
A rth u r Evans vvho published a series o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and
goddesses related to chrysalises or vvith butterfly vvings (Evans 1925).
H e interpreted the chrysalis as an em blem o f a nevv life after death.
C o m m o n vvhite and other species vvith eyed, indented vvings occur
repeatedly in M in o an and M ycenaean art. In a cham ber tom b at
M ycen ae a detailed exam ple in the form o f a gold chrysalis bead vvas
found b y A . J . B . W ace. It has eyes, and the vving cases and articulation o f the abdom en are indicated. In Sh aft-grave III at M ycenae,
Schliem ann diseovered go ld pendants in the shape o f chrysalises
associated vvith golden butterflies, as w ell as butterflies em bossed on
the plates o f vvhat had been scales (Evans 19 2 5 : 56, Fig. 48a and b : 59,
Fig. 52). T h e M ycen aean butterflies are an inheritance fro m M inoan
C rete, vvhere they are knovvn from the M iddle M inoan III and later
periods. A seal from Z a k ro in eastern C rete reveals the goddess vvith
a hum an head, large vvings o f an eyed butterfly, and anim al or bird
legs.
T h e epiphany o f the goddess in the shape o f a butterfly in
M in o an-M ycenaean religion cannot be doubted. W e m ay ask novv
hovv far back she can be traced.
A n upper torso o f a fem ale figurine vvith schem atized butterflies
incised beneath the breasts vvas found at Passo di C o rv o , a neolithic
settlem ent o f the sixth m illennium b c north o f F o ggia, southeast
Italy (T in e 19 7 2 : 330). T h e figurine probably belongs to the late
Im presso period, M asceria de la Q uercia com plcx. A n oth er em blem
o f regeneration o r b irth -g ivin g resembles the letter M . It vvas inciscd
ran d o m ly on the back and front o f the torso. T h e phallic top o f the
figu rin e s head vvas encirclcd b y a spiral, p robably a snake. T h e uplifted face o f the figurine vvas masked and impressed dots around the
neck suggcst a bead necklace. T h e accum ulation o f sym bols allovvs
one to regard this figurine as a G reat Goddess in her funetion as the
Goddess o f R egen eratio n .
T h e shape o f a butterfly em erges 011 C^atal H iiyu k frescoes
(M ellaart 19 6 7: Pl. 40) and is incised on European N eo lith ic pots.
T h e butterflies 011 D anubian Linear Pottcry jars even have dots on
them, possibly to represent the com m a-typ e butterfly. These
schem atic buttcrflics are the prototypes o f the M inoan doub le-axes
vvhich vve find p ortraycd betvveen the horns o f a buli. T h e em blem
o f the G reat Goddess in its origin has nothing to do vvith the a x e ; it
antedates the appearance o f metal axes by several thousand years. In
the second m illcnnium bc ; , because o f their incrcasing im portance
axes vvere m ade in im itation o fa butterfly (therefore double-bladed).
W hen fm ally the buttcrfly becam e a double-axe, the im age o f the
goddess as a buttcrfly continued to be engraved on doublc-axcs.
186

149 M inoan goddess holding butterflies

(double axes)

1 5 1 Bucrania and ritual

liorns surmounted by a
double a xe (butterfly).
Painting on a M ycenaen
k ra ter from Salam is,
C yp ru s

15 0 Engravings o f butterjiie.
on N eolithic vases from the
Linear Pottery culture in
C zechoslovakia. Fifth
millennium BC

1 5 2 Painted representation
o f goddess with ivings in the
shape o f a double a xe on a
M iddle M inoan I t I vase
from Knossos

M o reo ve r, on painted M inoan vases there is frequently an anth ropo

m orph ic im age o f the goddess having vvings in the shape o f a doubleaxe, an eeho o f the goddess epiphany in the shape o fa buttcrfly. T h e
T o m b o f the D o u b le-A x cs at Knossos vvas, in fact, a shrine o f the
goddess (Evans 19 2 5 : 6 1). T h e proccss o f transform ation from a
butterfly to a d ou b lc-axe m ust have been influenccd by the sim ilarity
o f shape betvveen the tvvo or b y the influence o f the n carby IndoEuropeans (M ycenaeans), to vvhom the axc o f the T h u n d er-g od vvas
sacred since it vvas inbued vvith his potency. W hcrcas the IndoEuropean axc vvas the vveapon o f a male god, the M inoan d oublcaxe vvas n ever shovvn in such a context. It appears as an em blem held
by the goddess in each hand in frescoes and on sehist plaques.
C aterpillars appear on Cucuteni vases, both in a proccssion o f the
goddess animals (see Fig. 12 1) and in association vvith her dogs (see
Pl. 164). Short zigzaggin g creatures vvith round heads at both ends
above the belt o fsp ira llin g snakes probably vvere meant to represent

187

0
1 5 .i Painted representation
o f goddess u'ith u>ings in
sliapc o fa double axe
(resanbting a btntcrfly) on a
flora! stem. Late M inoan /,
island of M oclilos, C.ritc

|Gold p laau c o f B e c G oddess

i C am iro s, R h o d c s . Seventh
|ury bc
"Bee G od d ess. R e l i e f on a
Jie r d ; K o p an cs, southeastern
&gairy. C en tra l B alkan
Jithic. S ix th m illen n iu m bc
IRem'ains o f a b o w l sh o w in g
poddess painted in red on
te b a ck gro u n d . Szentes,
eastern H u n g a ry . A lfo ld
jithic

fU te C u c u tcn i vase fro m

|i northcastern R o m a n ia . T h e
rpillar in the band arou n d the
S is significant

i - s B u l l - l i o n k - d o d d o ' ni tlu- \l i . i | v ni .1 l n v r e m U - t a l o n > gtvl i/e d

| , | | \ Ih -.u I ol b o n e . H i l i v c /.l oli-, n o r t l i u e v l e n i U k r. i i m -. I .ite ( tmiH'iH.

P o u n li m ilK'iitm nn m

caterpillars. Cresccnts vvith dots around them, in association w ith

b u lls horns vvithin the sections o f crossed lines, such as w e have seen
painted on a Cucutcni dish (see Pl. 49), could also be caterpillars. T he
m oon crescent, the Caterpillar and bu lls horns are closely connected.
Since caterpillars and butterflies appeared in O ld European
sym b olism , it is reasonable to assume that there w ere chrysalises too.
T h e chrysalis, i f inarticulately presented, can be easily overlooked .
S o m e horizontally ridged grcenstone pendants from E arly N eolithic
settlem cnts (such as vvere unearthed in the earliest site o f Anza,
M acedon ia, dating from the end o f the seventh m illennium b c ), as
vvell as certain form s o f shells used as beads, could be interpreted as
representing chrysalises. T h e shape o f a chrysalis does not necessarily
have to appear in lifelike representations. T he figurines o f the chthonic
goddess o f the C h alcolithic period seem to have the chrysalis as an
u n d erlyin g idea. These figurines are usually schem atic and groups o f
horizontal lines are inciscd on the narro w in g lovver b o d y (cf. Fig. 103).
T h e narrovv skirts o f the V ina ladics, vvhich usually end in horizontal
lines or bands (sce Fig. 8), m ay likew ise bc related to the idea o ft h e
chrysalis. A 11 odd painting 011 one o f the shrines o f Qatal H u y iik o f
the seventh m illennium b c seems to represent a h oneycom b with
chrysalises, bees or butterflies (M ellaart 1964: 129).
E ven to the scientific observer today, the transform ation o f an
u g ly Caterpillar into a beautiful vvinged creature seems like a miraele.
B u t even m ore astonishing is the fact that m an, equipped vvith only
the patience to observe, recognized ali the stages o f the dram a and
ineorporated it in his sym bolism at least seven or eight thousand
years ago.

188

1X3

184, 1X5

6 The bear: the goddess as mother and nurse

A strange anim al-headed figurine vvith tvvo turban-shaped ears,
fem ale breasts, and its single unbroken arm resting across the abdo
men vvas found at the Starevo settlement o f Porodin. In V ina sites
a num ber o f bear-headed figurines vvere found, representing either
cpiphanies o f the goddess in anim al form or her vvorshippers. Som e
are seated on a throne and decorated vvith crescents. T h e fam ous
sculpture knovvn as the 'L a d y o f V in a , broken from a throne or
scat vvhich vvas not recovcrcd, is p robably a refmcd portrayal o f the
goddess vvearing an anim al mask. Painted in alternating black and
red bands and vvearing a pentagonal stylizcd mask vvith huge black
eyes, she has her right arm held diago n ally across the front o f her
b o d y, the hand touching her left breast. H er shoulders are broad and
011 the upper arm are four incisions vvhich m ay sym b olically asscrt
her status.
A V ina figurine, representing the bear m other or nurse, from
Fafos in Southern Y u go s!av ia shovvs a seated vvoman holding a cub,
iyo

18 3 G od d ess vvith an im al (bear?)

m ask seated on a th ro n e fro m the
V in a site. c. m id -fifth
m illcn n iu m BC

184, 185 T h e L a d y o f V in a .
T erracotta o f a m asked goddess
o rigin a lly seated 011 a throne.
Late V in a, 4500 - 4000 bc

1 86, 1 8 7 B ear cub (?) fro m P av lo va c , Sout her n

Y u g o sla v ia . V in a, c.
~ o K<;

45

188 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic fig u rin e w ith an im ai (bcar?)

head fro m P o ro d in , So u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia . C en tral
B alkan N eo lith ic. eariv sixth m illenn iu m bc:

i8 y , iy o T e rra c o tta o f a m o th er and ehild fro m the

E a rly V in a site at R a s t , w estern R o m a n ia . c. 5000
ne o r earlier
i y i , i y2 V in a fig u rin e p o rtra y in g bear-m asked
w o m an w ith a pouch 011 her ba ck . Site ot u p rija I
at S u p ska, ccntral Y u g o sla v ia

A
*'1 \

19 3 G od d ess, h o ld in g a b a b y , bo th
w e a rin g bear m asks, fro m Fafos II at
K o so v sk a M itr o v ic a , Y u g o s la v ia . V in a
cu ltu re

195: V ase frag m en t w ith represen tation

o f an im al-m asked M a d o n n a in relief,
fro m Z c n g o v a r k o n y , a L c n g y e l
settlem ent in sou th w estern H u n g a r y .
Fifth m illen n iu m BC

her face concealed b y a bear m ask. T h e m aternalf evotion o f the

fem ale bear m ade such an im pression upon O ld European peasants
that she w as adopted as a sym b ol o f m otherhood. B ear cubs vvith
large heads w ere also m odelled. T h e V ina sculpture fro m G radac
in central Y u g o sla v ia o f a m other holding a ehild vvith the head o f a
bear cub is unfortunately headless but she p robably w o re an animal
m ask. Sim ilar figurines w ere found at Fafos, D renovac and other
Sesklo and V ina sites. T h e anim al-headed L en gyel M ad o n n a from
the settlem ent o f Z e n g o v rk o n y in southwestcrn H u n gary cuddles
a shapeless infant in her arm s. Sculptures in vvhich the m other holds
a large ehild inciude the figurine from the early Vina site o f R a stu
in southw estern R o m a n ia , w h ich is rem arkable for its perfeet p rop ortions. U nfortu nately, both m other and ehild are headless and the
right arm and legs o f the m other are broken pff. T h e preserved hand
o f the m issing arm touches the left. breast at vvhich the. ehild vvas
suckling. T h e back o f the figurine is covered b y incisions, including
V s, meanders and crescents., A nalogies vvith other Vina sites that
h ave yielded calibrated radiocarbon dates place the K a stu sculpture
in the early fifth m illennium b c .
S o m e east and central B alk an clay figurines o f the fifth m illen
nium b c are dubbed hunchbacks because o f their schem atically
rendered hum ps. T h eir heads are either masked or am orphous. The
m ystery o f the hum ps is explained b y an articulated bear-m asked
V ina figurine carrying a bag suspended on a thick rope o v er the
neck. A pp aren tly she is a bear nurse. H undreds o f such schem atized
bear-nurse figurines im p ly the role o f the goddess as a proteetress o f
vveaklings or o f a divine ehild. T h e y are especially num erous in the
K a ran o vo com plex o f central B ulgaria.

e c a p it u la t io n

o ddess

of

v a r io u s

aspects

of

the

p r e h isto r ic

reat

T h e im age o f the Great Goddess o f Life, Death and R egen eratio n in

anth ropom orph ic form vvith a projeetion o f her povvers through
insects and animals - bee, butterfly, deer, bear, hare, toad, turtle,
h ed geh og and d og - was the outvvard sym bol o f a com m un ity
conccrncd vvith the problem s o f the life and death cyclc.
Even i f the goddess corpuicncc and association with w ild animals
im plics an U p per Palcolithic origin, her im age during the period o f
early agriculturc must have been transform ed. T h e dom csticatcd
d o g , buli and he-goat n o w bccam c her com panions, and she ruled
both w ild and cultivatcd life. Because her main funetion vvas to
regenerate the life forccs, the goddess vvas flanked b y male animals
noted fo r their physical strength. T h e animals are E u ro p ean ; ncithcr
leopards nor lions flank her as thcy do m Anatolia and M esopotam ia.
195

18 6 , 18 7

194

195

18 9 , 19 0

1,89

1 9 1 , 19 2

H er aeeensussed pubie triangle m ay have been iinked w tth the

concept o f the G reat M other' w o m b (to adeps the term e by
D iterich , N eu m an n and Eliadc) or the lap o f the subsereanean
queen , but she was not cntirely feminine- She wns androgynou s in
the N eo lith ic period, h avin g a phallus-shaped n e c k ; divine biscxuaiity
stresses her absolute povver. T h e d ivorce from the m ale attributcs
occurred at som e tim e during the course o f the sixth m illennium b c .
In her chthonic and frigh tcn ing aspect she m ust have been a
M oth er T errib le perhaps yearning for hum an and anim ai blood,
as indicated by her epiphanv in the shape o f a ferocious dog.
T h e re was no isslated im age o f a M oth er T e rrib le ; the aspects o f
deash and lift m in ecably in t e m m e d . She m * deployed in
graves m stimulase. and perpeeuase she preereasiv? p w s o f the
eeease, T h e
d ? e S s d d m iike she Sum srisit N jnkh u r*
g . m life m ihe B s a d (aneshe? m m e fe r Ninfchursag w s*
m n iim ffl . 'Sh e h e g i v life se the
H er m agleal hatii m i
ffiusie w e re fe r she feiease o fth e life fercei. T h e iy m b l* e f b eeem in g - e g g * . cresean. h n w . and crosscs veishin eirele* and concem ric
g 'm lm - m m engraved r painted o v er her b o d y or on v o tive vases.
B eh an eg g split into tw e halve and tw ins w erc conccps* emphasiaed
throu gh out her rnany representations. A round 4 0 0 0 b C a layered and
split eg g becam c the cm b lem o f the goddess and continued in evidence
th rou gh out the M inoan and M ycenaean period. T h e constant portrayal o f tw in crescents, or tvvo does w ith opposed bodies refleets
the m agical potency o f a splitting pair.
I11
her incarnation as a pregnant doe, a chrysalis, Caterpillar,
butterfly, bec, toad, turtle, or hedgehog, she was a sym b ol o f em b ryonic life and regeneration. In this fundam enta! notion lies her associa
tion vvith the m oon and the horns. As a bee or a butterfly she cm erges
from the b o d y or horns o f the b u li; as a bear she takes care o f ali
yo u n g life.
As a suprem e C rea to r vvho creates from her ow n substance she is
the p rim ary goddess o f the O ld European pantheon- In this she
consrasts w ith the Indo-European Earth-M other, vvho is the im *
paipable saered earth-spirit and is not in herself a ereative prineipie;
a n ly through the inseraesion o f the m ale sky~god does she beeom e
pregnant,
H pKA ffi ANO AiTBMW! SUliVIVAL OJ* THI M i lUHliPRAN SUBAT
G o r je f i s s in A n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d w n s f f i B N A n a t o l i a

T h e question n o w arises as to w hat happened to the prehistoric

goddess after the third m illennium b c . D id she disappcar after the
advent o f the patriarchal Indo-European vvorld or did she survive
the dram atic ehange?

196

In M inoan (nsn Indo^luropean) C rete the G reat Goddess is aeen

in representations on freseoes, ring* and seals. She is shovvn in associa
tion vvith bulls, s r bull-horns, *doublc-axes (butterflies), he-goats
or lions. O n a stam p from Knossos she appears as a lady o f nature
untamed on top o f a m ountain flanked by tvvo lions and a m ale
hum an vvorshipper. O n a gold ring from Isopata near Knossos the
bu tterfly- o r bee-headed goddess is, as vve have seen, surrounded by
vvorshippers in festive garm ents vvearing insect masks (see Fig. 146).
She is represented on frescoes accom panied b y vvOrshippers, vvo'men
or men in festive garm ents vvith upraised arms. G igan tic dogs portraved 011 sceatite vases or 011 cylinder seals (M atz 19 6 2 ; 1 3 0 ) are
probably the com panions o f the same goddess. She or her animals,
part:icularly the bulls, do mina te
ritualistie sccnes th roughout the
period o f M inoan
In G reece, as in India. the G reat Goddess survived she superim
pose in o slu re p a a n cu Isu m ! h oriio n . As the prcdeeessor o f A n atolian and G reek H ekatc-A rtcm is (related to Kubaba, K vb cb e/
G ybele) she lived through the Bronze A ge, then through Classical
Greece and even into laser hissory in spite o f tram form asions o f her
outer form and the m any difterent names that vvere applied. to her.
T h e im age o f H ekate-A rtem is o f Caria, Lvdia and Greece, based on
descriptions o f early G reek authors, vase paintings, and finds in
actual sanctuaries dcdicatcd to this m ultifunetional goddess, supplem ent and ve rify our understanding o f the appearance and funetions
o f the prehistoric goddess. W rittcn sources pour blood into her veins
o f stone, clay, bone or gold.
In nam e and character she is a non-G reek, a non-Indo-European
goddess. T h e nam e o f A rtem is is knovvn from G reek, Lyd ian and
Etruscan inscriptions and texts. Its antiquity is dem onstrated b y the
appearance o f the vvords A-ti-rni-te and A -li-m i-to, the dative and
genetive case o f her nam e, on Lincar B tablets from Pylos (Bennett
19 5 5 : 208-9). Hckatc (Hekabe) vvas Asiatic, not knovvn to the Greeks
in nam e. She vvas Enodia in Thcssaly, perhaps an earlier nam e later
replaeed by H ckatc. W hether Artem is and H ekatc appear as tvvo
goddesses or as one, they both belong te the m oon cyele. Hekate,
gruesom e and Iinked vvith deafh; Artem is, youthful and beautiful,
refleeting the purity o f untouched nature and Iinked vvith m otherhood.
In C aria (vvestern T u rk ey) Hekate was the prim ary goddess.
M ysti*fies and gam es w ere perform ed in her sanesirary at Lagina. In
C o lo p h o n , dogs vvere sacrificed to her and she h erself could turn into
a dog. W est o f Lagina vvas Zerynthos, from vvhich H ckatc derived
her nam e o f Zcryn th ia. In Sam othrace, there vvas a cave callcd
Z cryn th o s associated vvith H ekate. D ogs vvere sacrificed there and
m ysteries and orgiastic dances w erc perform ed. Hekate and her dogs

fsdaee

Crete.

the

are described as jo u rn e y in g o ver the graves o f the dead and above the
sacrificed blood . In the days o f Aristophanes and A isch ylos she is the
mistress o f the n ight road vvho leads travellers astray, o f cross w ays,
o f fate, and o f the w o rld o f the dead, being knovvn b y both names,
H ekate and A rtem is. As Q ueen o f the Ghosts, H ekate sweeps through
the night follovved b y her b ayin g hounds; as Enodia she is the
guardian o f crossroads and gates. H er sanctuaries stood at the gate
to a h ill-fo rt or at the entrance to a house. Pregnant w o m en sacrificed
to Enodia to ensure the goddess help at birth (W ilam o w itzM oellen do rf, I, 19 5 9 : 6 9 -17 4 ). T h ere is no m ention in A ischylos
o f H ek ate-A rtem is assisting at birth. C la y figurines o fth e goddess in
a seated position w ere sacrificed to her (id .: 17 1 ) . A terracotta
m edallion found in the A thenian A go ra portrays a triple-bodied
H ekate-A rtem is w ith stag and dog flanking her. She holds a torch,
w h ip and b o w -a n d -a rro w (T hom pson 1960: 367). Sophocles in
A n tigo n e m entions Enodia as Persephone, the ruler o f the dead. T h e
torch o f the goddess p ro b a b ly relates to the fertilizing p o w e r o f the
m oon since H ekates torches w ere carried around the freshly sow n
fields to p rom ote their fertility. Statues o f R o m a n D iana sh ow her
cro w n ed w ith the crescent and carryin g a raised torch. H ekate is
responsible fo r lun acy and, on the positive side, is G iv e r o f V ision.
T h e L a d y o f free and untam ed nature and the M oth er, protectress
o f vveaklings, a d ivin ity in w h o m the contrasting principles o f
v irg in ity and m otherh ood are fused into the concept o f a single
goddess, w as venerated in G reece, L yd ia, C rete and Italy. She appears
as A rtem is and under m an y local nam es: D iktynn a, Pasiphae,
Europa (the w id e -g lan cin g on e), B ritom artis ( the sw eet v irg in )
in C rete, Laphria in A eto lia, K allisto ( the beautiful) in A rk adia, or
A g ro tera ( the w ild ), and D iana in R o m e . She, the pure and strong
one , w as surrounded b y nym phs, flanked b y anim als, and as huntress
dom inated the anim al w o rld . G am es vvith bulls w erc am o n g the
rituals o f this goddess. She vvas present e veryw h ere in nature, above
ali in hills, forests, meadovvs, and fertile vallcys, and often w as
th erioform , app earing as a bear or doe. T h e A rkadian K allisto, her
com panion and dou b le, was said to have assumed the form o f a bear.
T h e stag is her standing attribute in plastic art; she is called staghuntress in the H o m eric H ym ns. H er com panion T a y g e te was
transform ed into a doe and in the legend o f the A lodac she hcrself
assumes that fo rm . Pausanias records (8.37.4) that in the tem ple o f
D espoina in A rcad ia her statue vvas clothed w ith deer pelt. N ear
C o lo p h o n lay a sm all island sacred to A rtem is to w hich it vvas b e -'
lieved pregnant does sw am in order to bear their y o u n g (Strabo
14.6 43, cited b y O tto 19 6 5 : 84). W ell-bred Athenian girls o f
m arriageablc age danced as bears in h onour o f A rtem is o f B rauronia,
and during rites o f cult-initiation girls becam e bears, arktoi (B ach o198

fen 1863 :2 4 ). In paintings on vases, the vvorshippers o f A rtem is w o re

anim als m asks vvhile dancing. T h e girls and w o m en o f Lakedem onia
p erform ed orgiastic dances to g lo rify A rtem is. Fat men, padded and
m asked as com ic actors, participated in fertility dances fo r A rtem is
(Jucker 1963). W e can recognize their ancestors in the m asked and
padded m en o f the Vina culture o f c. 5000 b c (see Pls. 24, 25).
O fferings to A rtem is inciude phalii and ali species o f anim als and
fruits, fo r she w as proteetor o f ali life, bestow ing fertility on humans,
animals and fields, and the sacrifice o f any liv in g thing vvas app ropriate to her. A cco rd in g to the legend adapted b y Sophocles, the
m ost beautiful girl o f the year, Iphigeneia, had to be sacrificed to the
goddess. T h e possibility o f hum an sacrifice is suggested b y the fact
that A rtem is herself is called Iphigeneia in Hermione and Ageira and
that hum an sacrifice vvas perform ed fo r Laphria w h o vvas also
A rtem is (W ilam ow itz-M o ellen d orf, ibid.: i8 if.) . M utilated beasts,
from vvhich a m em ber vvas cut o f f , vvere sacrificed to A rtem is in
B oeotia, Euboea and Attica. In Asia M inor, in the great spring festival
o f C y b e le , the shorn genitals o f her priests vvere consecrated to her
(Persson 19 4 2 : 106). H e-goat and stag vvere particularly appreciated
sacrificial anim als, and also the hare, a m oon anim al. In nearly ali
shrines dedicated to A rtem is spindle-vvhorls, loo m vveights, shuttles
and kallatoi have been found and from inscriptions in sanctuaries it
is knovvn that vvoollen and linen clothes and threads vvound on spools
vvere offered as gifts to her (R o u se 19 0 2: 274, 296). O n C orinthian
vases, A rtem is and her priestesses are seen holding a spindle (Jucker
1963 : Pl. 20 .j) .
She appeared at births as the b irth -givin g goddess, A rtem is
Eileithyia ( C h ild -b earing). Figurines in a seated position vvere
sacrificed to her. D iana also presided o ver childbirth and vvas called
O pener o f the W o m b . A s the B ear-M o th er she nursed, reared and
proteeted the n e w ly born vvith th epietas materna o f a bear. Tithenidia,
the festival o f nurses and nurslings in Sparta, honoured her nam e.
T his goddess, as O tto (1965) poetically obscrvcd, m irrors the
d ivin e fem in in ity o f nature. U n lik e the E arth -M oth er vvho gi ves birth
to ali life, sustains it, and in the end receives it back into her bosom ,
she refleets the v irg in ity o f nature vvith its brilliance and vvildness,
vvith its guiltless puricy and its strnngencss. A nd vet, intertvvined vvith
this crystal-clear essence vvere the dark roots o f savage nature.
A rtem is o f Brauronia aroused madness. H er anger caused the death
o f w o m en in childbirth.
It is no m ere coincidence that the venerated goddess o f the sixth
and fifth centurics in A ncient Greece resem bles the Goddess o f Life
and D eath o f the sixth and fifth m illennia BC. M yth ical im ages last
for m ariy m illennia. In her various m anifestations - strong and
beautiful V irg in , B ear-M oth er, and L ife -g iv e r and L ifc-takcr - the
199

fc??esf Sadse** isise im a tat ove

&& bsfefa $g

of

eemmusiitei
Mary.
eoneept

moves
or a toad.
her feminine
and
her
refsreiantedinfigurine thraugheut

appearanee
Giasslcai Greek: civiligaiian , V iilage
vvorship her to this day in the guisc o f the V irgin
The
o fth e goddess in bear shape vvas d ecp ly ingrained in m y thical thought
throu gh the m illennia and survives in coiitem porary C rete as V irgin
M a ry o f the B e a r . In the cave o f A cro tiri near ancient K y d o n ia, 3
festival in h on o u r o f Panagia (M arv) A rkouiotissa (she o f the bear)
is cclebrated on the second day o f F eb ru ar/ (Thom pson 19 0 1-6 3 ).
In European fo lk beliefs, she still
w ifh in pregnant w om en in
shape o f w an d erin g uterus
la c h o f
virgm U v, b irth -givin g
ra e th e fh e ad , as w c!l as
M eth er
is w ell
m
ihe N eo iith ie and C h aleelith ie c?m o f O l lu r a p e .

the
aspeets,
Tsrribie

aspet,

9 Th Prggnant Vigitation Goddess

A goddess tymbolizing earth fcrtility was the natural responsc to an
agrarnoways fiife - Hej imap harbeuneaesumulatienejf% ymbsh
h o m the pie-agricultufal era as do those o f the Great Goddess and
B ird Goddess, She evelops her a w n eha ra eter in the course of time.
but her intim ate relationships to the U p p er Palaeolithic Pregnant
Goddess is obvious.
T h e seed must have been recognized as the cause o f germ ination
and grovvth, and the pregnant belly o f a vvoman m ust h ave been
assimilated to field fertility in the infancy o f agriculture. As a result,
there arose an im age o f a pregnant goddess endow ed vvith the
p rerogative o f being able to influence and distribute fertility. T h e
b elief that vvom ans fertility or sterility influences farm ing persists
alm ost u niversally in European folklore. Barren vvomen are regarded
as dangerou s; a pregnant vvoman has m agical influence on grain
because like her, the grain becom es pregnant ; it germ inates and
grovvs.
T h e Pregnant Goddess can be deciphered either b y means o f her
i]ii4fi ideogram - a dot in a lezenge, or a lozenge vvithin a loaenge ineised or painted on her belly, thighs. neek or arm s, or b y the
naturalistic portrayal o f a pregnant fem ale with hands above the
belly. She is related to the square, the perennial sy m b el o f earth bound
matter.
T h e pregnant figurines o f t h e seventh and sixth m illennia b c
are nude, vvhile the pregnant ladies o ft h e fifth and fourth millennia
are exquisitely clothed exeept for the abdom en, vvhich is exposed and
on vvhich lies a sacred snake. In this series a high degree o f stylization
is o b se rv ed : the abdom inal part o f the body is emphasizcd and the
other parts are m odified. Som e figurines take the form o f bottleshaped am ulets o r rattles, o b vio iftly not representations o f the
goddcsses, but necessary in m agical procecdings to obtain fecundity.

200

201

197- 199

196, 200, 201

19 6 P re g n a n t G od d ess in fu ll attire w ith a

snake w in d in g a b o v e the b e lly . F rom
M ed ve d n jak . V in a. 5000 - 4500 bc
19 7 S m all p r e g n a n t fig u r in e vvith hands h eld
o v e r th e a b d o m e n . P o ro d in , So u th e rn
Y u g o s la v ia . E a r ly sixrh m ille n n iu m

bc

198 U p p e r p art o f fig u rin e d ep ictin g a nude

and p regn an t w o m a n (P regn an t Goddess?) w ith
hands held a b o v e the b e lly . P o ro d in , Southern
Y u g o s la v ia . E a rly sixth m illen n iu m b c
199 P iilar-h ead ed p regn an t fig u rin e o f
H am an g ian typ e. C e rn a v o d a cem etery,
D o b ru ja , c. 5000 b c

200, 2 0 1 T h e Fat L a d v o f S ita g r o i , M aced on ia,

w ith a d o u b le spiral (tw o snakes) a b o v e the
b e lly. East B alk an civilization . c. 4500 BC
202 B o ttle-sh a p e d fig u re (am ulet) o f a P regnant
G od d ess (?). S ita g ro i, M aced o n ia. East B alkan
civilization . c. 4500 b c

3 cm

1 5 7 L o w e r ha f o f fe m a le
fig u r in e w ith a dotted
q u a n ered lo z en g e in fro n t
a n d snakes ivin din g o v ir
buttocks fr o m L u k a
V ru b le v etsk a y a , upper
D n iester v a !le y . c. lati*fifth
m illen n iu m b c

T h e d o t (seed ) a n d t h e l o z e n g e (s o w n f ield )

i
R a n les in the shap e oj
a p reg n an t ivontan fr o m a
g r a v e ivltich also inelud ed
ric h ly p ain ted b la ck-o n -rcd
b o ivls. V y k h v a tin tsi, S o v ie
M o ld a v ia . Late C u cu teni.
Fourth m illen n iu m c

15 6
erracotta figurine:
tvith g ra in im pressions.
L u k a - V rtib lcvefsk ay a
settlem ent in the u pp er
D n iester V a lle y . Proto('u c u tc n i. S tid -fifth
m illcn n iu m b c

T he dot, representing seed, and the lozenge, sym bolizing the sown
field, appear 011 sculptures o f an enthroned pregnant goddess and are
also inciscd or painted on, totally schematized figurines. A lozenge
w ith a dot or dash in its centre or in the corners must have been the
sym b olic invocation to securc fertilitv. Less abstract are the Early
Cucuteni figurines from the western U kraine vvhere the entire body,
particularly the abdom en and buttocks, w erc impressed vvith real
grain. D u rin g the subsequent Classical Cucutcni phase the idea o f
p regnancy was expressed by the inscrtion o f clay balls into the belly
o f a fat figurine (Fig. 155).
A lozenge is often the most pronounced feature, the rest o f the
fem ale b o d y serving only as a background to the ideographic coneept. The idea o f pregnancy as opposed to sterility is expressed by a
dot in the centre o f a lozenge or vvithin each o f the paneis o f a
Cjuartere lozenge. This ideogram , already present on seventhm illennium stamp-seals from f^atal H iiyuk (M ellaart 19 6 7: Pl. 12 1),
is encountered throughout O ld Europe both on N eolithic and C h al
colithic figurines. A lozenge and dot or a quadripartite lozenge is a
very cornm on m o tif on schematic Early and Classical Cucuteni
(T ripolye) figurines. O ne or tvvo snakes wm d above the bclly vvith
its incised lozenge or surround sacred protubcranccs, most notablv
the buttocks. The repetition or m ultiplication o f lozenges and their
association vvith snakes or spirals was ob vio usly mcant to render the
figurines or amulcts m ore cffectivc. Com positions o f alternating
lozenges and spirals are frcquent on figurines and pots and also on
clav plaques vvhich m ay svm bolize loavcs o f bread.
205

J.5

IS7- i 6o

2O4. 205. 157

2 0 6 , IO

II

F igu rin e jw ith a d otted lozen ge

;cd on chjj? b e !ly . G lad n ice near
:ina, Southern Y u g o sla v ia . c. 6000 bc

15 8 M iniature fig u rin e incised u/ith a dotted

lozenge in fron t and on the back. East Balkan
civilization. Vidra, northern Rom ania. c.
4 5 0 0 BC

.04. 205 C lassical C u c u ten i fig u rin e .

*hc elab orate incised design ineludes
a qjuartcrcd lo zen ge a b o v e the
ab d o m en . C u c u te n i. n orth ern
M o ld a via . M id -fifth m illenn iu m BC

t $ g , 160 H igh ly schematic

figurines ( or eharms) from
Sitagroi, Macedonia.
First h a lf o f the fifth
millennium b c

tel

3 CM

16 1 Loaf-shaped clay
plaque incised unth lozenges
and spirals. Vina
settlement at Vrac, eastern
Yugoslavia. c. 5000 b c or
early fifth millennium BC

06 Pregij:lan t vvom an w ith a m u ltip le

lozei je design on the bellv fro m
K olekoj a t', ccntral B u lg a ria . c. 45
b c . T h e chair or (throne) vvas fo u nd
scpnnj v but b elon gs to the sam e
period

1 2

cm

/ 62 Fragment of the middle part o f a figurin e ivith designs o f dotted lozenges and triangles
and an egg (upper Icft) painted in black on red. Sitagroi. M acedo'iia. East Balkan
civilization. c. 4500 BC

1 6 } Fragment oj a fig u rin e

incised ivith complicated
design induding dotted
lozenges and triangles from
the mound o f Tangiru,
lower D anube, Rom ania,
c. 4000 BC or late fifth
millennium b c

tek polished disc

ite enerusted lines
. Ploskata M ogila
v d iv , centraI
i. East Balkan
ion. c. 4000 b c
2 10 , 2 1 1
2 0 7 -2 0 9

209

2 12

A series o f Gumelni^a and C ucuteni figurines have on the

abdom inal area a m ore com plicated design consisting o f interconnected lozenges and triangles usually containing a dot. Since this
same com posite design also recurs on round discs w hich are probably
am ulets or stamps from G u m eln i;a settlements, this must be an
established ideogram . It suggests the sacredness o f sow n fields.
T he e n t h r o n e d P reg n a n t G oddess

Lozenges are typical em bellishm ents o f the garm ents o f enthroned

goddesses. T h e fmest exam ples from various regions o f O ld Europe
inelude the vessel-shaped L ad y o f K oke'nydom b in southeastern
H u n gary and the L ad y o f Pazardik from central B ulgaria. The
fo rm er w ears o ver the lo w er part o f the b o d y a garm ent made up o f
panels o f various sizes, m an y o f vvhich show a lozenge design; the
latter is decorated w ith flovving incised lines interspersed vvith
lozenges. O n each buttock are incised tw o large lozenges - placed
here not as decoration, but to stress the funetions o f the carth-fcrtility
goddess w h o is responsible for the germ ination, sprouting, gro w in g
and ripening o f plants. T h e vessel shape and the iugs in the low er part
o f the K o k en y d o m b L a d y suggest she vvas put to ritual use, (filled
w ith vvater?), and carricd o ver the fields. T he Pazardik Lndy is a
classical exam ple o f the Pregnant Goddess. H er centre o f grav ity in
the abdom en draw s her dovvnvvard tovvard the earth o f vvhich she is
a part. H er am ple proportions, the cssencc o f this sculpture, are
sym b o lic o f the fertile earth. She vvears a round mask vvith a prom inent nose and six holes fo r the lovver lip. H er hands rest royalIy on
the abdom en.
A n im pressive statuette o f an enthroned, heavily-drape goddess
vvearing an ornate mask vvith slanted bulbous eycs and a m cdallion
suspended on a thong vvas diseovered in Pritina, Southern Y u g o slavia. Snakes are incised on her belly to form an angular com position, above vvhich there is an ideogram m ade o f 011c horizontal and
fou r vertical lines.
208

207-209 'Tlu- L .id y o f P azard ik'.

ccntral B u lg a ria . East B alkan
civilization , c. 4500 Ht

/ 65 Fragm enti offigurines

o f pigs impressed with grain.
Luka Vrublevetskaya in the
upper valley o f D niester,
U S S R . M id-fifth
m illennium B c

T h e p i g , t h e s a c r e d a n i m a l o f th f . G o d d e s s o f V e g e t a t i o n

T h e curious connection between the V egetation Goddess and pigs

as knovvn from Classical G reek times goes back to the N eo lith ic era.
Sculptures o f pigs are knovvn from ali parts o f O ld Europe and date
from e ve ry period. In num ber they equal the representations o fd o g s,
bulls and he-goats. T h e fast-grovving b o d y o f a pig w ill have im pressed early agriculturists; its fattening m ust have been com pared
to corn grovving and ripening, so that its soft fats apparently am e to
sym bolizc the earth itself, causing the pig to becom e a sacred anim al
p robably no later than 6000 b c .
A n early Vina Pregnant Vegetation Goddess vvears a p ig s m ask,
vvhile the sacredness o f the p ig s body is indicatcd b y the C ucuteni
pig sculptures vvhich have traces o f grain im pression on them . Grain
vvas impressed on the b o d y o f the pig ju st as it vvas im pressed on the
body o f the Vegetation Goddess. These figurines and the p ig masks
im ply that the pig vvas a double o f the Pregnant V egetation Goddess
and vvas her sacrificial anim al.
Beautifu l sculptures o f entire pigs vvere found in the m ound o f
N ea M a k ri in ccntral Greece. T h e Vina civilization has left us a
m asterpiecc in the form o f a p ig s head from Leskovica near tip in
M acedonia. A w cll m odelled early exam ple com es from the Starevo
settlem ent o f D onja B ranjevin a at D eronj in northv/estern Y u g o slavia (Karm anski 1968). Vessels or their handles vvere often shaped
in the likeness o f a p ig s head or body and m ust have sym bolized the
goddess h erself in the same w a y as other vessels did the B ird Goddess
or the G reat Goddess. T h e site o f V ina, in vvhich the sculptures
2

11

213

1 65

2 i 6 Sn o u t o f a lifc-sizc su ck lin g pig from

A n za, eastern M aced on ia. c. $ 3 0 0 -5 10 0 b c

2 1 7 H ead o f n p ig w ith p erforated ears fo r earD alb ok i near Stara Z a g o ra , B u lga ria . c. 4000 b

2 18 H an d le o f a cult vase o r rh vton fro m V in a in the fo rm o f a

p ig s head. E a rly fifth m illenn iu m b c

z18

216

217

appeared in m any strata, yielded one exceptionally w ell sculpted

head as w e ll as a rhy ton m ade o f a thin red clay decorated vvith bands
painted in black, in the shape o f a p ig s head. In the Vina layer o f the
stratified site o f A nza a life-size pig m ade o f unbaked clay was dis
eovered du ring the au th o rs excavation in 1970. T h e Vina layer was
in a p lou gh zone and the p ig had been p artly d estro y ed ; m uch o f the
rest disintegrated as soon as it w as touched, but its snout and one leg
w ere preserved. T h ere can be no doubt that the p ig played an
im portant cult role in East Balkan civilization. In addition to sm aller
and larger figurines o f pigs, a p ig s head from central B ulgaria had
perforated ears for ear-rin gs! Stout vases, h a lf anth ropom orp h icand
h a lf zoo m o rp hic to resem ble the hind parts o f a pig, and small containers w ith p ig s heads or incised stylized m otifs o f a p ig s hindquarters, w ere p rob ab ly used for sacrifices or for vo tive offerings.
Pigs, it is w orth notin g, w ere still being portrayed in M inoan C rete
(Z e rv o s 19 5 6 : Figs. 580, 582), and du ring the Classical and H ellenistic
age in G reece and Southern Italy. A true masterpiece o f the fifthfourth cen tury B C is a lam p i n the shape o f a pig vvhich was found in
the cem etery o f C am arin o in Sicily. A lozenge and a fforal design
appear in the m iddle o f the b o d v (Sep. 833 : Syracuse A rchaeological
M useum ).

A l l u s i o n s t o D e m e t e r , K o r e a n d P e r s e p h o n e in G r e e k
MYTHOLOGY

T h ro u g h her association w ith the pig, the beautifully draped D em eter

w ith bare breasts, the queen o f corn, the bread -giver and the queen
o f the dead (m anifested as her daughter Persephone) can be connected
w ith her predecessor, the prehistoric V egetation Goddess. Persephone
w a sev en called Pherrephata, killer o fsu ck lin g p igs, by the Athenians
(V . G e o rg ie v 1 9 3 7 : 22f.). Su ckling p ig sp la y e d a very prom inent part
in the cult o f D em eter and Persephone. T h e festival o f Thesmophoria,
vvhich occurred at the autum n sovving o f the new crops in O ctober
in h onour o f D em eter, vvas one o f the m ost im portant festivals in
G reece. It was p erform ed solely by vvomen and lasted for three days.
W o m en novv brough t sucklin g pigs, vvhich three m onths before the
festival had been th row n into subterranean caves to rot, and placed
them on altars o f Thesmophoroi - the nam e b y vvhich D em eter and
her double or daughter K o re w ere called during the festival - w ith
other g ift s ; they w ere then m ixed vvith the seeds to be used for sow in g
(N ilsson 19 5 7 ; 3 1 2 ; Sim on 1969: 92). H erodotus describcs a sim ilar
rite am o n g the E g y p tian s: the inhabitants o f the N ile delta let pigs
tram ple on the seeds and press them into the earth (H erodotus 2, 14).
T h e same is knovvn from Egyptian paintings o f D yn asty X V III
(N e w b e rry 19 28 : Plate 19). T h e im portance o f the pig in N eolithic
214

and C h alcolithic O ld Europe, particularly the association o f p ig and

grain, suggests that the Thesmophoria and other sim ilar festivals had
their origin in early antiquity. T his does not neccssarily mean,
hovvcver, that the E gyp tians brough t this custom to G recce, as
H e r o d o t u s believed. A t threshing tim e another festival, called
Skirophoria, t o o k place in A ncient G reece. Y o u n g virgin s vvere clad
in vvhite robes and at night given sacred objeets called skira. These
objeets vvere figurines o f suckling pigs and cakes m ade in th e shape
o fs e r p e n t s . A fter the festival they w ere deposited in th e sanctuary o f
D e m e t e r . In the goddess sanctuary at L ykosura, offerings m ade to
D e m e t e r vvere listed in inscriptions: oil, h on eycom b, barley,
figurines, p op py seeds, lam ps, incense. A m o n g th e terracotta
figurines portrayed in th e m arble reliefs found in the sanctuary w e r c
female exam ples vvith anim ai heads or anim ai legs ineluding those
o f a pig (Nilsson 19 5 7 : 3 1 2fT.). T h e pig as an anim ai cssential in
purification rites played a m ajor role in the Elcusinian M ysteries. So
im portant vvas it, that vvhen Eleusis vvas perm itted to issue her
a u t o n o m o u s coinage in 3 5 0 -3 2 7 b c , the pig vvas ehosen as the s ig n
an d sym bol o f her M ysteries (H arrison 19 6 1: 153).

slsviHi partisalariv

10

The Year-God

T h e w h o le group o f interconnected sym bols - phallus (or cylinder,

m u sh room and conical cap); ithyphallic anim al-m askcd m an, goat~
m an and the bull-m an - represents a male stim ulating principle in
nature w ith ou t w hose influence nothing vvould g ro w and thrive.
T his fam ily o fsy m b o ls goes back in its origin to the eariy agricultural
era, to the same period when the Goddess o f Vegetation was born
and w h en go at- and cow -h erd existed. C h argin g bulls, buli heads
or horns alone, bo vin e heads w ith hum an eyes and ithyphallic men
are already knovvn to the Proto-Sesklo and Starevo cultural com plexes, i.e. no later than the seventh m illennium 0 e. Shrines o f Gatal
H u y u k inciude large buli figures in vvall frescoes and sculptured buli
heads and horns. A ro u n d the M editerranean the buli and he-goat
played a prom inent part in religion from the seventh m illennium
onvvards. So did the phallus, recognizable as a high cylindrical neck
o f an d rogynou s figurines, as a tand, or the stem o f a cup.
T h e phallus and bison are k n ow n from the A urignacian and
M agdalenian era o f the U p p er Palaeolithic. Isolated representations
o f phalli vvere found in the cave o f Laussel, D ord ogn e. A bison-m an
p layin g upon a m usical instrum ent in the en graving from La Pasiega,
Santander, and another hybridized bison-m an in the same cave
(G iedion 19 6 2 : 193) illustrate that the im age o f a half-anim al, halfhum an creature and the connection o f man vvith the vvild buli
occurred early. T h e sym b olic context, h o w cvcr, vvas different; the
bison-m an o f the U p p e r Palaeolithic vvas not a ycar-g od o f an agri
cultural society. Phallic figurines from the N atufian and Pre-P ottery
sites in Palestine dem onstrate the persistent im portance o f phallic
sym b olism in pre-agricultural and agricultural socicties.
T he phallus

Representations o f phalli are found in ali phases and cultural groups

o f O ld Europe vvith a vvider varicty in N eolithic Greece and Y u g o 2 16

AsFiaiis sssgBSFd- Tnsv

wsf$ ftsiiisnsd

in

ali sisi?* It&fB tiis? ffliniiiHifg i@ che

T h eir dijgaFaiien and
shaps FfiHge from n au ifalu iie to fsm astie: som e have a eap' of a
eircufncision and an opening on to p ; others are gcom ecricaIly
deeorated by painting or incision; still others spiral upw ards like
snakes. T h e clay phallus from Tsangli, a large Sesklo site in Thessaly,
is painted crcam , its naturalism enhaneed bv reddish-brovvn bands
and has a broad incision at the top. From iater N eolithic Sesklo comes
an enorm ous m arble phallus painted vvith red meanders top and
bottom (N ational M useum , Athens 5936; Z ervos, 19 6 3: 398). The
Vina and Lengyel elay or bone phalli vvere decorated vvith bands o f
horizontal incisions and vvhite enerusted patterns o f dots sym bolizing
snakes. T h e East Balkan and Cucuteni phalli are usunlly undecorated.
D anilo, B u tm ir and Vina scttlements yielded hundreds o f vvine
cups w ith phallus-shaped stems. M an y o f them have plain, pointed
stems, but others are ch arm ingly decorated and m asterfully shaped
sculptures. M ost interesting are those phalli im itating snakes,
indicatcd by incision or in relief. In som e instances tvvo heads o f
snakes or o f frogs appear on the top; others have human facial
features, such as a protruding nose, vvhile others again are geom etrically decorated vvith striated zigzag bands or triangles. C ylin drical
cups m odelled as human heads also occur, and dishes and bovvls ofth e
Late Vina com plex have a phallus standing in the m iddle (Plonik
site: A rchaeol. M useum Ni, Inv. 490).
A noth er category o f phallic representations is made up o f stands
vvith hum an, animal or am orphous facial characteristics. Sim ple clay
cylinders vvith a flattened base are frequent in the Starevo and Early
Vina com plexes o f the central Balkans. Som e have human facial
features and female breasts; others have male genitals. W e have
already discussed the phallic aspect o f the long cylindrical necks o f
the B ird Goddess and Great Goddess o f the seventh and sixth
millennia b c . T h e com bining o f fem ale and male characteristics in
one figurine did not com pletely dic out after the sixth m illcnnium b c .

i 66 Phallic stems o f 'ivine

cups'. Sm iliat Zadar,
Dalmatia. c. late sixlh
millennium n e

1-------1--------lem

1 67 Aiiiliropoiiiorphic '
figurin e ili a shape o fa
phallus U'itli a flat base.
C rnokalaika Bara, )onlrni
Vugoslavia. c. early six{/i
niilleniiiiim u c

2 i 9 C!n>f phallus fro m T sa n g li, T h essaly . Painted in

reddish->rown on cream . C e n tra l B alk an N e o lith ic .
c. 6000 BC

22n lio n e ph.slliis fr o m H n itu t la v iie . .) l eti

Mte 111 M n r a v i.i l h e pir.I
\\.is
e.N eem ed b y J n l l i n ^ p itted lme>

2 2 1 Tw <| c la y phalli fro m a Late C u c u te n i site at

F rum usica, n orthern M o ld a v ia . F ou rth
m illenn ium BC

S te m 0 11 e u p \vith M u k c - h k e \p ir .ilv
S m ili u .[ Z . ul.tr. l>ahn .ttM . P .i m l o eu lc u ri

223-225 M u sh ro o m -sh a p e d objeets o f ligh t

green stone fro m the Vina site
22 6 Phallus-shaped vase d ecorated vvith ru n n in g
spirals in re lie f from B u t m ir near S a ra je vo .
M id -fifth m illenn ium b <;

2 CK

j.-------------1

p Terracotta fig urin e

h anthropomorphic
tures and a canal dou/n
middle. Tru^ejti sile,
them M oldavia.

226

M an y o f the East B alkan fem ale figurines have a canal through the
w h o le length o f the b o d y. Since the canals are about 2 m m . in
diam eter it seems that they vvere not m ade for a practical reason but
vvere sim ply im itations o f the phallic canal.
D vvelling areas at Vina yielded a num ber o f m ushroom s carved
out o f light green rock crystal vvhich m ay have stood on domestic
altars or possibly been used as studs for hip belts. M ushroom s are
universally knovvn as aphrodisiacs, and the svvelling and grovving o f
a m u sh room must have been noticed by the O ld Europeans causing
it to be com pared to the phallus. T he fact that m ushroom s vvere
carved out o f the best available stone alone speaks for the prom inent
role o f the m ushroom in m agic and cult. T h e Indo-Europeans in the
days o f the R ig v e d a m ade their m iraculous Som a drink from flyagaric (W asson 19 7 1), and it is possible that the Vina m ushroom s
vvere connected vvith intoxicating drin ks; at ali events they are
im itations o f phalli (cf. the m ushroom cap in Pl. 225, right). The
shape o f a m ushroom or phallus occurs frequently in sculptural art
as a hum an cap on figurines, and a phallic form can be inferred in the
beautiful B u tm ir vases vvhich are decorated in running spirals and
tand on cylindrical legs vvhich support a globular bovvl. M agical
povver vvas ob vio u sly attributed to phallic objeets and conferred an
appropriate benefit.
T

2 27

228
229, 230

231

233-235

he ith yph a llic m a sk ed god

T h e ecstatic dancer, goat- or bull-m asked, as seen in the Vina

sculptural repertory, can be interpreted as a representation o f either
an archetypal D ionysus or an excited vvorshipper o f the Great
Goddess. A m ost rem arkable exam ple is the sculpture from Fafos,
in vvhich he appears in hum an shape, p robably to perform at a festival.
His anth ropom orph ic portrayals shovv him also in a standing position
vvith both hands holding his genitals, or vvith the right arm held across
his breast and a red painted phallus in the left hand. M ore often he is
seated on a throne, naked and ithyphallic. T his posture recurs in ali
phases o f O ld European history, depieted rather clum sily in the
P ro to -S esk lo (tvvo enthroned ithyphallic figurines vvere uncarthed
at Elateia and are housed in the C haeronea m useum , central G reece:
W ein berg 1962) and Starevo com plexes, but m ore articulately in
those o f V ina, Sesklo and D im in i. T h e head, vvlien preserved,
usually vvears the mask o f a horned anim ai vvith large human eycs.

2 2 7 lth yp h a llic m asked m ale fig u re

fro m Fafos II, a V in fa site at
K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Y u g o sla v ia .
P ro b ab Iy second H alf o f fifth
m illen n iu m BC
2 X Stan d in g m ale figu re h o ld in g
genitals. S esk lo, T hcssaly

22y, 2 30 M asked (and o rig in a lly

horned) m an h o ld in g rcd -pain ted
penis vvith the left hand.
C rn o k a la k a B ara, C lassical Vinaj
settlem ent near N i, southeastern
Y u g o s la v ia

220

233 ith y p h allic fig u rin e w e a rin g a goat

mask w ith exaggcraccd horns and cyes.
Fafos I near K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern
Y u g o sla v ia . c. 5 30 0 -50 0 0 b c

234 A n in ial-h cad ed (m asked) m ale figurine

ho ld in g gen itals w ith the left hand. From
V in a. M id -fifth m illcn n iu m b c
235 H ead o f a fig u r in e w ea rin g goat m ask.
C rn o k a la k a B a ra , So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia .
V in a, m id -fifth m illenn iu m b c

T h e b u l i. w ith a h u m a n mask

236
2 39 , 24 0 , 1 7 0

24O-242
239 , n o

17 0 Black-on-red painted
:ult vase, probably a lamp,
n the form o f a stylized buli.
T h e cylindrical Container on
'op is broken. From the
nound o f Sitagroi near
Drama, northeastern Greece.
East Balkan civilization.
:. 4300 b c

The m ale g o d s principa! epiphany was in the form o f a buli. The

enthroned m ale figurines o f Late Vinca, vvearing an enorm ous mask,
have vigorou s shoulders vvhich are shaped like a bulls rum p or h o rn s;
quite frequ en d y, too, the entire b ody is that o fa buli. T h e god m ay
also be represented as a vessel in the shape o f a buli, but vvith the
an im als head shovving hum an characteristics: large w ise eyes or ears
w ith perforations fo r ear-rings or other decorations. T h e bu lls
strength is shovvn to be concentrated in his ru m p ; both buttocks are
enorm ous and snakes are incised upon them. Standing firm ly on
short legs, he con veys the impression o f m onum entality., This
peculiar am algam o f anim ai and man, typical o f Balkan C h alcolithic
art, expressed the Mysterium Fascinans, som ething that cannot be
described in terms o f norm al experience. It vvas a m ajor factor in the
inspiration and creation o f these extraord inary sculptures. A human
head grafted onto a b u lls body reaches a culm ination o f povver
throu gh sym biosis: the vvisdom and passions o f man m erged vvith
the physical strength and potency o f the buli. Such hybrid creatures
m ust have been regarded as possessing a greater potential than either
a m an o r a buli alone.
R epresentations o f a buli, he-goat or ram often appear on small
ritual vessels. These horned heads em bo d yin g virile forces could have
played their part in festivals, or in the vvorship o f both the male and
the fem ale d ivin ity. Vessels vvith horned anim al-head protom es vvere
enerusted or painted in vvhite, red and black.

2 36 M an in a seated position vvearing a large

m ask. Late V in a site at V ala near
K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o s la v ia
2 3 7 H u m an -h ead ed (m asked) buli fro m Fafos II
at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a . Southern Y u g o sIa v ia .
M id -V in a , 5000 - 4500 BC

238 H u m an -h ead ed (m a sk e d ) buli fr o m V ala.

So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . Late V ina. 4S00 - 4000 Hf;

3u ll-lc g g e d terracotta trip o d w ith a h o le in

en tral cy lin d e r. F ro m M e d v e d n ja k , classical
a site at Sm ed erev sk a P alan ka southeast o f
rade
2 ro u c h in g buli w e a rin g h u m an m ask. V ase
the m ou n d o f G u m eln ifa . East B alk an
zation. c. 4500 bc
Terracotta head (m ask) o f a bu li vvith
Jn -lik e eyes. S ita g ro i, M aced o n ia. Enst
in civilization . c. 4500 bc
Terracotta head o f a buli, vvith h o rn s bro ken
itagroi, M a ce d o n ia . East B alk an civ iliza tio n .

A llusions

to

D ionvsus

pionysus is a prc-Indo-European god o f great antiquity in spite o f

his com positc name (dio-nysos, god o f N ysa or N y s a i ; the latter
p r o b a b l y is a pre-Indo-European place nam e). His cult in G reece is
e v i d e n c e d by temples, sculptures o f phalli and descriptions o f p rocessions carryin g huge phalli as late as the second century b c , and
the persisting tradition o f D ionysiac festivals even into later times
is attested by a group o f m ythical im ages h aving strong roots in the
local (southeast European-vvestern Anatolian) soil. Discussions about
the origin o f the Greek D io n y s u s - vvhcther he ame to G reece from
Thrace, C rete or vvestern Asia M in o r - are pointless, since ali these
lands o rigin ally belonged to the same M oth er C ulture. D ionysus
vvas a bull-god , god o f annual renevval, im bued vvith ali the urgency
o f nature. B rim m in g vvith virility, he vvas the god m ost favoured by
vvomen.
The abundance o f phalli in D ionysiac festivals, in sculptures near
the temples, on herms used as signposts on the roads and before the
doors o f houses suggests that the ancient Greeks vvere no less obsessed
by phallic m agic than vvere the O ld Europeans. The b ull-god vvas
also alive in m any areas o f Greece and particularly in M acedonia in
the tim e o f Euripides vvhose Bacchac abounds in buli epiphanies:
A H o rn ed G o d w as fo tm d
A n d a G o d u/ith serpents crou/ned
(E u rip id e s,

Baccliae, 9 9 ;

citc d b y H a rriso n [ 19 0 3 0 ] 1 9 6 1 : 4 3 2 ).

In the O rp hic m ystcry, the vvorshipper ate the raw flesh o f the buli
before he becam e B acch os . T h e ritual o f D ionysus in T h race
ineluded bull-voiced m im es w h o bellovved to the god. T h e
scholiast on L yco p h ro n s Alcxandra says that the vvomen vvho w o rshipped D ionysus Laphystios vvore horns themselves, in im itation o f
the god, for he vvas im agined to be bull-headed and is so represented
in art (ref. in Harrison i b i d 433). Plutarch givcs m ore particulars:
M any o f the G reeks represent D ionysus im age in the form o f a buli.
The vvomen o f Elis in their prayers invoke the god to com e to them
vvith his b ull-foot. A nd am ong the A rgives there is a ionysus vvith
the title B u ll-b o rn . T h ey sum m on him by their trumpets out o f the
vvater, casting lambs into the depths to the D o or-k cep er (Plutarch
de J s . et Os. X X X V , cited by H arrison ibid. : 433). Dionystts also
manifested h im self as the buli Zagreus, in vvhich guise he vvas torn
to pieccs by the Titans.
T h e key to a m ore com plete understanding o f the m ale god and
the B ul! G o d o f Old Europe lies in the D ionysiac festivals - A nthesteria, Lenaia and the Greater Dionysia. In these festivals, vvhich have
assimilated elements o f deep antiquity, D ionysus appears as a year-

227

god. T h e idea o f renevval is predom inam throughout the festivals of

w in ter and sprm g. Each re-enaccs an orgiastic agricultural scenario *
w ith phalli, phallus-shaped cups, ladles and cult dishes and the buliman (Dionysus) m arryin g the queen (goddess).
The Lenaia festival held in Ja n u a ry v/as preceded by a Rural
Dionysia in w hich phalli w ere carried in procession amid general
m errym ak in g to p rom ote the fertility o f the autumn-sovvn seed
and o f the soil during the vvinter recess. O fferings vvere made before
the im age o f D ionysus (including pouring porridge vvith a ladle), and
priapic and goat songs vvere sung. T h e purpose o f the Lenaia festival
vvas to aro u eth eslu m b erin g vegetation (Deubner 19 56 ; Jam es 19 6 1:
14 2 -4 3 ). T h e C ity Dionysia festival in M arch vvas also designed to
ensure fertility. T o this festival the cities o f the Athenian em pire sent
the grossest kind o f fertility em blem , the phallus, as part o f their
tribute (W ebster 19 5 9 : 59)- Anthesteria was a Festival o f Flovvers in
h on ou r o f D ionysus as the god o f spring, and included drinking and
rejo icin g. T h e second day o f the festival vvas called Choes, the Day
o f the Cups. T h e vvine vvas taken from the jars and brought to the
sanctuary o f D ionysus in the marshes, vvhere it vvas silently distributed
in sm all ju g s am o n g ali citizens o ver the age o f four. A fter everyone
had drunk, the vvife o f the magistrate vvas m arried to D ionysus in
the Bukoleion or O x-stall, attended by vvomen vvho had taken vovvs
o f chastity in the service o f Dionysus. Thither the im age o f Dionysus,
possibly in bovine form , or an actor vvearing horns and a hide, vvas
b ro u gh t on a boat-like strueture on vvheels to com plete the nuptial
rites (James 1 9 6 1 : 140).
A sanctuary o f D ionysus, vvhich can be traced back to the fifteenth
cen tury b c , has been diseovered on the island o fK e o s (Caskey 1964:
326). It yielded m ore than tw enty terracotta figurines portraying
vvomen in a dancing posture, dressed in festive attire, vvith exposed
breasts, snake collars and belts. T h e y m ay represent maenads, the
devotees and ecstatic dancers in the D ionysiac festivals. T h e sanctuary
vvas used fo r m ore than one thousand years, up to the Hellenistic
period.

243

Since m any elem ents o f the y e ar-g o d s festivals are represented

in the sculptural art o f O ld Europe, it seems not unreasonable to
assume that festivals took place in N eolithic and C h alcolithic Europe.
Possibly the central idea o f ritual dram a, the Sacred M arriag e , the
ritual coition o f the m ale god and a fem ale goddess, is refleeted in the
little sculpture from Cascioarele. T he statuette belongs to the East
Balkan C halcolithic Gum elni(a com plex and is the on ly one o f its
kind, but this does not necessarily mcan that there vvere no portrayals
o f the Sacred M a rriag e in other areas and periods o f O ld Europe.
T h e presence o f the masked ithyphallic god also im plies a festival at
vvhich a vvedding cerem ony is enactcd, the m ale god m arryin g the
228

m ille n n iu m BC

G reat Goddess. From the Cascioarele figurine it is seen that she isnot
a pregnant goddess, but a vouthful virgin. She is portrayed in the
nude and has a large pubic triangle.

244, 245 E n th ro n ed m ale g o d fro m

P yraso s, T h essaly . Sesk lo cuiture.
S ix th m ille n n iu m BC

W h e n vvas the d ra m a o f h ie r o g a m v in trodu ce d into Europe?

W n s i t a t the v e r y b e g in n in g o f t h e N e o lit h ic p eriod, o r o n the

advent

ot a d v an ce d a gr icu ltu r e ? It seems unlik elv to h ave been later than

c. 6500 b c , vvhen the phallic obsession b ecam e m anifest through

representations o f phallic stands, cups and it h y p haliic gods.

T hi; soRRovtTUL c;on'

W e h a ve con sidered until novv the vo u t h fu l, strong, C r e a t iv e aspect
o f the p r im e v a l D io n y su s . Is there a n y th in g in the sculptural art o f
244. 245
248-252

O ld E u r o p e to indic ate his other aspect - the pcaccful ancient? There

are fi gures o f a squ attin g o r seated man on a stool or th ro n e ; his arms
either rest p e a c e fu lly on his lap, or they are p ro p p e d 011 his knees to
p r o v id e a sitpport fo r his head. H e shovvs n o signs o f e m o t io n and is
not a n im a l- m a s k e d ; his a.ttitude and the f.icial expression o f the mask
he vvears i m p l y c o n t e m p la t io n and w o r r y . W e n i a y c a ll him , therefo re. the sorrow fi.il g o d . T h e r e are not e n o u g h data to reveal his
fu netions, but vve m a y suppose that he is either a g o d o f vegetation,
an old v e a r - g o d w h o m u s t die in ord e r to be re b orn the fo llo w in g
sp ring, o r a g o d o f death, con sort o f t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s in her aspect
o f D eath . T h e vvide te m p o ra l and g e o g r a p h ic a l distrib ution o f this
tvp e o f g o d speaks for his established position in the p antheon o f O ld
E u r o p e . His im p o r t a n c e is stressed b y the fact that the sculptures o f
a sorrovvfu l g o d are fr e q u e n tly p ro d u c e d vvith e x t r e m e care, some
ra n k in g as m asterpic ces o f N e o lith ic art. A m o n g these are the

24C)

24^-250

247

V u lk a n e sh ti and H a m a n g i a (C e r n a v o d a ) men in a leaning position

seated on a small stool. B o th are nude and in the m vve find the best
p o r tr a v a ls o f t h e m ale b o d v dating fr o m the fifth m ille n n iu m b c .
T h e back o f t h e V u lk a n e sh ti figure, is pe rfe ctlv re n d e re d ; o n e feels
011 it the totich o f t h e g o d - m a k e r 's fm gers. U n fo r t u n a t e i v it is badly
d a m a g e d and ali that rem ains intact is its b a c k ; legs, a r m s a n d half o f
its head are missing. In G e r a s i m o v s reconstru ctio n . t h is m an has his
elbovvs 011 th e knees. O n e o f t h e most celebrated sculptures o f the
B a lk a n N e o lit h ic is the H a m a n g i a T h i n k e r (so n am e d after K o d i n s
T h i n k e r ). a m an sitting 011 a stool. leaning forvvard. h o ld in g his
head 011 c o lu m n a r a rm s vvith elbovvs 011 the knees. His legs are
m assive and as stable as those o f a th rone. T h e facial features are o n ly
r o u g h l v in dicated and no atte m p t has been m ade to m o d e l his hands.
T h e head is d e fin itely m a s k e d : it is flat and has p e rforation s in the
u p p e r corners. T h e back is neatlv c u rv e d and vvell p ro p o rt io n e d .
T h e H .im an g ian s orrovv fu l g o d ' vvas pl.iced in .1 g r a v e vvith a female
fi gurin e, p r o b a b lv re p re se n tin g the G r e a t G odde ss. S h e is also of

246 T o r s o (seen fr o m the b a ck ) o f

seated o ld m an fr o m V u lkan esh ti,
S o v ie t M o ld a v ia . E ast B a lk a n
civ iliza tio n . L a te fifth m ille n n iu m BC

im

T h e G rea t G od d ess o f H am an gia

Eageeher vvith 'T h in k e r ' in
g fa vc o f t h e eem eccry u f C tm a v o d a
T h e s o r r o w fu l g o d o r
o f H am a n g ia . F ro m a
in the ce m e tcry o f C e m a v o d a ,
R o m a n ia . c. 5000 BC

2 5 1 , 2 5 2 T h e so rro w fu l g o d
o f T irp c $ti, M o ld a v ia . c. m id -fifth
m illcn n iu m BC

 i T he iorrouiful go d ' o f
idra, lower Danube. East
ilkati civilization. c. late
th milletihium s c - 4 0 0 0

unique w o rkm an sh ip, portrayed in a seated position vvith her arms

resting on one leg w h ich is draw n up. She has a large pubic triangle
and a m assive cylin d rical neck. H er face, a mask vvith deep triangular
incisions fo r eyes, like that o f the m ale figurine, is ju st as sorrovvful
as his. B o th figurines are o f the same style, sie and colour and vvere
p rob ab ly m ade b y the same gifted sculptor. In addition to the pair o f
gods, this grave in the C ernavod a cem etery yielded three schematic
w h ite m arble figurines o f the G reat Goddess type. A figurine portrayed in alm ost the same posture, but m ade in a Cucutenian style,
vvas unearthed in the settlem ent o f Tirpe$ti in northern M oldavia.
From the artistic point o f vievv the Tirpeti sculpture is not a masterpiece, but again the value o f the sculpture lies in the peculiar tension
it con veys through its crouching posture and the erude head (a mask)
held betvveen the lon g arms and inarticulate hands.
W e shall conclude this su rvey vvith the illustration o f a T h inker
fro m V id ra, vvithin the East Balkan Gum elni{a com plex. H e sits vvith
his righ t arm resting on his lap and the left supporting his ehin - a
natural position fo r rum inating. T h e relationship o f his gesture to
that o f the G reat G oddess, as portrayed on the vessel o f Sultana (see
Pl. 15 s) and on m an y other figurines, suggests he has povvers similar
to those o f the G reat Goddess. A conspicuous feature o f the Vidra
man is his single eye, vvhich m ay sym bolize m agical and chthonic
characteristics. In the Late C ucuteni civilization alm ost ali knovvn
m ale sculptures are one-eyed.
T

he

iv in e

h il d

T h e Y e a r-G o d cycle starts vvith the birth o f the D iv in e C h ild . T h e

m asked goddess in the shape o f a bear, snake or bird nurses the baby
(see Pls. 13 2 , 18 9, 1 9 3 - 1 9 5 ; Figs. 26, 96). T h e infant appropriately
appears in the shape o f a cub, baby snake, baby bird - ali sym bols o f
y o u n g life in nature. M asked figurines h old in g and feeding babies, or
figurines vvith sacks on the back or vvith a hum p - probably a
schem atic representation o f a sack (see Pl. 26) - and their portrayals
as parts o f ritual vases, (see Pls. 26, 13 2 , 189, 190) occur frequently
enough to attest a ritual rc-enaction o f the m yth o f the birth and
nurturing o f the Infant.
T h ere is a striking sim ilarity between the O ld European D ivine
C h iid and the infant Erichthonios, H yakinthos, and Cretan Zeus in
the ancient G reek m yths, vvhich have a prc-G rcek origin. The
D iv in e C h ild represents the aw akenin g or a nevv-born pirit o f
vegetation. Erichthonios appears as a snake or a h a lf snake, h a lf
hum an. A scene on a G reek am phora show s him em erging from a
chest guarded b y tvvo snakes by w hich Athena also stands (British
M useum , E .4 18 ) ; on other vases, G e (Earth) holds out the small

234

E rich th o n io s to A thena. A ccord in g to legend A thena hid the child

in a chest together vvith snakes and ga ve the chest to the three
tnaidens, A glauros the B rig h t one , Pandrosos the ali D e w y on e ,
and H erse d e w , to guard. T h e oldest lite ra ry testim ony, the C atalogue o f the Ships o f the Iliad, says that the corn -yield in g Earth bore
him and Athena fostered him . In the Eleusinian M ysteries, the holiest
and m ost ancient cult o f A ncient G reece, the D ivin e C h ild Ploutos
(i.e. Erichthonios) is given to others to rear. Erich thonios association
vvith the snake recalls the prom inent place the snake occupies in the
Eleusinian cult and in the festival o fT h e sm o p h o ria . D u rin g the latter,
m ysterious sacred objeets vvere in use, m ade o f w h eat dough in the
shape o f snakes and men (Nilsson 19 50 : 558 -6 3). H yakinthos and
C retan Zeu s represent the same god o f yo u n g vegetation under
different names. H yakinth os connection vvith the vegetation cult is
further evidenced b y his nam e vvhich denotes a flovver (id. : 558 vvith
a ref. to M achteld J . M ellink, Hyakinthos, Diss., 1943). Cretan Zeus,
the H o ly B ab e born in the C a ve o f D ikte, has on ly an Indo-European
(Greek) nam e, but is no other than the p re-G reek M in o an -O ld
European D ivin e C h ild . A nd it is significant that this child vvas not
reared b y the m other (Ge, R h ea, the Indo-European Earth Goddess),
but b y A rtem is, the Mistress o f A nim als, D em eter or Athena.
As a sym b ol o f the perpetuation o f life the D ivin e C h ild vvas at
the heart o f the w h ole com plex o fim a g e s o f an agrarian religion, and
represents the m ost traditional o f m otifs. The chances are that rites
sim ilar to the Eleusinian M ysteries w ere perform ed in O ld Europe.
A ritual hym n o f invocation com m em oratin g the birth o f the
Infant dating from the second or third century a d vvas found
en graved on a stone stele at Palaikastro in eastern C rete. S u rely it
origins m ust lie in O ld European sym bolism , transmitted through
the agen cy o f M inoan culture.
Io, K ouros most Great, I give thee hail, Kronian, Lord o f that is wet and
glcaming, thou art comc at the head o f thy Daimoncs. T o Dikte for the
Ycar, O , march, and rejoice in the dance and song, that we make to thee
vvith harps and pipes mingled together, and sing as w e comc to a tand
at thy well-fenced altar.
For here the shicldcd Nurturers took thcc, a child immortal, from Rhea
and vvith noise o f beating feet hid thee away.
And the Horai began to be fruitful ycar by year and Dikte to possess
mankind, and ali wild living things werc held about by wealth-loving
peacc.
io, Kouros, the Great . . .
T o us leap for full jars, and leap for flcccy ftoeks, and leap for fields o f
fruit, and for hives to bring incrcasc. Io, Kouros, the G r e a t . . .
(Quotcd in original and transiation and analyzed by Harrison,
T h em is, 1912, 1962 edition: 1-29).

235

p a n th e o n o f gods. S h e , th e Great Goddess, is associated vvith m oon

crescents, quadripartite designs and bulPs horns, svm bols o f continuous creation and ehange. The m ysterious transform ation is m ost
vivid ly expressed in her epiphany in the shape o f a Caterpillar,
chrysalis and butterfly. Indeed, through this sym bolism our ancestor
p r o e la im s that he believes in the beauty o f yo u n g life. T h e ubiquity
o f phallic sym bols eonnotes the glorification o f the spontaneous life
posvers. Phallieism eertainly had
obscene allusion; in the context
o f religious ritual it vvas a form o f catharsis, not o f sym b olie procrsadon. T h ere is no
N eolithic times
undcrstood b io legical conceptkm .
W ieh
inee-ption o f
farm ing man
of
m iraeuleus I i r t h
jntensiveiy than the prcvious hunter-fisher had
A separate
deity em erged, the Goddess o f Vegetation, a sym bol o f the sacral
nature o f the seed and the sovvn fiel, vvhose ties vvith the Great
Goddess are intimate.
Significantly, alm ost ali N eolithic goddesses are com posite
images vvith an accum ulation o f traits from the pre-agricultural and
agricultural eras. T h e vvater bird, deer, bear, fish, snake, toad, turtle,
and the notion o f hybridization o f animai and man, vvere inherited
from the Palaeolithic era and continued to serve as avatars o f go d
desses and gods. T h ere vvas no such thing as a religion or m ythical
im agery n e w ly created b y agriculturists at the beginning o f the
foo d -prod u cin g period.
In O ld Europe the vvorld o f m yth vvas not polarized into fem ale
and m ale as it vvas am o n g the Indo-European and m an y other
nom adic and pastoral peoples o f the steppes. B oth principles vvere
m anifest side by side. T h e m ale d ivinity in the shape o f a yo u n g man
o r a m ale anim ai appears to affirm and strengthen the forces o f the
Creative and active fem ale. N either is subordinatc to the oth er; by
com plem entin g one another, their povver is doubled.
T h e central theme in re-enaction o f m yths ob vio usly vvas the
celebration o f the birth o f an infant. The baby as the sy m bol o f a nevv
life and the hope o f survival is hugged by m asked goddesses, Snake,
B ird and B ear. M asked N urses bearing a sack (the hunch -back
figurines) seem to have played a role as protectresses o f the ehild vvho
later m atures and becom es a yo u n g god. T h e male god, the p rim eval
D ionysus is saturated vvith a m eaning closely related to that o f the
G reat Goddess in her aspect o fth e V irgin N ature Goddess and V e g e
tation Goddess. A li are gods o fn a tu re s life c y e , concerned vvith the
problem o f death and regeneration, and ali vvere vvorshipped as
sym bols o f exuberant life.
The pantheon refleets a society dom inated by the, m other. The
role o f vvoman vvas not subject to that o f a m an, and nnich that vvas

no

evidence that ifj

Ceneiuiiong
J :5 figOnne 3rt and pictorial paiiiting she agrieuitur'a! anccstors
reefeate their m ythieal w 6 rld and the vvorship o f their gods.
Prinlordial events, principa! pcrsonalities o f the pantheon vvith their
innum erable epiphanies, vvorshippers and participants in ritual
cerem onies, ail scem to have a life o f their ovvn in their various
representations.
M yth s and seasonal dram a must have been enacted through the
m edium o f the idol (the figurine), each vvith a different intention and
vvith the invocation o f appropriate divinities. T h e m ultiplicity o f
purpose.and design is shovvn b y sanctuaries, sacrifices, festive attire,
masks, figures in dancing or leaping postures, musical instruments,
shrine equipm ent, ladles and drin kin g cups, and other num erous and
varied representations o f objeets and events vvhich m ade up the
contcxt o f these religious festivals. In m aking im ages o f gods, vvor
shippers and actors o f the dram a, man assured the cyclic returning
and renevval o flife . M a n y figurines vvere ex-vo to s and like the vvords
o f prayer vvere dedicated to the Great Goddess, the B ird or Snake
Goddess, the Vegetation Goddess, or the M ale G o d, a prototype o f
D ionysus, the daem on o f vegetation.
Fem ale snake, bird, egg, and fish played parts in creation myths
and the fem ale goddess vvas the C r e a t iv e principle. T he Snake G o d
dess and B ird Goddess create the vvorld, eharge it vvith en ergy, and
nourish the earth and its creatures vvith the life-givin g element
conceived as vvater. T h e vvaters o f heaven and earth are under their
control. The G reat Goddess em erges m iraculously out o f death, out
o f the sacrificial buli, and in her body the nevv life begins. She is not
the Earth, but a fem ale hum an, capable o f transform ing h erself into
m any livin g shapes, a doe, dog, toad, bee, butterfly, tree or pillar.
T h e task ofsu staining life vvas the dom inating m o tif in the m yth ical im agcry o f O ld Europe, hence regeneration vvas one o f the forem ost manifestations. N atu rally, the goddess vvho vvas responsible for
the transform ation from death to life becam c the central figure in the
236

the
she phenomena

the

agrieulture,

mankind

began toobserve
mar etasclv and more
done.

237

c r e a te d b e t w e e n th e in c e p t io n o f th e N e o li t h i c a n d th e b lo s so rn in g

Abbreviations

o f th e M in o a n c iv iliz a t io n w a s a re su lt o f th a t s tr u e tu r e in w h ic h ali
r e s o u rc e s o f h u m a n n a tu r e , fe m in in e a n d m a s c u lin e , v ve re u tiliz e d
to th e fu ll as a C re a tiv e fo r c e .

T h e O ld European m ythical im agery and religious practices vvere

continued in M inoan C rete. T h e M inoan culture m irrors the same
values, the same manual aptitude in artistic endeavour, the same
glorification o f the virgin beauty o f life. T h e O ld Europeans had
taste and style - w him sical, im aginative and sophisticated; their
culture was a w orthy parent o f the M inoan civilization.
Som e seholars did in the past classify European prehistory and
early h istory into m atriarchal and patriarchal eras respectively. The
beginn ing o f the psych ological-m atriarch al ag e , says N eum ann, is
lost in the haze o f prehistory, but its end at the daw n o fo u r historical
era unfolds m agnificen tly before ou r eyes (N eum ann 19 5 5 : 92). It
is then replaced b y the patriarchal w o rld vvith its different sym bolism
and its different values. T h is m asculine w o rld is that o f the IndoEuropeans, w h ich did n ot develop in O ld Europe but vvas superim posed upon it. T w o entirely different sets o f m ythical im ages met.
S y m b o ls o f the m asculine gro u p replaced the im ages o f O ld Europe.
S om e o f the old elements vvere fused together as a subsidiary o f the
nevv sym b olic im agery, thus losing their original m eaning. Som e
im ages persisted side b y side, creating ehaos in the form er harm ony.
T h ro u gh losses and additions n ew com plexes o f sym bols developed
vvhich are best refleeted in G reek m y th o lo g y . O n e cannot alw ays
disdnguish the traces o f the old since they are transform ed or
distorted. A n d yet it is su'rprising h o w long the O ld European
m ythical concepts have persisted. T he study o f m yth ical im ages
provides one o f the best proofs that the O ld European w o rld vvas not
the p roto-In d o -E u ro pean vvorld and that there w as no direct and
unobstructed line o f d evelopm ent to the m od em Europeans. T he
earliest European civilization vvas savagely destroye b y the patriarchal elem ent and it never recovered, but its legacy lingered in the
substratum w hich nourished further European cultural d evelopments. T h e O ld European creations vvere not lost; transform ed, they
enorm ously enriched the European psyche.
T h e teaching o f W estern civilization starts with the Greeks and
rarely do people ask themselves what forces lay behind these beginnings. B u t European civilization vvas not created in the spacc o f a fevv
ccnturies; the roots are deeper - by six thousand years. T h a t is to say,.
vestiges o f the myths and artistic concepts o f O ld Europe, vvhich
endured from the seventh to the fourth m illennium b c vvere transmitted to the m odem W cstcrn world and became part o fits cultural
heritage.

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Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest.
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thische Ansiedlung. Belgradc, 1929.
Grbi, Porodin: M . Grbi et al., Poroditi,
kasnoneolitsko naselje na Tumbi kod Bitolja.
Bitola, 1960.
Guldcr, Maissau: Alois Gulder, Die urnenfelderzeitliche Fraucnkrote von Maissau
in Niedcrostcrreich und ihr geistesgesehicjullcher Himergrund', Mittcilungen
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X : 1157Hcsperia: Hfspvrit1 Journal o f the American

School at Athens. Athens-Princeton.
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Izvestija: Bulgarska Akademija na Naukite.
Izvestija na Artihcologichcskija Institut.
JH S : Journal of Helletiic Studies, London.
Kalicz, D ieux: Nandor Kalicz, Dieux
D Argile. L dge de pierre et de cuivre en
Hongrie. Budapest. 1970.
Kandyba. Schipemtz: O . Kandvba, Scltipenitz. Kunst und Gerate eines ncolithischen
Dorfes. Biicher zur U r- und Friihgeschichte. V. 1937.
Korocc. Prehistorijska plastika: Josip Koro-

ec,

P rahistorijska

glinenu

plastika u

Jugoslavija (Prehistoric plastic art m

Vugoslavia), Arthcohkl Raitci'i i Ras
prave, I ( 1959 ), 6 1 - 1 1 7 ; II (196 2). 1 0 3 174.
K S llM K : Kmikie Sooks'mhmja 0 Dokiatlnkh
i Vok-vykh hsledomiijakh Instituta hiniti
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MeliaafJ. Cotal: James Mellaart. 4iy62

SSavatiafi* at Osa! Huvtik- Scccmd
pf?lliTiiiiary repoffc . AthV.olm Studits,

XU\:
M i A ' M vM iair i I s M m fs lj p Afkheolitgii
k - , Msaw*L?ii?figraL
HAM

Nfitisn}

AittipiEi*?

iiuniisnuiliscli-a rch'aologiselicu Abtci Inu%der

Siebenhtirgischen Naiional Mm?uni. Koio*,
vhr-Ciuj, 1941
R ybakov, Comogony: B. A. Rybakov
C osm agonv and m ythology o f the
agriculturalist* o f the Eneolithic, Soviet
Aii(hr0polo#y and Afchacology, IV, z:

36 and 3:3 3 -5 1. iy $~ 66. Transistian

from Russiim, ofiginai!y pubHhcd in
Sm'tskfljfl AfkhMkgijd. 196$, 1 and 2:
S A : $\m nlm ja A rMitologiji!.
S C IV ; Snuiii fi m m fi <k Im tie l'cehe,
Ak-!i.>mirt Rtfpubltaet P o p u lar Romins,
nstitwt'iii v AfJiv8lag&-

Siisftteki G m lsu e
C . k e n fftw The
in ? ej ite fifsi f m i m ,
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kod Valaea (Prehistoric settlement at
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II.
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tvrinlnoj Kut*tury. Leningrad-Moscov/,
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stoehenen Monsehengestalten und Tierder archSologischen Ausgrabungcn in
plastiken Strzelitz (Sudmiihren)*, IViencr
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im im * 8f Affiai8gy Ofiri?

240

Details of sites ineluding radiocarbon dates

A ch ilicion , near Farsala, Thessaly, Greece,
a siMtified teli o f the Sesklo cuiture with
continuous habitation from c. 6600 a c to c.
j8oc> B c. The superimposed villages yielded
daincstic shrines and cm)e places ceiitered
afpund the ovens in the cortyards, over joo
anfhropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines
o f ay and ssoe, removable maaks, msskdcoted vases, stumps, altar table?, tlmmes.
iaj{jgi m other eultie cquipmeru. Oated by
fe n ? tadioeafbe H dstes, Artiilteisu is a
bartfeane fer the sttiv o f the Sesklo
M M t n ift archiisefura!, cersmic. aiis M
dsvciapments. The avurage datss are: l hass 1
(Early
C eram ic
and
Proto-Sesklo)
7470 + 7 0 - 7 3 8 0 + 40 B.P., true age around
6500 b c ;
Phase II (Early Sesklo)
7310 + 30 7262 + 50 B .P., true age c. 6300
uc;
P h ase
III
(tra n sitio n a l)
7221 + 50 7160 + 40 B .P., true ager. 6200
b c ;
Phase
IV
(classical
Sesklo)
7040+ 7 0 :6900 B .P., true age 6000-5900
BC (the uppermost level, IV b, vvas not
radiocarbon dated). Finds in the Larisa
archacological museum. Publ. Gimbutas
1974; Ferguson, Gimbutas and Suess 1976.
The final report to appear in 1983 in
Monumenta Archaeologica, Institute o f A rchaeoIogy, University o f California, Los
Angeles. Excav.itcd 1973-74 by the author.
A nza. at the villagc ol An/abcgovo be
tvveen T itov Veles and Stip. East Macedo
nia, southeast Vugoslavia. Stratitlcd Central
Balkan Neolithic site beginning vvith the
earliest painted pottery complcx related to
Proto-Sesklo in northern Greece (Anza I)
contimting throughout the vvholc Neolithic
(Anza II and III), and ending vvith Earlv
Vina (Anza IV). Excavated 1960 by J.
KoroSecand 1969-70 by thejoint YugoslavAmerican team, M. (araanin and M.
(fimbutas. M useum: 5^tip. Publ. Marija
Gimbutas Arclnieology. 25. 2, 1972: 1976.
C 14 dates for Anza I: 7340 ; 250 BP,
true age c. 6400/6300 u <: (LJ 2 1 80): 721 o :
100 BP, true age c. 6400/6300 11c: (LJ 2330/
3 0 - 7140 : 250 B P, true age c. 6400/6300
BC (LJ 2332); 7 120 : 100 BP. true age c.

6400/6300 b c (LJ 2337): 7080 x 100 BP,

true age c. 6000 a c (LJ 2339); 7070 :i ioo
BP, true age c. 6000 b c (LJ 2342); 7030
320 BP, true age c. 6000 b c (LJ 2 15 7 );
6880 x 250 BP, true age c. 6000 c (LJ
2333).
Anza U : 6980 80 BP, true age c. 5900/
5800 b c (LJ 2409); 6900 i. 80 B P , true age
c. 5900/5800 uc (LJ 2405)Anza III: 6700 .1 8 0 BP, true age c.
5700/5600 iu; (U C L A 1705C ); 6560
120
BP, tfue a^e c. 57eo/.sr?oo s e (U C L A
1705U): 6 0 5 i 250 BP. ffuc age c. 5700/
5600 c (LJ 2185).
Anza IV : 6250 i 100 B P, true age r.
5300 b c (LJ 2329): 6200 200 BP. true age
C.

5300 BC (LJ 24ii).

A rgissa. or Gremnos, near Larisa, Thessalv,

Greece. A stratified Neolithic and Bronze
Age teli. In over 8.5 m. ofcultural material,
fifteen strata vvere observe, representing
the tollovving scquence: pre-ceramic Neoli
thic, early ceramic, Proto-Sesklo, Dimini,
and Mvcenaean. Excavated 1955-58 by V.
Miloji. Publ. Miloji 1955, 1958. 1965;
Miloji-Boessneck-Hopf, 1962. Museum:
Larisa.
C 14 dates. Pre-ceramic Neolithic; 8130
: 100 B P. true age c. 7150 b c (U C L A
1657A ); 7990 ; 95 BP, true age c. 7000 uc.
(U C L A 16570).
Early ceramic: 7500 : 90 B P, true age
f. 6500 b c (GrN 4145).
Ariu^d. distriet south o f Glieorghe, region
o f Bratov. A stratified settlement o f the
C'lassical and Late Cucuteni civilization.
Excavated 1907-8. 19 10 -12 and 1925. Publ.
F. Laszlo Dacia I (1924).
A szod . located northeast o f Budapcst.
I lungary. A site and eemetery o fth e Lengvcl cuiture. Excavated 1960-66 by N.
Kalicz. Museum: Aszod.
C 14 dates: 5100 : 105 BP, tru e. age
4200-3800 b c (UOLA 1225).
A z m a k , near Stara Zagora, central Bul
garia. Large teli site vvhich yielded a complete sequenee o f the East Balkan or

241

'Karanovo* civilization. Excavated 1960-63

by Cl. I. Georgiev. Museum: Stara Zagora.
Publ. Georgiev 19 61, 1962, 1963, 196$,
1969.
C 14 ates for the Karanovo I phase:
7303 }: 150 B P, true age c. 6350 b c , (Bln
93)'. 7*58 150 BP, true age c. 6200 d c
(Bln 2 9 1); 6878 x: ioo BP, true age c. 5900
b c (Bln 292); 6768 100 B P , true age c.
5800 b c (Bln 294): 6 7 7 9 1 100 BP, true
age c. 5800 b c (Bln 296); 6720 100 BP,
true age c. 5750 b c (Bln 295); 6812 100
BP, true age c. 5850 bc (Bln 299): 6675
100 B P, true age c. $700 c, (Bln 297); 6540
4. 100 B P, true age c. 5550 b c (Bln 298);
6652 150 B P, true age c. 5700 b c (Bln
224); 6483 . 100 BP, true age c. 5500 b c :,
(Bln 30 1); 6426 150 B P, true age c. 5450
(Bln 300); 6279 i : 120 B P, true age c.
5300 b c (Bln 430).
Karanovo V phase: 5840 i 100 BP.
true age c. 4800 b c (Bln 136); 5737 150
BP, true age c, 4550 b c (Bln 143); 5630
150 B P. true age c. 4450 b c (Bln 150): 5829
roo BP, true age c. 4750 b c (Bln 15 1) ;
5760 :: *50 B P, true age c. 4600 b c (Bln
148); 5803
150 B P, true age c 4700 b c
(Bln 142): 5697 i- 100 B P, true age c. 4550
bc (Bln 137 ); >219 150 B P, true age c.
4200-4000 B C (Bili 147).
Karanovo VI phase: 5888 ; 100 BP,
true age c. 4850/4800 b c , (Bln 149); 5390
: 100 BP. true age c. 4350 bc (Bln 145);
5035
150 BP. true age c. 4200/3800 BC
(Bln 146); 5 7 17
ioo BP, true age c. 4550
b c (Bln 1 3 1 ) : 5703 .l 100 B P, true age c.
4550 b c (Bln 139); 5597
120 B P, true
age t\ 4450 b c (Bln 144): 5700
100 BP,
true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 135 ); 5621 200
BP, true age c. 4500 b c (Bln 138 ); 5620 ;
100 BP. true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 14 1) : 5520
: 200 BP. true age c. 4400 b c (Bln 134).
bc

B an jata, central Bulgaria near Kapitan

Dim itrijevo at Pazarik. Teli site vvith
remains o f East Balkan Karanovo I11. 111.
V and VI phases. Excavated 1947-48 by P.
Detev. M useum: Plovdiv. Publ. Detev,
1950.
B an jic a. northeast o f Belgrade. Stratified
Vina site vvith 4 m. o f cultural remains.
Five phases have been noted. Excavated

242

VSS-S7 b y j. T odorovi and A. Cormanovic and published in 1961.

Vallev. Excava.ted 1926-30 bv A. Leszik.

j. Hillebrand and F. T om pa; 1948 by J.

Boian and Gumelnifa settlements o f the

East Balkan civilization. The former yielded

C 14 ates: 57*0 d: 90 BP, true age c.

4550 b c (GrN 1542) for the Late Vina
horizon.

Korek and P. Patay. Museum: Miskolc.

Publ. Tom pa 1929; Korek and Patav

B erc$ti, at Bujor, eastern Rom ania. Classi

B ran , Nitra, Slovakia, Czechoslovakia.

Lengyel settlement defended by a strong
palisade. The site belongs to the Brodzany

the sanctuary vvith tvvo pillars, the Iatter a

clay model o fan edifice. Excavatcd 1925 by
Gh. Stefan; 1962-69 by H. and V. Dumitrcscu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ.
V. Dumitrescu 1965, 1970; H. Dumitrescu

cal Cucuteni (Cucuteni A) settlement.

Museum: Galami. Publ. Ion T. Dragomir
Dan ubius i (*967).
B e rn o v o L u k a, western Ukraine, middle
Dniester. Early Cucuteni (Tripolye) settle
ment. Excavated 1952 by T. S. Passek et al.
Publ. Passek Doklady VI, Inst. Arch. Kiev

(195$)
B ilc z e Z lo te , south o f Tarnopol, upper
Dniester Basin. A Late Cucuteni cave site.
Excavatcd at the end o f the nineteenth-early
twentieth century by G. Ossowski and W.
Demetrykiewicz. Museum: Arch. Mus.
Cracovv, Poland.
B la g o e v o . at Ra2grad, Bulgaria. East
Balkan civilization, Chalcolithic, Karanovo
VI period. Find place o f marble figurine,
Fig. 102, ehapter VIII.
B o ro g k e re sz tu r, northeast Hungary.
Name o f the cultural group and period o f
the Hungarian Copper Age follovving the
Tiszapolgifr com plex: indudes a cemetcry
o f 50 excavated graves. Excavated 1921-26
by L. Bella.J. Hillebrand and F. V. Tompa,
Publ. Bella Jl>. der Urg. Arch. Ges. (1923),
Hillebrand IV P Z 13 (1926).
B o ian , island in Lake Boian north o f the
Danube, bet\vcen Olteni^a and Calara$i,
southeast Rom ania. Eponvmous site o f the
Boian variant synchronous vvith Karanovo
IV and V o f the East Balkan civilization.
Excavatcd 1924 bv V. Christescu; 1956-59
by E. Com$a. Museum: N A M Bucharest.
Publ. Christescu Daria Ii (1925); Com$a
Mat. Cere. Arh. 5-S (1959-62).
B o rd jo g. near N ovi Beeej. northern Yugoslavia. Find place o f figurine. Pl. 94. Ch.
VII. Tisza settlement.
B o rets. near Plovdiv. central Bulgaria. East
Balkan civilization. Chalcolithic.
B o rso d . near Miskolc. northeastern Hungary. A Neolithic Bukk site in the Sajo

Rcgesziti Fiiz, II. 2 ( 195*0 -

and Ludanicc phases o f the Lengycl culture.

The Ludanice phase is represented by
scvcntcen childrens burials. Excavated
1961-62 by J. Vladrfr. Museum: Nitra.

1968.
C 14 dates o f the Boian-Spanfov settle
ment: 5570
(Bln); 5K60
(Bln); 5980

100
{ 100
100

BP, true age c. 4400 bc

BP,true age c. 4800 BC,
BP,true age c. 4900 b c :

Publ. j . Vlada'r 1969.

(Bln).
Gumelni^a settlement: 5618 r 120 BP.

B u tm ir, near Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. Epony-

true age c. 4450 b c, (Bln); 5485 . 120 BP.

true age c, 4350 b c (Bln).

mous site o f the Butm ir complcx. The

settlement was stratified into three habitation horizons representing continuous developmcnt. Excavated 1893-96. Museum:
Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo. Publ. Radim sk^ 1895; Fiala 1898.
B y la n y , near Kutini Hora. Kolin, Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. Large settlement o f
the Linear Pottery culture, followed by a
settlement o f the Chalcolithic Lengyel
culture. Excavated 1953-61 by B. Soudsk?.
Museum: Bylany and Prague. Publ. Soudsky 1958, 1959. 1960, Anti(jnity, X X X V I
(1962). 1966.
C i 4 dates for the Early phase: 6320
230 BP, true age c. 5350 bc ( M i897); 6250
230 BP. true age c. 5300 b c ( M i896).
M id-phase: 6270 65 BP. true age c.
5300 b c (G rN 454); 6 170 I 45 BP. true age
c. 5100 b c (G rN 4752).
Late phase: 6180
145 BP, true age c.
5100 b c (GrN 4755): 5^10 i 65 BP. true
age c. 4700 b c (GrN 4751).
C alo m fire$ti. dist. ofTeleorm an. Southern
Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. Chalco
lithic. Museum: N A M . Bucharest.
C ap ri. Orotta dclle Felei, NaplirS, Jtalv.
Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlement
with ccramie ware ofth e Capri. Ripolj and
Diana groups. Excavated 1921 by V. Rellini. Museum: M useodi Capri. Publ. Rellini
Monumenta Antiqua 29 (1923).
C flscioarelo, southern Romania near Olteni^a. an island in the lovver Danube. A
stratified Chalcolithic site including late

avd ar. 60 km. east o f Sofia, Bulgaria.

Neolithic, East Balkan teli o fth e Karanovo
I period. Excavation 1970 by R . Katinarov.
Museum: Sofia.
C ern avo d a, northv/est o f Conscam;a,
Danube delta, Rom ania. Cem etery site o f
the Hamangia culture. Excavated 1957 by
D. Berciu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest.
Publ, Berciu, 1966. Pls. 247-250, Ch. X .
C i4 dates for Hamangia 111: 5880 70
BP, true age c. 4800 b c (G rN 1986).
C ernica, locatcd at Bucharest, Rom ania.
Cemeterv o f the East Balkan civilization.
Chalcolithic, Early Boian phases. 340 burials
uncovcred. Excavated 1960-67 by G. Cantacuzino and S. Morintz. Museum: N A M ,
Bucharest. Publ. Cantacuzino 1967C hacro nea, Bocotia, central Grcecc. Settle
ment with 6 m. o f cultural material, basically Proto-Sesklo with red-on-white painted
vvarc. Excavatcd 1902-7 by G. Sociriadis.
Museum: Chacronea. Publ. Sotiriadis
Athen. Miri. 30(1905); Epheut. Arch. (1908);
Rev. Etmies Greque.< 25 (1^25).
C orin th . Peloponnese. Greece. Contains
Nvera! laver? o f Nooiitliic scttlefnents fovind
urnier lanica! remains. Exciwatc^ since
1896. Publ. S. W cinberg Htsperi* 6 (1957);
17 (19 4 8 ); 29 ( 1960); A JA { 1939), 5 * (947):
V. Miloji GnoMio 22 (1950)C rn o k alak a Ba**a, near Ni, 20 km.
southeast o f the mouth o f the M orava.
Southern Vugoslavia. Stratified Central
Balkan Neolithic (Starevo II) and Chalco-

-43

Jirhic Vinca site. The Vinca culture consists

oj three phases. Escaviued iy}& bv M.
Miiffcovj; 195 i by M. and D. GaraJanin;
M useum o f Kruevuc and N M o f Belgradc
(R . Cinlovi) 1959-60 and 1967- Publ. Tasi
and T o iili i&ty.
C r v s B ft

near P e tro v ^ i. M on te-

V ugOIsviii. C a ve ti? vvifh ifviifiH't*

u/H'Hftrflltfftt-iK the PalaettliEftu:, MvsuUtliic.',
and Early N eolith ic. E g ca vattd 19 5 4 -5 7 bv
A . lioii;u' ;wvd M , B ro d ar. Publ. B enae and

lirtidar Glasnik

A r/i. <2 (1957); 1 3

( I95-H).
C scpa, southeast Hungary. Neolithic Cen
tra! Balkan Starevo (Koros) settlement.
M useum : Szarvas, southern H ungary. Publ.
F. K-rccsmarik Arch. En. 32 (19 12}.
C u cu ten i. near Tirgu-Frumosf. district o f
Ia?i. Moldavia, northeast Rom ania, Strati
tiod svtdement vvith Cucuteni A, A - 13, and
B phases which gave its name to the Cucu
teni civilization in Moldavia. Evidence o f
copper from the earliest phases. Excavated
1909-30 by H, Schmidt; 1961-68 by M.
Petrescu-Dim bovip. M useum: Berlin and
Bucharest, la$i and Birlad. Publ. Schmidt
Cttatfi'iii 19 32: Petrescu-D im bovip CiitiiH'tii 1 9 6 6 .
C u in a T u rc u lu i, located 011 bank o fth e
Danube at che Iron Gates. district o f Turim
Scverin. Rom ania. Central Balkan Neo
lithic Starevo site vvith three eonsecutive
phases, xcavated 1967-72. Museum:
N A M . Bucharest.
D an ilo , near Sib enik. Yugoslavia. Eponv
mous site o f the Danilo culture. Excavated
1952 by D. Rcndi-Miocevi?: 19 53-55 bv
J . Koroec. M useum: ibenik. Publ.
Koroec 1964.
D ik ili-T a s h .
at Philipi, Macedonia,
Greece. Eponymous site o fth e Maccdonian
variant o f the East Balkan civilization.
Stratified mound vvith culturalstrata parallel
to Sitagroi. Excavatcd by J. Deshayes and
D. Theocharis 1965; 1968-70. Publ. j.
Deshayes,
Bullctin
<lc Corrtspoiuhmcc
Hcllati(jin\ volf. 86, Pt 2: 9 12 -3 3.
D im in i (D him oni). near V olo s, Thessaly,
G reece. E p o n ym o u s site o f t h e Late N eo

-44

lithic Dimini group. E.scavuted ?oS by

Ch. TscHHitas. Museum: A ih em uju! Vobs.
Publ. Tsmmtas 190K.
C 14 date: 56*0 i. 150 BP, true age c.
4450 15c (GrN).
Divotffift, near Kiagiycv;ic\ ceiuraj Yugoslaviu. Central Balkan Neolithic Starevo
and Lace Vma settlement. Excavated
[^ ^> 69 by fhc joint Yugaslav A meriean
team, A. McPlierron and D. Srejovi.
M useum : Kragujevnc.
C i 4 dates for the Starevo phase: 6950
i 00 UF. true age c. 6000 ii0 (Bln 896) and
for the same pit, thermoluminescence dat
ing (Aitkcns O xford Lab.) yicldcd a value
o f 6190
800 BC. Other Starevo dates:
7080
180 BP (Bln 823); 7020 100 BP
(Bln 826); 6970
100 BP (Bln 824); 6910
: ioo BP (Bln 827); 6995
100 BP (Bln
862); 7060 .: 100 BP (Bln 866); 7200
:oo BP (Bln 899). True age c. 6000 b c .
Vina phase: dates for Pit 121 vvere
5860 : 100 BP, true age c. 4S20 b c (Bln
898); 5247 : 100 BP, true age c. 4300 b c
(BM 5 7 4 ) : thermoluminescence measurement vieided a value o f 4920 BC 700 for
the same pit. Other Vinca dates: 5825
100 BP. true age c. 4800 b c : (Bln 863); 6020
i00 BP. true age c. 5000 c (Bln 865),
D o n o v a M o g ila (Bikovo), central Bul
garia. Teli o fth e Chalcolithic East Balkan
civilization o f Karanovo V and VI periods.
Exeavated 1948-49 by P. Detev. Museum:
Plovdiv. Publ. Detev. Codhlmik 1 (1954).
D on ja B ra n je vina, near Deronj, northern
Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic
Starevo settlement. Excavatcd and pubh*>hed bv S. Karmanski 1968. Museum:
Odaci.
D ude$ti. southeast o f Bucharest, Romania.
Stratified site vvith remains o fth e East BalLm Karanovo III and Earlv Vina materials
hich succeeded the Starevo (Cri) culture.
I- w.ivatcd 19 5 4 -5 6 bv E. Com$a. Museum:
N A M , Bucharest. Publ. Com$a S C U ' 7
11956); Kotigrcss (1958).
D v o r y N ad ita v o u , near N ove Zam ky,
vvestern Slovakia. Cemoterv o fth e Linear
Potterv culture. eliozovce group. Mitseum: Nitra. Excavated and published by
J. Pavuk Slof. Arh. X X I. 1 {1964).

Elateia (Drakhmani), Phokis, Greece.

Xw o Neolithic teli sites. Excnvuted 1909-10
fov G. Sotiriadis and 1959 by S. Weinberg.
Museum: Chacronea. Publ. Soiiriadis
Atheti. Mitt- 30 (1905), 31 ( 1yo6); Bphm ,
Arch- ( 1908); fiev. Bttidcs Griu/ucs 2 5 (19 12 );
Vodice and Thompson Pnhistoric Tln,ssiiiy
19 12 ; Weinberg A JA 65 (iy fli): Hetpvria 31
(1962). .
Horizons vvith the earliest monoehrome
potccry: 7480 x 70 BP, true age c. 6500 bc
(GrN 2973); 7360
90 BP, true age c. 6400
liC (GrN 3037); 7*90 i 100 BP. true age
c. 6200 b c (GrN 3041).
Follovving horizon vvith painted pot
terv: 7040 . 330 B P, true age c. 6050 b c
(GrN 3502).
Fafos, at Kosovska Mitrovica, Southern
Yugoslavia. Fafos I-E.irly and Fafos Il-Late
Vina settlements. Excavated 1956 and
1959-61 by B. Jovan ovi and J. GliSi.
M useum : Pritina.
Fru m u sica, near Moldavia. Classical Cu
cuteni settlement. Excavated and published
1946 bv C . MatasS. Museum: Piatra
Neam$.
G h clae$ti (or Nedeia near Ghelaeti).
district Neam{, northeastern Romania. a
Cucuteni A /B -B , settlement, c. 4000- 3600
b c , noted for the discovory o f a Central
strueture vvith a ritual find. In an egg-shaped
vase four figurines (tvvo unpainted and tvvo
vvith black-painted heads and feet) had been
placed at the Cardinal points. Six vases,
painted vvith snake and double-seed bands,
were arranged in a circle around it. The
assemblage probablv was instrumental in
rituals dedicated to the resurgence o f plant
life. Excavated in 1970 bv Niju, C'ucoj and
Monah, publ. 1 9 7 1 : Ouco 1973. Finds in the
museum o f Piatra Neamj.
G lad n ice. near Pri:ina. S o u t h e r n Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starevo
settlement. Excavatcd 1960 bv J. (Jlii.
Museum: Pritina.
G o lja m o D clch evo , a Neolithic, Chalcol
ithic and Copper Age teli and a ccmeterv o f 30
graves in the va!ley o f R. Luda Kamchija.
tiortheastern Bulgaria. e.vcavated bv D.
Zlatarski 1931 and H. Todorova 1968-71.

The site yicled exquisite graphite painted

potterv, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
vases, over 100 figurines, a.o. cult objeets.
The Chalcolithic period (Karanovo V , Sava
variant) daeed by radiocarbon: Level III
(Bln) 5940 100 B .P. and Level IV (B ln 924)
5 8 4 0 + 10 0 , true age c. 4800 - 4700 l>c. The
Copper Ago (later Karanovo VI); Level IX
(Bln 921) 5515 1 00and Level XII (Bln 920)
5590 + 100, (Bln 920a) 5640 1OO, true age c.
4400 - 4300 b c . Finds in the Varna
archaeological museum. Publ. Todorova,
Ivanov, Vasilev, Hopf, Quitta, and Kohl
1975G o m o la v a , on the R iv er Sava, Vojvodina,
northern Yugoslavia. A stratified teli vvith
the M id-Vina layer belovv Baden-Kostolac, Middle and Late Bronze Age, La Tene
II and III, Rom an and Medieval cultures.
Excavated since 1904 b v j. Brunsmed. 1953
by R . Raajski and S. N agy, 1965-71 by
B. Brukner and B. Jovanovi. Museum:
N ovi Sad.
G o rn i Pasarel, central Bulgaria. Chalcoli
thic settlement o f the East Balkan civiliza
tion. Excavated 1952-53 bv N. Petkov.
Museum: Plovdiv. Publ. Petkov 1957.
G o rz a, at Hdmez>va'sitrhely, southeastem
Hungarv. ScEtlement and burials o f fhe
Chalcolithic Tisza group. Exeavated 195663 by G. Gazdapusztai. Museum: Hodmezovasa'rhelv. Publ. Gazdapusztai \hrni
Fer. Mu. fi\konyi>i' 1963.
G rad en ica (Gradeshnitsa) near Vraa,
northvvestern Bulgaria, Neolithic and Chal
colithic teli, cxcavated bv B. Nikolov 1964
73. The Neolithic sire o f three succcssive
horizons parallels Starevo II Karanovo I. c.
5800 - 5600 BC. 16 houses oftim ber uprights
and wattlc and daub uncovered. some \vith
geometric decoration on interior vvalls and
ineluded richlv svm bolicallv decorated
polichrome painted globular and anthro
pomorphic vases. The three Chalcolithic
levels run parallel vvith early Vina, around
5000 b c 63 houses excavated arranged in
streets. Houses are 6 to 9 m. long, rec
tangular. some o f several rooms vvith ovens
and pitehed roots. Horizon B vieided a
temple model vvith svmbois and signs

-45

arranged in panels on the ro o f and vvalls and a

shallovv dish vvith inscriptions. More than a
dozen vases were inscribed. O ver 200
schematic anthropomorphic figurines collected, some inscribed with signs.
G ro tta S c a lo ria , Manfredonia, Foggia,
Italy. Adriatic civilization: Neolithic cave
site vvith flint and obsidian tools, red painted
and impresso vvares. Excavated 1930 by Q.
Quagliati. M useum: Foggia. Publ. by U.
Rellini La piti antica ccramica dipivta in l falia
19 3 4 ; B P / L V I-L V II(1936- 37).

Scaloria.

G u m e ln ifa , near Oltcni^a, Southern R o

mania. The type site o f the Chalcolithic
East Balkan civilization, synchronous vvith
Karanovo VI in ccntral Bulgaria. The
settlement has been dividcd into two main
phases corresponding vvith Gumc!ni{a II
and III. Excavatcd 1925 and 1960 by V.
Dumitrcscu. M useum: N A M , Bucharest.
Publ. V. Dumitrcscu Dacia II (1925), VI/
VIII (1937/40), IV N. S. (1960): Archaeology
(1966).
C 1 4 dates: 5865 50 BP. true age c.
4800 b c (Bln): 5675 80 BP, true age c.
4500 b c (Bln); 5400
120 BP. true age c.
4350 BC (Bln); 5715 7 0 BP. true age
c. 4550 b c (G rN 3025); 5400 i : 90 BP. true
age c. 4350 B c (GrN 3028).
Habae$ti, near Tirgu-Frum o$, Moidavia,
northeast Rom ania. A classical Cucuteni
settlement. Cucuteni A complex. The
settlement vvas fortified by tvvo defensive
ditches. Excavaccd 1949-50 by V. Dumitrescu. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. V.
Dumitrcscu 1954. C 14 ; 5330 + 80 B P true
age 4360 BC (G rN 1985).
H lu b o k e M a u v k y , near Znojm o, M oravia, Czechoslovakia. Settlement o f the
Lincar Potterv and Strelice group o f the
Chalcolithic Lcngyel cuiture. Exeavated
1927-39 by F. Vildom ec; 1949-50 by J.
Neustupnv. Publ. Vildomec and Salm l PUK
11 (19 31 -3 7); Ohzor Prehist. 13 (1946);
Neustupnv Arch. Rozhl. 2 (1950); 3 (19 51):
asopis Nar. Mus. Prag. (1948-50).
H u rb an o v o , near Hurbanovo. Komarno.
Slovakia. Neolithic settlement
vvith ceramic rem ains attributed to the
Linear Potterv eliezovce variant. Lengyel.
Tisza and Biikk cultures. Excavated 1953
Southern

246

58. Museum: Nitra. Publ. C. Ambros and

B. N ovotny Arch. Rozltl. 5 (1953); P

i (1958). M ikov, Georgiev and Dzambazov

y 0dac za Arch. M uz. I (1952). Claul B A S P R

aplovic Arch. Rozhl. 8 (1956); B . Novotny Poiatky vytvarneho prejavu na Slovensku

(1958); H. Quitta P Z 36 (1960).

16(194)-

H v ar, island. cave site located at Grapeva

spilja. Adriatic civilization, Chalcolithic
period. Excavatcd and publ. by G. Novak
1955. Museum: Zagreb.
Ilon ap art, near Szcntes, southeastern Hungary. Linear Pottcry settlement, excavated
by J. Czalog in the early sixties. Museum:
Szcntes.
Iz v o a re le . near Baca u. Moidavia, northeastern Rom ania. Settlement o f the Early
Cucuteni civilization on the R iv er Bistrica.
Five horizons have been identified as be
longing to the Proto-Cucutcni and Cucu
teni A. Excavated 1936-48 by R . Vulpe.
Museum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. Vulpe

1957.
Jasatep e. Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Teli site ofthe
East Balkan civilization containing Kara
novo III, V and late VI characteristics.
Excavated 1945. 1950-59 by Detcv. Mu
seum: Plovdiv. Publ. Detev Godishnik 1
(1948). 3 0959).
K ak an j, near Visoko, Bosnia, Yugoslavia.
Late Central Balkan Starevo settlement
vvith Adriatic (Danilo) elements. Excavated
954 by A. Bcnac and 1968 by G. Sterud.
Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo. Publ.
Benac Glasnik Sarajevo Arh. N F 11 (1956).
K a lo ja n o v e c . 18 km. southvvest o f Stara
Zagora, central Bulgaria. Settlement o f the
East Balkan civilization. Karanovo IV
period. Museum: Stara Zagora.
K ap itan D im itrie v o . Central Bulgaria.
sve Banja ta.

K aran o v o . near N ova Zagora, central Bul

garia. Large teli and eponvmous site o f the
Karanovo cuiture vvhich provides the backbonc o f the East Balkan cultural sequence.
Contains the major phases: Karanovo 1
and II (parallel to Starevo). IN (Veselinovo),
IV. V (Marica phase). VI (Gumelni^a), VII
(Earlv Bronze Age). Excavated 1936-57 by
V. M ikov and G. I. Georgiev. Museum:
N ova Zagora and Sofia. Publ. M ikov
Izvestija 5 (1937), Anti(juity XIII (1939). S/l

C 14 dates from the Karanovo II phase:

6807 >oo BP, true age c. 5850 b c (Bln
152); 6573 1 0 0 B P, true age c. 5600 b c
(Bln 201); 6300 150 BP, true age c. 5550
b c (Bln 234).

Karanovo III phase: 6360 i BP, true

age c. 5400 B C (Bln 158).
Karanovo VI phase: 5840 + 230 BP,
true age c. 4800 BC (Bln 236).
K arbu n a, Ci misli district, Sovice Moidavia,
U S S R . yieldcd a hoard o f 852 objeets in a
vase attributed to the Pre-Cucuteni (Tripolye A) cuiture. O ver h alf the objeets vvere
o f copper and over 250 vvere o f shell. The
vase vvas uncovercd in an uncxcavated
settlement. Publ. Sergecv SVI (N o. i, 1962).
K ato Ierapetra, located 011 the Southern
coast o f Crete. Middle Neolithic settlement.
Museum: Heraklion, Crete (Giamalakis
Collection).
K aza n lik , located at Kazanlik, central
Bulgaria. A large teli vvhich yielded a complete sequence o f the Neolithic East Balkan
civilization. Excavated 1966-70 by G. I.
Georgiev and R . Katinarov. Museum:
Kazanlik.
K en ezlo , near Tokaj, northcastern Hungarv. Ncplithic Biikk and Chalcolithic
Tisza settlement. Excavated by N. Fettich.
Museum : Nyfregyh.i?a. Publ. Toni pa
K o d a d c rm c n . near umen, northcastern
Bulgaria. A 7 m.-high teli o fth e East Bal
kan civilization vvith remains o fth e Boian
cuiture follovved by Gumelni'a. Excavated
1914 bv R . Popov. Museum: Sofia. Publ.
Popov Izvestija 6 (19 16 -18 ); Gaul B A SP R
16 (1948).
K 6 k e n y d o m b . in Hodmezovasarhelv.
southeastern Hungarv. Settleinent and cemeterv o f the Tisza cuiture. Exeavated
1929. 1940-42 and 1944 bv j . Banner.
Museum:
Hmlmezovasa'rhelv.
Publ.
Banner. Kokatydomb.
K o lo m ijsh c h in a , at Khalepje. south o f
Kiev, Ukrainian S S R . Settlement o f the
Classical Cucuteni (Tripolyc) cuiture. E.\-

cavated 1934-38 by T. S. Passck. Museum:

Moscovv, Inst. Arch. Publ. Passck 1949.
K op an cs, in Hodmez6vasarhcly, south
eastern Hungary. Comprises several Neoli
thic and Chalcolithic settlements ineluding
the Central Balkan Starevo (Koros) succeeded by the Tisza comp!ex. Excavated by
J. Banner. Museum: Hodmczova'sa'rhciy.
Publ. Banner Dolgozatok 8 (1932); 9 -10
(* 9 3 3 -3 4 ); 13 ( 1937 ).

K o sz y Io w c e (Koshilovce), near ZaliSiki,

vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni (Tripolye)
settlement. Excavated 1906-13. Museum:
Lvov (Lvvovv), Publ. K. Hadaczek, La
coloniv itidastriellc de Koszylowce (Cracovv
1915).
K o tacp art, at Hc5dmezovasa'rhcly, south
eastern Hungary. A Central Balkan Neoli
thic Starevo (Koros) settlement ineluding
eight burials in rubbish pits. Excavated
1933 34 by G. Banner. M useum: H<5dmezova'sarhely. Publ. Banner Dolgozatok 8,
9 -10 (1932. 1933- 34).
C 14 date: 6450 ioo B P, true age r.
5500 bc (Bln 115).
K ryn ic h k a . district o fB a lta, Podolia, vvest
Ukraine. Late Cucuteni settlement excavatcd during the ninetecnth centurv. pri vate
col. E. N. Antonovich-M clnik, Kiev. Publ.
Makarenko IP E K (1927).
K u k o v a M o g ila (Duvanli). near Plovdiv.
central Bulgaria. Settlement o f the East
Balkan civilization, Karanovo III period.
Exeavated 1928-30 by B. Filov. Museum:
Plovdiv.
L a n g -E n z e rsd o rf. located at Korneuburg.
eastern Austria. Settlement o f the Lcngvel
cuiture. Excavatcd 1952 bv H. LadenbauerOrel. Museum: Vienna, Naturhistorisches
Museum. Publ. Ladenbauer-Orel IP IiK 19
(1954- 59); //>, Landeskd. SicJvrostcneidi 36
(1964).
C 14 dates: 5950 : 130 BP, true age c.
4850 bc : (Neustupnv 1969): 5880 ; 120
BP. true age c. 4800 i h : (Neustupnv 1969)*
L a rg a -Jijic i. district o f la$i. Moidavia.
northcastern Moidavia. Multiplesettlement
site vvith Linear Potterv. Earlv ('PreCucuteni') and Late Cucuteni (Cucuteni B)

-4 7

material. Excavated and published by A. D.

Alescanrescu. Duda V
and S C U '
X II. 2 (i9 6 1).

Museum: Argos. Publ. Cnskey Hesperia 23

(954). 25 (>9 0 ). 26 ( 1957). 27 (1958),

L e n g y e l, near Szeksza'rd, Tolna, Hungary.

F,ponymous settlement and cemctery o f the
Lengycl cuiture. The Earjy Chalcolithic
cemecery includes 90 graves. Excavatcd
1882-88 by M. Wosinszky. M useum:
Szekszdrd. Publ. Wosinszky Dtis prcihisiMisth? $duw zw irk von Uii$ycl f S88; Tolttirtenet? 1 896.

L e f (Varheghiu), at St Gheorghe, Transyl-

(9$y)vania, Rom ania. The site consists o f various

Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlements. The
earliest stratum belongs to the Central Bal
kan Starevo (Cri$) cuiture divided into
tvvo phases, followed by the East Balkan
Boian and Cucuteni-Ariud Chalcolithic
ct?mplexe$. Excavated >949~55 by Z . Szckely, 1- Nestor and E. Zaharia. Museum:
N A M : Btivhare>it. Publ- isharia O m a N,S.
VI (ititii).

seum- Unpublished.
C l 4 date for carbonizcd grain sample:
6100 100 B P (LJ 2521), true age c. 5000
bc

M egara H yb la ea, Syracusc, Sicily. Neoli

thic settlement o f the Adriatic Impresso
cuiture, Stentinello group. The site vvas
surrounded by a defensive diteh. Excavated
19 17 by P. O rsi; 1950 by F. Villard. Mu
seum: Museo di Siracusa. Publ. P. Orsi
Monumenta Anticjua 27 (19 2 1); Vallet and
Villard B o li Aete 45 #3 (1960).

LpSnfc! Vttf. on the fefink f the Danube

i>t jhi? ?f;r CJate*. VtigOslv'if*. A Vllifigv $ f
hinises. pr<?fe;biy &?ig}ji)dly lafetjrrjir**jrt. ineluding rvtanjzuiaf sfoneLipovac, near Anuidjelovac, km. souths^ilken heflffhs and plastered fjo rs
eiisi of Belgrade. Late Vinca site. E?iavated
iftv^fotir large irg^ahaped stt>hv stslj?iyn bv M. Vasi; 1930 l?y M. Gfbie and
tarif w?re found. CiiHttffiipor&fv with he
1931 bv V. Pewkes. Museum: NM 8el*Neolithic Early Starevo com plex, but
grade.
iftcUies local Danubian Mesolithie ele~
Lisiii, near Konjic, Hercegovina, Yugo~
ments, especially in the physical tvpe o f
slavia. A settlement o f the Adriatic (Hvar)
people, massive CrtVMagnon. Hxcavated
civilization, vvhich is divided into three
1965-69 by D . Srejovi and Z . Letica.
living horizons. Excavate 1952-54 by A.
Museum: Universitv, Belgrade. Publ.
Benac. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sara
Srejovi 1969.
jevo. Publ. A. Benac Neolitsko naselje u
C hron ologv: end seventh-early sixth
Lisiiima kod Konjica 1958.
millennium uc.
C i 4 dates: 6560
100 B P. true age c.
L o ve ts, near Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. East
$600 b c (Bln 655); 6630 ; 100 BP. true
Balkan civilization o f the Chalcolithic
age c. 5650 b c (Bln 654); 6820 r 100 BP.
period (Karanovo Vl-Gumelni^a typc).
true age c. 5850 bc: (Bln 650): 6620
100
Museum: Stara Zagora.
BP. true age c. 5650 uc (Bln 652): 6820
L u k a -V ru b le v e tsk a y a , located in the
100 BP. true ager. 5850 b c (Bln 576); 6843
100
B P . true age c. 5850 BC (Bln 647); upper Dnicster Vallcy. district o f KamenecPodolski, Ukraine, U .SSR. Early Cucuteni
6860
100 BP, true age c. 5900 uc. (Bln
(Tripoive A ) settlement. Exeavated 1946575); <>Hoo
100 BP. true age c. 5850 bc:
50 by $. N . Bibikov, Museum: Moscovv.
(Bln 649); 6900 i 100 BP. true age c. 5950
inst. Arch. Publ. Bibikov 1953<: (Bln 678): 6900 : 100 BP. true age r.

M o lfetta, Bari, Puglia, Icaly. Impresso

settlement. Fifty burialsexca vated. Graphite
and painted ware similar to the Serra d Alto
complex vvere found. Excavated 1908-10
by A. Mosso and M. Gervasio. Museum:
Museo Archeologico di Bari and Seminario
di Molfetta. Publ. Mayer Le Stazioni
preistoriche di Molfetta 1904: Messo M .A .L.

5950 b c (Bln 379): 7040 : 100 BP. true

age c. 6050 b c (Bln 653): 6984 ; 94 BP.
true ager. 60001* c (Z 1 15 ) : 7300 : 124 BP.
irue age c. 6350 b c (Z 143): 7 310 ; 100 BP.
true age c. 6350 uc: (Bln 740a): 7360 : 100
BP, true age c. 6400 b c (Bln 740b): 6970
: 60 BP. true age c. 6000 bc: (U C L A ).

(1924): 45 (925).

(>o

L ern a. near Argos. eastern Peloponnese.

Greece. Settlement consisting o f t\vo Neoli
thic cultural layers follovved bv Earlv
Bronze Age remains. The upper Late Neo
lithic layer consists o f eight building horizons. E.veavated 1956-59 bv J. L. Caskev.

M atera, Basilicata, ltaly. Several Neolithic

sites o f the Adriatic civilization, MateraCapri complexes. contemporaneous vvith
the Sesklo and Dim im groups o f Greece.
Excavated 1912 bv D. Ridola. Museum:
Matera. Publ. D. RidoJa La Grotla dei
Pipistre!Ii e la Grotta Funeraria in Matera
1912.
M ed ved n jak . at Staro Selo, near Sinederevska Palanka, central Yugoslavia. Large
settlement ofthe classical Vina civilization.
Excavated 1968-70 by R . Galovi sponsored bv the Smederevska Palanka Mu-

M o h cin icc. Za'br?h, umperk. Moravia,

C*cehoslovakia. Linegr Pottery settlement
follovvcd. by a Lcngyel settlement. ftecar
vated 1953 *>>'
Tichy. Museum: Brno.
Publ- Tiehy Arch Rozhl. 8 (1956); Sbornik
Afch- Vst. Brno 1 (1960); 2 -3 ; Preliled
Vyzkuwm Brno 1960; 1962: Pam. Arch. 49
(95); 53 (1962).

X X (1910).
M u ld a v a , central Bulgaria. Teli site vvith a
rich layer o f the Neolithic East Balkan
(Karanovo I typc) civilization. Excavated
and publ. by Detev. Godishnik VI (1968).
Museum: Plovdiv.
M u rgecch ia, Matera, Basilicata, Italy.
Neolithic settlement o f the Adriatic Matera
cuiture. Site surrounded by two concentric
ditches. Excavatcd 1K98 by D. Ridola.
Museum: Matera. Publ. Ridola BPI 44

foundations. Aegean civilization. Excavated 1954 bv D. R . Theocharis. Museum:

Volos. Publ. Theocharis Athen. Miti. 71
(1956).

N e a N ik o m e d e ia , near Verroia, Mace

donia, Grccce. Early Neolithic (ProtoSesklo) o f tvvo levels and Late Neolithic
settlements. Excavatcd 1961-6 3 by R . J.
Rodden. Museum: Verroia. Publ. Rodden
P P S 28 (1962); Scientific American (1965,
April).
C 14 dates for the first Early Neolithic
building horizon: 8180 i 150 BP. true age
c. 7200 BC (Q 655); 77^0 270 13P, true
age c. 6800 b c (G X 679)- Following horizon: 7 5 5 7 i 9 ftP> true age c. fifioo b c
(P IZ02); 7281 i 74 BP, true age c. 6300
bc

(P 120 3A).

N c b c , near Travnik. Bosnia, Vugoslavia.

A Butmir settlement. Ceramics are Classical
and Late Butmir in styie. Excavated 194S49by A. Benac. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej,
Sarajevo. Publ. Benac Prehistorijsko naselje
Nebo i Problem Butmirske Kulture 1952';
Glasnik Sarajevo Arh. N F 8 (1953).
N itra , Slovakia, Czechoslovakia. Within
the city the following sites vvere e.veavated:
an early Linear Pottery site vvith 77 graves
located on the left bank o f the R iv er N itra;
a Lengyel site vvith houses o f the Ludanice
tvpe. Excavated by J. Lichardus and J.
Vladar. Publ. Vladar Slov Arch, 18-2
(1970).
N itrian sk y H rad o k . N ove Za#mky, Slo
vakia, Czechoslovakia. Settlement o f the
Lcngvel cuiture. Middle Danube civiliza
tion. Excavated 1957-59 bv A. Toik.
Museum: Nitra. Publ. Toik Referaty Lib
ila 13 (1959) i Lichardus. Pam. Arch. 57
(1966).

M u rg ia T im o n c , Matera. Basilicata, ltaly.

Adriatic civilization, Matera complex. Mu
seum: Matera. Excavated 1897 by D.
Ridola and G. Patroni. Publ. Ridola BPI

N osa. at Subotica, northern Yugoslavia.

Neolithic Starevo (Koros) settlement vvith
remains o f rectangular houses. Excavated
>967-58 by D. Garaanin and L. Szekeres.
Museum: Subotica. Publ. D. Garaanin
Berichte Rom. - Germ. Kom. 39 (1958).

44 (1924).

N o v y e R u sesh ty I, near Kishenev, M oi

N ea M ak ri, Marathon, Attica, Greece.

davia, U S S R . Classical Cucuteni settle

Settlement consisting o f Early Neolithic

(Proto-Sesklo) and Late Neolithic layers.
Both contain rectangular houses vvith stone

ment. Excavated by V. 1. Markevich in the

sixties. Museum: Kishenev. Publ. Marke
vich 1970.

249

O bre I, near Kakanj, Bosnia, YugosIavia.

Settlement consists o f four habitation hori

O v c h a ro v o near Trgovite, northeastern

Bulgaria, a Neolithic Starcvo-Criij site vvith
semi-subterranean
dvvcllings
and
a

zons, the earliest representing Starevo

complex vvith geometrically painted blackon-rcd ware. The upper three beiong to an
end phase o f the same Central Balkan
Neolithic culture, locally called Kakanj ,
Excavated 1968 bv A. Benac and M.

Chalcolithic-coppcr age teli with thirteen

habitation levels, cxcavated by H. Todorova
19 7 1-7 2 . The later parallels Karanovo
IV -V I. Extraordinary discoverics vvere
made in Karanovo VI levels. Level 9 yieldeda

Gimbutas. M useum: Zemaljski Muzej,

Sarajevo and Cultural History Museum,

cultic scene o f 26 miniature cult objeets

including four figurines vvith upraised arms

U G L A . Los Angcles. Publ. Marija Gim

butas Archaeology, 23, 4 (1970).
C 14 dates for the lovvest horizons
(Phase A ): 7240 4; 60 BP, true age c. 6250
BC (U C L A 1605 I): 6795 + 150 BP, true
age c. 5780 b c (Bln Lab. 636); 6710 60
BP, true age c. 5750 bc (U C L A (605G).
Middle phase (Phase B ) : 6430 60 BP,
true age c. 5450 BC (U C L A 1605F).
Upper horizons (Phase C ): 6230 80
BP (Bln 659), true age c. 5150 b c ; 6150 ;j_70 BP, true age c. SO60 b c (U C L A 1605H).

and decorated vvith meanders and parallel

lines, three temple fa^ades or altar screens,
ninc ehairs, three miniature tables, three
vessels vvith lids, tvvo large dishes, and three
drums suggesting the ritual u seof music. The
group vvas in association vvith a shrine model
including an altar and oven. Quantities o f
schematic figurines, other shrine models,
anthropomorphic vases, graphite-painted
pottcry, and ceramic vvorkshops ame to
light. Finds in Trgovite museum. Publ.
Todorova 1976.

O bre II, near Kakanj, Bosnia, Yugoslavia.

Most important site o f the Butm ir culture.
Nine habitation horizons have been established and three developmental phases.
Excavated 1967-68 bv A. Benac and M.
Gimbutas. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej.
Sarajevo. Publ. M. Gimbutas Archacolo$y
23-24 (1970); A. Benac Obre //, Neolitsko
naselje butmirske grupe na Gornjem Polju
(Sarajevo 197 0 C 14 dates for the lovvest lavor (Butmir
1): 6175 : 80 BP. true age c. 5100 bc (Bln
639): 6075. : >00 BP. true age c. 5000 b c
(Bln 792); 6 110 ;; 60 BP, true age c. 5000
b c (GrN 5683); 60io : 60 B P . true age
4950 b c (GrN 5684): 5925 : 80 BP, true
age 4850 b c (Bln 657).
Middle lavor (Butmir H): 5875 60
BP, true age c. 4840 b c (U C L A 160.sC).
Upper laver (Butmir II): 5740 t. 80
BP, true age c. 4550 BC (U C L A 1605B).
Other dates shovv the same period.
O tzak i. near Larisa. Thessalv. Greece.
Large teli site vvith four main cultural l.jvers
beginning vvith Proto-Scsklo. follovved bv
Pre-Sesklo. Classical Sesklo, and Late Neolithic. Excavated 19 5 3 -SS bv V. Milojic.
Museum:

Larisa.

Publ.

Milojic

Auli.

Anzeiger 1954. !955- >959: Jb . Romisih(ierm. Zentral Aluseuni 1959.

250

Padina, Iron Gate Gorge, northern Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic settlement,
Danubian regional group vvith Starevo
elementi. Related to Lepenski Vir. Excavated 1968-71 by B .Jo v an o v i, sponsored
by the Belgrade Arch. Institute. Publ.
jovan ovi A rit. Pregl. 10 (1968); Stare
Kulture u Djerdapi 1 (1969): Arch. Ittgoslavica
9 ( 1971).
Par$a, south o f Timisoare, vvestern R om a
nia. Early Vina settlement. Museum:
Timo$oara.
P aza rd ik (Junacite), Central Bulgaria.
Teli site o f the Chalcolithic East Balkan
civilization. follovved bv a Bronze Age
layer. Excavatcd 1939 by V. M ikov. Museum: Plovdiv.
P erieni. near Birlad. northern Moldavia.
Romania. Neolithic settlement o f the
Central Balkan Starevo (*Cri$') tvpe.
follovved bv a layer o fth e Linear Potterv
culture o f Music N ote tvpe. E.vcavated
1949 and 1955 bv M. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a.
M useum : Ia$i, Moldavia. Publ. PetrescuDimbovi^a 1957; Acta Arch. Acad. Sc. Ilung.
9 (1958).
P ianul de Jo s. near Sibiu. Hunedoara.
Rom ania. Settlement o f the Chalcolithic

pctrc$ti group. Excavatcd 1963 by luliu

Radm illi. Publ. Rellini La piu antica cera-

Paul. Museum: Sibiu. Publ. Paul 1965.

ntica dipinta in Italia 1934; Radm illi R S P

16, (19 6 1); 17 (1962).

P ie tre le, near Bucharest, Rom ania. East

Balkan Chalcolithic settlement vvith re
mains o f Late Boian and five phases o f
Gumclni^a comp!excs. Excavatcd 1943-48
by D. Berciu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest.

R o s k e -L u v a r, south o f Szeged, Southern

H ungary. Central Balkan Starevo (Koros)
Neolithic settlement. Excavated 1965 by
O. Trogm ayer. Museum: Szeged.

Publ. D. Berciu Mat. Cere. Arh. 2 (1956).

R u d n ik K o so v sk i, near Prizrcn, Southern

P lo n ik , Southern Yugoslavia at Prokuplje.

YugosIavia. Central Balkan Neolithic

Starevo settlement. Excavatcd 1966-69 by
J . GliSi. Museum: Pritina.

Large Late Vina site vvith c. 3 m. o f cultural

deposits. Excavatcd 1927 by M. Grbi;
1968-70 by B. Stalio. Museum: NM
Belgrade. Publ. Grbi 1929.
P o ro d in , near Bitola, Southern Y ugoslavia.
Central Balkan Neolithic settlement. Star
evo complex, Macedonian variant. Excavated 1 9 5 3 - 5 4 by M. G rbictal. Publ. Grbi
1960.
C 14 dates: 7 110 i 470 BP. true age c.
6150 b c (H 1486/987).
P re d io n ica, in PriStina. Southern Yugo~
slavia. Vina site o f several periods. Earlv
and Late, the latter half o f the tvvo phases.
Excavated 1955-56 bv R . Galovi. Mu
seum: Pritina. Publ. Galovi 1959.
C i4 dates for Early Vina: 6279 : 80
BP, true ager. 5300 b c . (Bln 435).
P yraso s, located at Nea Anchialos near
Volos, Thessalv. Greece. Stratified teli site
vvith the follovving succession o f Thessalian
Neolithic: Proto-Sesklo, Sesklo, ArapiDimini, Larissa and Rakhmani. Exeavated
1956 bv 1). R . Theocharis. Publ. Theo
charis Thessalika 2 (1959).
R a d in g ra near Razgrad, northeastern
Bulgaria, a teli vvith several phases, parallel to
Karanovo IV, V , excavated by Totju Ivanov
in 1974-78. Unpublished. The most remark
able discovery vvas a tvvo-storey temple. Its
first floor had a ceramic vvorkshop vvith a
large oven and tools for potterv making and
decoration. the second floor comprised the
temple proper vvith a clay altar 75 cm. high.
vertical loom . figurines. and temple models.
R ip o li. Corropoli, Terano. Abruzzi e
Molise. Italv. Eponvmous settlement and
cemeterv site o fth e Adriatic Ripoli cotuplex. Excavated 1910 bv A. Mosso: 19131915 by l. PairO sso and 1961 bv A. M.

R u g B a ir, near Sv. Nikole, eastern Mace

donia, southeastem Yugoslavia. Central
Balkan Neolithic Starevo and Early Vina
stratified site. Excavated 1970 by American
(U C L A ) and Yugoslav (Naroden Muzej,
tip) teams (M. Gimbutas and V. Sancv).
Museum: tip.
R u g in o a sa , district o f Ia$i, Moldavia,
northeastern Rom ania. Settlement o f the
C'lassical Cucuteni (Cucuteni A) culture.
Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. H.
Dumitrescu Dacia IIIIV (1927-32).
R u se, northern Bulgaria. East Balkan
civilization, Chalcolithic site. (Karanovo
VI-Gum elni;a period). Excavated 1950-53
by G. I. Georgiev and N . Angelov.
Museum: Ruse. Publ. Gcorgiev-Angelov
Ruse.
S a b atin o v k a II, Proto-Cucuteni (Early
Tripolye) settlement near Uljanov, district
ofK irovograd , vvestern Ukraine. Excavated
1947-49 by M. L. Makarevich. Museum:
Odessa. Publ. bv Makarevich in Arkheol.
Pa inja ik i Ukrainskoj R S R , vol. IV (1952)
and Makarevich 1960b.
Salcu^a. near Craiova. southvvestern R o
mania. Tvpe site o f the Salcu^a variant o f
the East Balkan civilization vvith seven
phases o f development. Follovvs the Central
Balkan Neolithic Starevo ( C riO civiliza
tion. Excavated 19 16 -20 bv I. Andriesescu:
1947 bv H. Dumitrescu: 1951 by D. Berciu.
M useum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. Berciu

1961.
Sarva. near Osijek, northern YugosIavia.
Lovvest horizons o f this stratified Ste included a Central Balkan Starevo laver.
follovved bv the Lengyel and then Baden
and Vuedol cultures. Excavated 1942-43

bv R . R . Schmidt. M useum: Osijek and

Arheol. Muzej. Zagreb. Publ. Schmidt
I 'ueJol (i94$)Sc a lo ria (see also Grotta Scaloria), a cave site
at Manfredonia. south ofGargano, southeas
tern ltaly, exftvafed by Marija Gimbutas
and Shan Winn 1978-80. The upper cave
vidd habitation remains and 140 burials.
most o f vvhich wcrc probably sacrificial; in
the lovvcr cave with stalagmites and stalactjtes, a sacred Wll, and quantities o f vases
vvere found. Total o f c. 1500 symbolically
decorated vases, inscribed bone and clay
artifacts. and very rich flint industry vvas
uncovcred from the main period o f the cave,
c. 5600 - 5300 b c , based on six radiocarbon
da tes; (LJ-498o) 6800 + 160; (LJ -4649)
6720 + too B .P .; (LJ-4981) 6620 3 8 0 B .P .;
(LJ-4650) 6490 140 B .P .;
(LJ-4651)
6.130 + 90 B .P .; (LJ-4983) 6 0 5 0 + 13 0 B.P.
The report due to appear in Monumenta
Archaeologica, Institute o f A rehaeology,
U n iversityof California, Los Angeles, 1984.
On water cultin the Iower cave .<*<'Tine 1972.
Finds are in the archaeological museum o f
Manfrcdonia and Foggia.
S e lev ac. 15 km. vvest o f Smederevska
Pajanka, centra! YugosIavia. Settlement o f
early classical Vina tvpe. Exeavated 196970 by K. Galoviand K. Miloseviand 111 '70S
by R. Tringham . Museum: Smederevska
Palanka.
Scrra d A lto , Matera. Basilicata, ltaly.
Settlement and cemeterv site ofthe Adriatic
M atera-Capri cuiture and tvpe site o f the
Serra d Alto complex. Site surrounded bv a
defensive diteh. Graves vvere excavated
otitside the settlement. Excavated 1919 bv
D. Ridola and U. Rellini. M useum: Museo
di Matera. Publ. M aver Molfetta mul Matera
1924; Rellini Not. Se, so (1925).
Sesk lo . near Volos. Thessalv. Greece.
Eponvmous site o f the Sesklo cuiture.
represented by the middle laver. Preeeded
by the Pre-potterv. Earliest Potterv and
Proto-Sesklo and foIUnved bv Dimini
and Post-Dimini complcxes. F.nc.i vated
19 0 1-2 by Ch. Tsountas; 1957
bv
D. R . Theocharis. Museum: Volos. Publ.
Tsountas 190 8; Theocharis Praktika 32
( 1957 ) : Ihessalika 1 (195K).

C 14 dates for Pre-pottery period: 775,

i 97 BP (P-1681). true age c. middle ofthe
seventh millennium BC.
Early Potterv period: 7 6 11 + 8 3 (p_
1679), 7427 it: 7 ( P - i M ) . 7300 93 (p
sriHo). true age o f ali three dates is wich$n
the second half o f seventh millennium ac.
Classical Sesklo: 6964 i- 92 (P-1674),
6?4* :i: 103 (P -1677), 6694 87 (P-1675),
true age vvithin the first half o f seventh
millennium uc. Late Classical 6504
(P-1672), true age c. middle o f sixth
millennium bc.
Dimini Period: 5622 4 80 (P-1671),
true age c. middle o f fifth millennium b c .
S ip in tsi (Schipenitz), northvvest o f Chernovitsi. on the bank o f the R iver Prut,
vvestern Ukraine (Bukovina), U S S R . Late
Cucuteni settlement, Publ. Kandvba Schip enitz J947- Vienna, Naturhistorisches
Museum.
S ita g ro i. Plain o f Drama, northeastern
Greece. Large rell o f the East Balkan
civilization \vith 12 m. o f cultural debris.
Five periods. I-V . I and 11. Late Neolithic
svnchronous vvith Karanovo III and IV;
III, Chalcolithic svnchronous \vith Karanovo VI. foIUnved bv periods IV and V o f
rhe Earlv Bronze Age Balkan-Danubian
cuiture. Excavated 1968-69 bv A. C. Renfrew and M. Gimbutas. Publ. Colin Renfrcvv Prm'. Prdi. Soc. 36 (1970).
C i 4 dates for Phase I: 6625 : 170 BP.
true age c. 5650 b c, (Bln 779}; 6425
100
BP. true age c. 5450 BC (Bln 778).
Phase II: 5920 ; 120 BP, true age c.
4S50 b c (Bln 777); 5720 : 100 BP, true
age c. 4550 b c (Bln 776); 6240 ; 100 BP,
true age (. 5300 b c (Bln 884): 5904 l 66
BP. true age c. 4850 i h : (BM 649).
Phase III: 5795 ; too BP, true age c.
4650 b c (Bln 882): 5555 : 100 BP, true
age 1. 4400 BC (Bln 88 i); 5545 : 100 BP.
true age <\ 4400 b c (Bln 883); 5100 : ioo
BP. true age r. 4200-3800 i h : (Bln 774)-

S m il i . near Zadar, Dalmatia. Yugoslavia. Contains an earlv level o f the Adria

tic Impresso cuiture overlaid bv a horizon
ofthe Danilo compleN. Excavated 1957-59
1962 bv . Batovi. Museum: Zadar. Publ.
Batovic Diatlora 2 (19 6 0 -6 1): 1966.

Souphli- at Larisa. Thessalv. Greece.

Stratiti^ teli ineluding Pre-ceramic, ProtoSesklo. Sesklo, and Late Neolithic Postpiniini phases. Excavated 1956 bv D. R .
-j'heocharis. M useum: Larisa Publ, Thcochafis Tltt'.'salika > (19$#).
S t a r a ja

B u d a . upper Siniukha Valley,

vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni settlement.

.publ. Passek Ceraniique tripolienne 1935.

Starevo , near Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Eponymous site ofthe Neolithic Central Balkan
Starevo cuiture. Excavatcd 1930 by M.
Grbi; 19 3 1-3 2 by V. Fevvkes, H. Goldman
and R . W . Ehrich. Museum: N M Belgrade.
Publ. V. Fevvkes Buli. Am. School Preli.
Research 9 (1936): D. Arandjelovi-Garaanin, Stareratka Kultura (1954).
S t e n tin e llo , Syracu.se. Sicilv. Eponvmous

site o f the Stentinello group. Defended by a

ditch and stone vvall. Exeavated 1890, 1912,
1920 bv P. O rsi; 1961 by S, Tine. Museum :
Museodi Siracusa. Publ. Orsi BP I 16 ( 1 S90);
36 (19 10 ); Tine Arch. Stor. Siracusano 7
(1961).
Strelice, JeviSovice, Zn ojm o. Southern
Moravia. Czechoslovakia. Contains several
sites o f the Chalcolithic Strelice group o f
the Lcngvel cuiture. Escavated bv Palliardi
and J. Vildomec at the end o f the ninetecnth-earlv tvventieth centurv. Museum:
BoskovStcjn near Znojm o and Brno. Publ.
J. Palliardi M P C . I (Vienna 1897): U 'P Z I
(19 14): Vildomec ()P 7/8 (Prague. 1928/
29); 12 (Prague. 1940): Neustupnv A R 3
(95 0 Su lica. near Stara Zagora, Central Bul
garia. Chalcolithic site, Karanovo VI period
o f the East Balkan civilization. Museum:
Stara Zagora. Publ. Gaul Neolithic Bulgaria.
Su ltan a, located on the shore o f Lake
Mosti$tca. district ot Oltcni(.\. S o u th e rn
Rom ania. Belongs to the East Balkan
civilization, Museum: Olteni^a. Publ.
Marinescu-Btlcu Dacia XI (1967).
S z e g v a r -T iiz k d v c s . at Szcntes. south

T a n g iru , near Giurgiu, lovvcr Danube,

Rom ania. Stratified teli vvith tvvelve levels
o f Boian and nine o f the Gumelni^a periods
o fth e East Balkan civilization. Excavated
19 33 -3 5 ; 1956; 1957 by D. Berciu. Publ.
Bere iu 1961.
T eci, near Kragujcvae, ccntral Y ugoslavia.
Central Balkan Neolithic Starevo settle
ment and tvvo burials. Excavated 1960 by
R . Galovi. Museum: N M Belgrade. Publ.
Galovi 1964.
T irp e$ti, district o f T g. Neam(, region o f
Bacau, northeastern Rom ania. An Earlv
Cucuteni (*Pre-Cucuteni UP) settlement.
Excavated by V. Dumitrcscu a n d j. Mari
li escu-BUcu in the earlv $ixties. Museum:
N A M , Bucharest and Bacau.
T isz a p o lg a r-B a sa ta n y a at the villagc o f
Polga'r near Tiszalok, southeastern Hungary. Eponytnous ccmetery site o f the
Chalcolithic period (or Early and Middle
Copper Age o f the Carpathian Basin). 166
graves exeavated. E.veavated 1929 by F.
Tompa and 1946 by I. Bogna'r-Kutzian.
Museum: N M Budapest. Publ. I. Bogna'rKutzia'n 1963. In the same area. tclls vvith
Neolithic-Chalcolithic remains are knovvn:
Tiszapolgar - Csoszhalom. TiszapolgarFolyra's-Szilmeg and others.
C 14 dates: 6940 : 100 BP. true age c.
4700 b c (Bln 5 13): 5845 : 60 BP. true age
<\ 4700 b c (GrN 1934): 5 7 7 5 :. 100 BP,
true age c. 4700-4600 b c . (Bln 512). Later
level: 5575 : 100 BP. true age <\ 4400 i h :
(Bln 509).
T raian . northern M oidavia, northeastern
Romania. The site o f several Neolithic
Ncttlcmcnts: 1. Dcalul Fintinilor ineluding
Linear Potterv. Earlv and Classical (Cucuteni A -B ) remains and 2, Dcalul Viei vvith
a single laver belonging to the Earlv Cucu
teni (Pre-Cucuteni I) civilization. Exeavatcd 1 9 5 1 - 5 9 by H. Dumitrcscu. Museum:
N A M . Bucharest. Publ. H. Dumitrcscu

eastern Hungarv. Settlement and cemeterv

ofth e Tisza cuiture. Excavatcd 1956-57 bv
j. Czajog. Museum: Szcntes. Publ. Czalog

. s c / r i u (1 95 2 ); i v (1 9 5 3 ) ; v (1 95 4 ); v i

Szegiuir- 7 V/ckores.

Arh. VI (1959).

(t<;

55 );

Mm. ('ere. Arh. III (1957) and V

(1^59); H . and V. Dumitrcscu Mat. Cere.

T r ip o Iy e , near K iev, vvestern Ukraine.

Classical Cucuteni settlement and name
used for the Cucuteni civilization in Soviet
Moldavia and western Ukraine. Excavated
1899 hy V. V. Khvojka (Chvojka). M u
seum: Kiev. Publ. Khvojka Trud) X I Arkh.
sjezda, Kiev 1901.
Tru$eti, near Botoani, northern M ol
davia, Rom ania. Large habitation site in
. vvhich 98 houses vvere uncovered, most o f
vvhich belonged to the Classical Cucuteni
(Cucuteni A) period. Excavated 19 5 1-5 9 ;
1961 by M . Petrescu-Dimbovi^a. Museum:
lai. Publ. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a Tru$e$ti.
T sa n g li, Thessaly, Greece. Neolithic settle
ment o f the Sesklo culture. The uppermost
layer associated with the Early Helladic
Bronze Age. Excavatcd 1905 bv Ch.
Tsountas; 19 10 by A. J . B . Wace and M . S.
Thompson. M useum: Athens. Publ. Wace
and Thompson 19 12.
T san i, Thessaly, Greece. Stratified Neoli
thic teli including remains o f JPre-Sesklo
(red monoehrome pottery), classical Sesklo,
Dimini and Late Neolithic characterized bv
a coarse grey vvare and Urfirnis \vare.
Excavated 1909 by A. J. B. Wacc and M. S.
Thompson. Museum: Athens. Publ. Wace
and Thompson 1912.
T u r d a f (Tordo), La Lunea locality on the
bank o f the R iver Murc$, Transylvania,
region o f Huneodara, Rom ania. Early
Vina settlement. Unsystematicexcavation.
end o f the nineteenth century. Museum:
Institute o f History, C luj. Publ. Roska,
Torma CoUection 1941.
Vadastra, near Corabia, Oltenia, southvvestern Rom ania. Eponymous site o f the
VSdastra variant o f the East Balkan civiliza
tion; contcmporary vvith Boian. Preceded
by a late middle Aurignacian Palaeolithic
layer; overlain by a laycr o f the Salcuta
complex. Excavated 1926 by Vasile Christescu; 1934 bv 1). Berciu: 1946-62 bv C.
Matecscu. M useum: N A M , Bucharest.
Publ. Christescu Dacia III-IV (19 27-33):
Mateescu S C I V 6 (1955); Cere. Arh. 5-6
(1959): Arch. Rozhl. 14 (1962).
V ala, near Kosovska Mitrovica, Southern
Yugoslavia, Late Vina settlement vvith

1 .U

cultural stratum 0.90-1.20 m. thick. Excavated 1957 by N. Tasi and J. Glii. Mu

seum: Kosovska Mitrovica. Publ. Tasi

1959; 1(X>*
C 14 dates: 5895 80 BP, true age c.
4850 b c (Bln 436). Corresponds to 4 m.
depth at the Vina site.
V alea L u p u lu i, district oflai, northeastern
Rom ania. Large Late Cucuteni (Cucuteni
B) settlement on the terrace o f River
Bahlui, Excavated 1953-57 by M . PctrescuDimbovi^a and M. Dinu. Museum: Ia$i.
Publ. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a S C I V V (1954);
Dinu Marin Matcriale Cere. Arh. 3 (1957);
5. G ( i 959)Varna, a Copper A ge cemetery o f c. 4500 bc
(Karanovo VI period) near the tovvn o f
Varna on the Black Sca coast in Bulgaria.
Diseovered in 1972 and excavated in
1973-77 by Ivan Ivanov, the cemctery is
particularlv noted for quantitics o f gold and
copper artifacts, marble rhytons, goldpainted vases, and life-size funerary clay
masks with gold attributes. Finds in the
Varna archaeological museum. Publ. by
Gimbutas 1977 a and b and Ivanov 1978.
V a rv a ro v k a , near Kishenev. Soviet Mol
davia. Late Cucuteni (Tripolve) settlement.
Excavated 1967 by V. I. Makarevich,
M useum: Kishenev.
V ese lin o v o . district o f Jam bol, eastern
Bulgaria. Teli o f the Late Neolithic, Kara
novo III period, East Balkan civilization.
Excavate bv V. M ikov. Publ. Mikov
Izi'cstija 13 (1939).

V id ra, near Giurgiu. southeast o f Bucharest,

Rom ania. Settlement o f the East Balkan
civilization particularlv noted for its figur
ine and plastic art. Lovvest level belongs to
the Boian-Giulc$ti phase and is follovved by
the Boian-Vidra. then the Gumelnifa layer.
xcavated 19 31-3 3 and 1958 by V. Rosctti.
Museum: Bucharest C ity. Publ. V. Rosetti
Sdpaturilc dc la l idra 1934: Publ. Muz.
Municip. Ihieurcsti t-2 (1935-36); IP B K 12
(1938): Mar. Cere. Arh. 7 (1961).
V in a. 1 4 km. southeast o f Belgrade 011 the
Danube, localitv o f Belo Brdo. Yugoslavia.
Mound 10.5 m, deep. The t\vo earliest
settlements (belovv X 111.) belong to the

Central Balkan Neolithic Starevo culture,

above vvhich were 7 111. o f deposits characteristic o f the Vina civilization. The Vina
civilization has been subdivided into four
co n sec u tive phases. Excavated 1908-12,

thic (Gumclni(a) site o f the East Balkan

civilization. Excavated by T. S. Passek.
Museum: Kishenev. Publ. Passek and
Gerasimov, 1967,
V y k h va tin tsi, district o f Rybn ica, upper

1924, 1928-32 bv M . Vasi. M useum: BU

and N M Belgrade. P u b l. M. Vasi Pre-

Dniester, Soviet M oldavia, U S S R . Late

Cucuteni (Tripolye) cemetery. Excavated

istoriska Vinca I-IV (193 2-36).

C 14 dates for Early and M id-Vina:

1952 by T. S. Passek and E. K. Chernysh.

Before this cxcavation, several graves vvere

6190 B P , true ager. 5100 b c (G rN 1546);

5845 160 B P, true age c. 4800 n e (GrN

uncovered by M. V . Voevodskij and A. E.

Alikhova in 1947. Excavatcd again in 1951
by I. G. Rosenfeldt. Publ. Passek 1954.

1537)V la d im iro v k a , Southern Bug Valley,

western Ukraine. Classical Cucuteni (Tripolye B) settlement vvith about 200 houses.
Excavatcd 1927-28 by B. Bezvenglinski;
1940 by T . S. Passek. Publ. Passek Crantique Tri po licune 19 35; Passek 1949; E. K.
Chernysh K S IIM K 40 (19 51).

Z cle n ik o v o , near Skopje, Macedonia,

Yugoslavia. Located near the R iv e r Vardar.
Tvvo phases: the Central Balkan Neolithic
Starevo civilization and the Late Vina
civilization. Excavated 1950-53 by R .
Galovi. Museum: Gradskij Muzej, Skopje.
Publ. Galovi 1964.
Z en g d v rk o n y, near Pecs. Baranva.south-

V rsnik, north. o f tip, Macedonia, southcastern

Yugoslavia.
Central
Balkan
Neolithic stratified site o f four main developmental phases, parallel to Anza IIV.
Begins vvith the earliest Starevo (or Anza
I) and ends vvith Early Vina. Excavated
1958 by M. and D. Gara.anin. Museum:
tip. Publ. by the excavators 1959 and 1961
in tip Mus. Publ.
C 14 for Vrsnik III: 6865 150 BP. true
age c. 5900 b c (H 595/485).
V u lk a n csh ti. Soviet Moldavia. Chalcoli

vvestern Htingarv. Large settlement and

cemeterv o f the Lengvel culture. The
cemeterv included 368 burials most o f
vvhich vvere single inhumations containing
grave goods. Excavatcd 1936-48 by J,
Dombav. Museum: Pecs. Publ. Dombav
A Zengdva'rkonvi oskori telep os te meto,
Arch. Huug. 23 ( 1 939): 37 ( 19<'o).
Z h van cts, district o f Kiev, Ukraine.
U S S R , Late Cucuteni (Tripolve) settle
ment. Excavated bv T. G. Movsha
Arhfteologija X IX (1965).

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Catalogue

Vidra mound, lovver Danube region, 29

km. southeast o f Bucharest. Excavated
1 9 3 1 - 3 3 t>y Dinu V. Rosetti. Bucharest
City Museum. Publ. D. Rosetti, 1P EK , 12

T E X .T F I G U R E S
1 Tcrracotta torso. H. 8.75 cm. Fine brovvn
fabric. Black lines about the abdomen

7 Terracotta torso vvearing a checkerboard

skirt indicatcd by whitc-fillcd incised lines
and dots. H. 7.6 cm. Lower part in form o f
a cylinder. Classical Vina. Found 5.6 m

indicate decoration by painting. Hip-belt

shown by application. Found 6.9 m. dcep
in Vina mound. Vasis excavation. B U

deep in Vina mound, Vasis cxcavation

N M Belgradc. Publ. Vasi, Vina, I: fig
144.

Collection, 4971. Publ. Vasi, Vinca, I:

Fig- 95; Vol. III: Fig. 152.

vvhitc-encrusted incisions indicating dress.

Classical Vina. Potporanj, Kremenjak
locality, settlement south o f Vrac, north
eastern Yugoslavia. Regional Museum
Vrac. Excavated at end o f nincteenth
century. F. Milleker, Die steinzeitliehe Fiituie
von Potporanj bei Vrac (Vrac 1934): 1-2 3.

deep in Vina mound. Vasis excavation.

N M Belgradc 976. Publ. Vasi, Vina, HJ:
Fig. 168.

indicating hair and cyes. Nose in relief

H. 3-3 ein. Starevo settlement at Pavlovac,

locality ukar. N M Belgradeand Archaeol
ogical Institute N M Belgrade, 15035 exca~
vations o f 1955. Publ. M. Garaamn in 39.
B R C K 1958, I. 2. N M Belgrade Catalogue
(1968): 34
14

!> Lowcr part o f terracotta figurine from

Beletinci at Obrc, district o f Sremska
Mitrovica, northern Yugoslavia. Black

i Dark-rcd terracotta figurine. H. 11.3 cm.

Eroded surface. Found 7.8 m. deep in
Vina mound. Vasis cxcavation. B U
Collection, inv. 948. Publ. Vasi, Vinca.
1U: Fig. 13 1.

Seated terracotta female figurine from the

settlement o f Banjica near Belgrade. H. 9.2
cm. Head and part o f stool broken otf'
Dark-grey fabric. White-encrustcd inci
u 1 Terracotta figurine o f a man vvith a chestsions. Front and middle part o f back painted
band. hip-belt and dagger indicatcd in
black. Tvvo perforations on each arm stump.
reliet. Orange-red fabric. Head and portions
Knees and contours o f legs indicatcd alo f legs broken otf. H. 7 . cm. Cucuteni A
settlement at Bcre$tt near Bujor. district o f
though legs shovvn merged vvith those o f
Galami, eastern Rom ania. Regional Muthrone. Excavated 195557 b v j. Todorovi
setitn o f Historv, G.ilap Publ. Ion T.
and A. Cerm anovi. Publ. J. T od oroviA.
Cermanovi, Banjica: Pi. V ili. 2. t. Dragomir. SJpJturi arheologice la Tg.
Bcrcjti (r. Bujor. reg. Ga lati)'.
I
Terracotta torso o f a Late Vina female
(|<X>7 ) : 4 1 - 5 7 .
figurine. D ark-grev fabric;. vvhitc-fillcd
11 rerracotta figurine of a seated man from
incisions. Found 4.1 m. dcep in Vina
Valac at Kosovska Mitrovica. Kosovo
mound. H. 5.2 cm. Vasi's excavntion. NM
Metohije province. Yugoslavia. Found 1.26
Belgrade. Publ. Vasi. Vina. III: Fig. 419.
m. deep in this Late Vinca settlement. Darkgrev fabric. smooth surface. Head broken
Terracotta torso o fa female figurine vvear
otf. H. 7.S cm. Whitc-fillcd inerustations
ing a skirt indicatcd bv inciscd vertical and
indicate trousers. blouse and fmgers. Broad.,
horizonta] lines. H. 10 cm. Gradac settle
V-shaped collar painted red. 1 y 55 excavament at ZJokuchani. Morava Vallcv, cNcation bv N. Tasi. National Museum,
vatcd 1909 bv Vasi. N M Belgradc. inv.
Kosovska Mitrovica. Publ. Tasi. I \ilar.
7S5. Publ. Vasi. ( lla< Scrh. Kongl. Akadeinic
Pl. IX . Fig. 3.
( 1 9 1 1). B. Stalio. Zlokuani-Gradac, NM
u

Representation o fa decorated shoc, part o f

a sculpture. Gumelnita lt-1 phase from the

Terracotta masked head vvith incisions

indicating hair divided into tvvo sections.
H. 7 2 cm. Fine grey fabric. polished surface.
M id-Vina. Found 6.5 m. deep in Vina
mound. Vasisexcavation. B U Collection.
363. Publ. Vasi, Vina, III: 28. Fig. 179.
Terracotta head o f a masked vvoman from
the settlement o f Crnokalaka Bara at
Rujitc near Raanj, 20 km. southeast o f
the mouth o f Southern Morava river.
southeastem YugosIavia. Late Vina. H. 6
cm. Black-baked. polished, lustroussurface.
Pentagonal mask shovvs vvell modelled eyes.
brovv-ridges and nose. Top of head at back
incised to indicate hair. 1959-60 excavations
o f Krucvac museum carried out bv E.
Tom i and N. Tasi. Publ. Tasi-Tom i.
Crnokalaka Bara: Pl. X , i.

burnished. Decorated by white-cncrusted

incisions and dots. Traces o f black paint.
H. 7cm . Excavation ofVojvodjanski Muzej,
N ovi Sad, by B. Brukner, iy 6 i. Vojvodjanski Muzej, N ovi Sad. Publ. B. Brukner,
'Praistorisko naselje na potesu Beletintsi
kod O breia, Rad Vtijpotljanskikh Muzeja,
I! (iyf>2): 10S. Pl. V III: 1.

270

'i

16 Female figurine in tcrracotta from Late

Cucuteni (Cucuteni B) settlement at K rvnichka, district o f Balta. Podolia. Ukrainian
S S R . H. 10.5 cm. Naturalisticallv rendered
nude bodv vvith long hair indicatcd bv
incision ending in a tfat disc vvhich apparcntly portravsa large round coil. Face flat vvith
distinet contours o f a mask. Figure in a
slightlv stooping position. Arms held beneath long breasts. Ninctecnth-centurv
cxcav.ition. Ovvncd bv E. N. AntonovichMclnik. Kiev. Publ. N. E. Makarenko
'Sculpture dc la civilization tripolienne cn
Ukraine', I PUK (1927): 1 19.
17

Tcrracotta masked head vvith a conical cap

found 5 m. deep in Vina mound. MidVina. H. > cm. Light-brovvn fabric. Vasi*s
e.Ncavation. BU Collection. Sfi.S. Publ.
Vasi. I ina. III: Fig. >73-

Mask and phallic tand found in Phase IV

at Achilleion, near Farsala, Thessaly, Greece.
Grey clay vvith traces o f vvhite slip. Forehead damaged. Excavated 1973 by M.
Gimbutas. H. o f removable mask 3 cm., o f

2^ 2'

tand 6 cm.

Cylindrical terracotta head vvith incisions

S Terracotta female torso with incisions

indicating dress. H. 11 cm. Grey fabric
medium coarse. M id-Vina. Found 6.7 m.

2 Terracotta figurine o f fine fabric vvith

Belgrade ('aialo^uc II (1955): Pi. X V I.

\a.h.

(1938)\

18

iq

Five masks from different periods: 1, Vina

found 8.5 m. deep (Starevo). Publ. Vasi,
Vina, III: Fig. 50, Vina collection, inv.
874; ii, Vina, found 7.3 m. deep (Early
Vina). Publ. Vasi, Vina, II, 94, Fig. 187;
iii, Vina, found 6.5 m. dcep (Mid-Vina).
Publ. Vasi, Vina, II: Fig. 340, inv. 538;
iv, Vina, found 4.2 m. deep (carly Late
Vina). Publ. Vasi, Vinca, I: Pl. X X X V I ;
v, Vala at Kosovska M itrovica (Late
Vina). Publ. Tasi, Vala.

jo Terracotta head vvearing broad triangular

mask. H. 6.4 cm. Sevcn pairs o f perforations
in back o f head and one at cach upper
corner. Found 4.6 m. deep in Vina mound.
Vasis cxcavation. Publ. Vasi. Vina, III:
Fig. 366.
>1 Baked clay model o f a sanctuary vvith birdgoddcss image above the round opening
and plumage indicatcd by incision. L. 20
cm. Dark-brovvn fabric. Derives from unsvstematic excavations o f end o f nincteenth
centurv at La Lunca county o f Turda?
(Tordo) on the bank o f R . Murc$ (Maro),
Transylvania, Rom ania. Early Vina culturc, early fifth millennium b c . Arch.
Museum o fth e Institute o f Histor>\ Cluj.
Publ. Roska. Torina Collection.
_j C lay model o f a shrine. Izvoarelc. Gumclni{a site. lovver Danube. N A M Bucharest.
>i C lay model o f a shrine from Popudnia.
upper Dniester region. vvestern Ukraine.
Late Cucuteni. After M. Himner. 'tude
sur la civilisation prmvceniennc*.
trit. X IV ( 1933): Pl- XV III.
>4. 11 Plan and decorative detail ofthe Cascioarele
shrine, after V. Dumitrescu 'difice destine
au culte decouvert dans la couche Boian Span(ov dc la station - teli dc Cascioarele .
Dacia. X IV (1970): 20. Fig. 8 and colour
plate.
j.v jfl Plan o f a shrine and figurines found 011 its
altar. From Earlv Cucuteni (Tripolve)

271

settlement at Sabatinovka, Southern Bug

mound. N M Belgrade. After Popovitch

Revne Archeologicjue, II (1955).

Vallcy, Soviet Moldavia. After Makare

vich. 1960.
27, 28 Contents o f the shrine at Gournia (27):
perforated vessels from Knossos (2$). After
Nilsson 1950: 80.
29 Zoom orphic tand vvith angular perfora
tions from Turda, Transylvania. Early
Vina period c. 5000 bc. Museum o f Cluj.
io Plan o f a shrine from the Palae o f Knossos
(detail). After A. J. Evans, BSA VIII
(19 0 1-2 ): 9 5-102.
32 Gold ring from Mycenae. After Nilsson
1950: 81.
33 Terracotta ehairs or thrones from the settle
ment o f Ruse on the Danube, northern
Bulgaria. Gumelni^a complex, East Balkan
civilization.
After
Georgiev-Angelov,

34 Reconstruction o f a cult table vvith vases

from the settlement o f Pianul de Jos,
Pe trepti II phase, excavated 1963 by Itiliu
Paul. Scale o f vases is about 1:8 , ofjar under
the table 1 :1 6 . Reconstruction after luliu
Paul, Ein Kulttisch aus der jungsteinzeitlichen Siedlung von Deutschpien (Pianul
de Jos). Forschungen zur Volks- und Landesbunde, VIII. i (1965): 69-76.
jj; Minoan seal depieting a priestess vvith
triton shell beside an altar. After R . R .
Schmidt, Cucuteni (1932): Fig. 2 i ; also S.
Alexiou. Minoan Civilization (1969)* Fig.
49.
36 Late Vina terracotta figurine. Dravving
from photograph by Zervos reproduced in
Naissance. II: 460. Fig. 734.
terracotta

figurine

from 'the

Middle Minoan palae o f Tvlissos. After

Evans, Palae o f Minos. I: 634, Fig. 472.
{0> Cvlindrical Late Vina figurine in terra
cotta incised vvith ideograms and script
signs. Light-brovvn fabric. H. n .6 cm.
Found 3 m. deep in Vina mound. Vasi's
excavation. N M Belgrade. Publ. Vasi.
I 'ina. 111: 89. Fig. 455.
30 Terracotta figurine. Earlv Vina. H. approx.
5 cm. Light-brovvn fabric. From Vina

272

41 Tcrracotta spindle-vvhorl from the mound

o f Dikilitash near Philipi, Macedonia. After
Deshaycs, B C H , X C II (196): 1072.
42 Inscribed vessels from Gradenica near
Vraa, vvestern Bulgaria. After B. Nikolov,
*Plaque en argile avec des signes dcriture
du villagc Gradenica, dp. dc Vraa and
Vladimir I. Georgiev, Lcriturc sur la
plaque en argile du villagc Gradenica,
Arkheologija, X II, 3 (1970): 1-9 , Figs. 6, 7.
43

Ruse: 93. Fig- 53-

37 Inscribed

40 Miniature terracotta vessels from the Vina

site. Early Vina period. After Z . Letica
Minijature sudovi iz Vina, Zbornik
National Museum Belgradc, V (1967): 77126.

44

Burnt clay tablets, figurines, clay anehor

or figurine, and Sponylus bracelet found
in the ritual pit o f the Early Vina layer at
Tartaria near Cluj, Transylvania, vvestern
Romania. After N. Vlassa, *Chronology o f
the Neolithic in Transvlvania in the light o f
the Tilrtilria settlements stratigraphy,
Dacia, N .S. VII (1963): Fig. 7.
Inscribed clay objeets from Sukoro-Toradiilo, east o f Szkesfehrva'r. Early Vina
(Bicske type) settlement contemporary vvith
Linear Pottery culture. After j. Makkay,
'The Late Neolithic Turdag group o f signs,
Alba Regia (Szekesfehervar 1969): I, 2.3.

Painted geometric designs on Late Cucuteni

Found in the inside o f a clay silo dug in the 56, 37
vases from Sipintsi. A fter Kandyba, Schipeearth. Medvednjak at Sm cderevska Palan
nitz (1946).
ka, southeast o f Belgrade. Excavated 1969
by R . Miloevi o f the Naroden Muzej in
Exploded dravving o f decoration on a vase
Sm ederevska Palanka. Housed in this
from Dimbul M orii, a settlement o f Cucu
museum, Inv. M 23. Courtesy o f the
teni A - B phase at Cucuteni in northern
Sm ederevska Palanka Naroden Muzej.
Moldavia. Excavatcd 19 0 9 -10 by R . R .
Schmidt and from 1961 on by M. Petrescu^8 Terracotta stamp vvith incised quartcred
Dimbovi^a. Historical Museum o f Molda
design. Ruse, northern Bulgaria. Gumelvia, Iai. Publ. by M . Petrescu-Dimbovi^a,
ni$a com plcx. After Georgiev-Angelov.
Ruse: Fig. 48, j .
49 T erraco tta m iniature horns o f consecration.

2,
from the Ruse mound on the Danube
in northern Bulgaria. After G . Georgiev
and N . Angelov, Izvcstija, X X I (1957): 90,
Fig. 50, 4, 5. 3, Vina, afterj. Koroec. Acta
et Dissertationes 1! (1962, Zagreb): Pl.
X X X I X , 2.
50 Cucuteni vase vvith profile indicatcd (left
side) (a) and exploded dravving o f the
decoration (b). Cucuteni A phase from the
settlement o f H5b3$e$ti, northern Moldavia.
After V . Dumitrescu, Htibd{e$ti (1954): 289,
Pl. L X V 11.
5/ Dccorative motifs 011 Cucuteni B vases

from Sipintsi on R iver Prut, 15 km. northvvest o f Chernovitsi (Czcrnovvitz), Buko

vina. Exca vated at the end o f the nincteenth
century by J . Szombathy et al.
52 Terracotta cult vessel. Porodin. Reconstrueted. After Grbi. Porodin (1960): Pl.
X X V III: 4.

45 Dishes from the Gumelnifa Iayer o f the

Tangiru mound, locaIity 2, lovver Danube,
Rom ania. Diam. 16.5 cm. and 17.2 cm.
Painted vvith graphite. Excavation by D.
Berciu, 1959. N A M Bucharest. D. Berciu,
Tangiru (1959): Fig. 8; and Coniribufii: 434,
Fig. 2 i i .
46 Signs incised on inside and outsideofBylany
and other Linear Potterv dishes and jars in
Czechoslovakia. After B. S o u d sk y -1. Pavlu,
Imerpretation historique de lornement
linoaire*. Pamatky Archeologicke. LV II1
(1966): 9 1-12 5 .
47 Terracotta figurine vvith a flat crovvn bear
ing a quartercd incised design. Arms are
reduced to stumps and legs to a pointed
cone. 11. 4.5 cm. Fine reddish-brovvn fabric.

53 Classical Cucuteni vase and exploded dravv

ing o f decoration from Vladimirovka,
Southern Bug Valley, vvestern Ukraine.
1927-28 excavations by B. Bezvenglinski.
After T . S. Passek, Cerainicjue tripolienne:
Pl. X X I.
54 Tvvo dishes vvith black-on-rcd

painted
decoration from Tomashevka, northeast o f
Uman, vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni
(Tripo!ye C). Excavated 1924-27 by P. P.
Kurinnv. ;. 1 : 1 0 : 2, 1 : 5. After T . S. Passek.
Ceramujue tripolienne: Pl. X X X III.

55 Gumclnita vase from Tangiru, Southern

Rom ania. H. 10.8 cm. Graphitc-painted.
Excavation by D. Berciu, N A M Bucharest.
Publ. Berciu. ('outribufii: 441. Fig. 202.

Cucuteni (1966): Fig. 36.

59 Askos from the Early Vina layer o f the
Anza site betvveen Sv. N ikole and tip,
eastern Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Grey fab
ric. Burnished dark grey or black. H.
approx. 60 cm. Low er part reconstructed.
Naroden Muzej, tip. Excavation by M.
Gimbutas Publ. 1972 and 1976.
60 Vase vvith bird and egg design. Knossos,
temple repository. After Evans, Palae o f
Minos, Vol. I: Fig. 405, d.
61 Vase vvith bird design. Phylakopi III, Melos.
After Evans, Palae o f Minos, Vol. I: Fig.

+05
62 Hoilovvanthropomorphic-ornithomorphic
terracotta figurine. Starevo complex. C v
iindrical head broken off. Spiraliform ehannelling
around
the
buttock-shape
posterior. Fine light-brovvn fabric. H. 7.5
cm. Excavation by S. Karmanski. at Donja
Branje vina near Deronj. Archaeological
section, Museum at Odaci, northern Y u go slavia. Publ. by S. Karmanski, rtvenici,
statuete i aniuleti sa lokaliteta donja Branjevina
kod Deranja. (Odaci 1968): Fig. 1.
63 Tcrracotta figurine from Karanovo I deposit at the teli o f avdar, c. 60 km ., east o f
Sofia in central Bulgaria. The figurine is
flat in front. has a broad and high neck,
pinehed nose and horizontallv incised cyes.
Buttocks vvere probablv formed around a
birds egg. Stands on a cylindrical base.
Excavatcd 1970 by R . Katinarov. Archae
ological Museum o f the Bulgarian Academv
o f Sciences, Sofia.
64 Neolithic terracotta figurines vvith exaggerated buttocks from : /, Lepenski Vir.
northern Yugoslavia, Starevo com plex:
273

2, Crete; j , Karanovo I at Stara Zagora,

centrai Bulgaria. i, after D. Srejovi,
Lepenski Vir (1969): Fig. 43; 2, after P.
Ucko, Anthropomorphic figurines (196 $): No.
5 5; 3, after G . G eorgiev, Kulturgruppen der
jungstein- und der Kupferzcit in der Ebene
von Thrazien , UEurope a la fin de l'ge de la
pierre, Prague (1961), Pl. X X X II, 2.
63

Upper part o f a cult vase on the neck o f

vvhich the flattened mask o fa Bird Goddess
is portrayed in relief, from Sultana at
Olteni^a, !ower Danube, southvvestem
Rom ania. Acdentally diseovered in 1957H. 18.18 cm. Reddish-brown clay. Fine
fabric vvith some admixture o f mica and
chalk. The original shape o f the vessel vvas
roughly biconical. The neck is graphitepainted vvith rain torrent and spiral snake*
motifs in negative design. The goddess
arms indicated in relief on the shoulders.
Olteni^a Museum. Publ. by S. MarincscuBiicu and B. Ionescu, Catalogul sculpturilor
eneoliticedin. Museul raionalOlteni^a (1968).

66, 67 Pots from Tomashevka and Staraja Buda,

uppcr Siniukha Valley, Late Cucuteni
(Tripolye) sites in the vvestern Ukraine.
After Passck, Ceramique tripolienne.
68 Decorative motifs on Cucuteni B (Late
. TripoIyc) vases, painted in black. Sipintsi
(Schipenitz), Bukovina, the upper Dnicstcr
Valley. After Kandyba, Schipenitz.
69 Designs painted in dark-brovvn on orange
on a footed vasc from the Neolithic settle
ment o f Anza, central Macedonia. Anza Ili
(gcometric phase) vvhich equates vvith
Late Starevo in central and northern
Yugoslavia. Authors cxcavation o f 1970.
Publ. M. Gimbutas, Excavation at Anza,
Macedonia, Archaeology, 25, 2, 1972; 1976.
70 Beaker from Tsangli, Thessalv. After K.
Grundmann, Figurlichc Darstellungen in
der neolithischen Kcramik Nord und Mittelgriechenlands*, Jahrbuch des Deutschen
Archaologischen Institufs, 28 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : Abb. 28.
71 Designs painted in black on a red back
ground on Late Starevo vases from Gornja
Tuzla, Bosnia. Starevo at Belgrade and
Vinkovci at Vukovar. Based on : S. Dimi-

274

trijevi, Starevaka Kultura u Slavonskosrijemskom prostoru, Vukovar, 1969.

72 Neolithic ay stamp seals: 1 , Starevo
cuiture from Grabovac, Southern Yugoslavia. Publ. in Arheoloki Pregled, 9, Pl. I;
2y 3, 5, Karanovo I cuiture from avdar,
60 km. east o f Sofia, Bulgaria, courtesy G.
Georgiev, Archacological Museum in
Sofia; 4, R u g Bair at Sveti Nikole, eastern
Macedonia, YugosIavia. Authors excavation (U C L A and tip Museum) 1970,
Archacological Museum o f tip.
7 j Terracotta lid from Early Vina settlement
at Par^a, district o f Timioara, vvestern
Rom ania. H. approx. 20 cm. Muzeul
Banatului, Timioara. Courtesy o f this
Museum.
74 Fragment o f a terracotta lid vvith eyes, beak,
incised chevrons and vvater streams. Fine
fabric, coloured red. H. 13.5 cm., W . 11 cm.
Radacje, Mala near Ni, Southern Y ugoslavia. Early Vina settlement, excavated
from 1956 onvvards by D. Krsti. National
Museum o f Ni, Inv. No. 4 5 11. Publ. in:
Les civilisations prhistoriques de la Morava et
de la Serbie orientale. National Museum Ni,
Catalogue o f 1971 exhibit, No. 76.
75, 76 Terracotta figurines from the Sitagroi
mound. Drama Plain, northeastern Greece.
Sitagroi III. East Balkan civilization, Chal
colithic. M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C.
Renfrevv (Sheffield Univ.) excavation 1968.
Philipi Museum.
77

Fragment o f a terracotta figurine: head o f

Bird Goddess incised vvith chevrons and
parallel lines on top. Lozcnge-shaped eycs.
Ali incisions vvhite-encrusted. H. 3.5 cm.
Fine dark-grcy fabric. R ug-Bair at Sveti
Nikole, central Macedonia, Yugoslavia.
1960 excavations. Archaeological Museum
o f Skopje, Inv. No. 90. Publ. by National
Naroden Museum in tip: Les civilisations
prehistoriques de la Macedoine, Catalogue o f
the cx hi bit 19 71. N o. 71.

7 8 T erraco tta fi g ur ine p ro babi y pa rt o f a sm a! I

cult vessel. Grey fabric. H. 5.3 cm. Incised.
white-encrusted. Found 8.5 m. deep in the
Vina site. Earlv Vina. Vasi's excavation.

N M Belgrade. Vasi, Vina, II: 159, Fig.

330.
79 Terracotta double-headed tand vertically
perforated, from the Early Vina settlement
at Cm okalaka Bara near Raanj, south
eastern Yugoslavia. H. 5 cm. Light-brovvn
fabric. Polished. Shovvs contours o fa mask.
White-cncrusted incisions. Kruevac Mu
seum excavations 1959-60. Tasi-Tomi,
Cmokalaka Bara: Pl. X IV .
80 Terracotta seal from Predionica, Pritina.
Diam. 6.9 cm. Brick-red, fine fabric. 1955
excavations o f Pritina and N M Belgrade.
National Museum Pritina, Kosovo M eto
hije, Yugoslavia. R . Galovi, Predionica:
Pl. 79: i, 2.
81 Terracotta lid vvith anthropomorphic
features and incisions. H. approx. 20 cm.
Fine fabric, grcy in colour. Early Vina
settlement at Par{a, south o f Timioara,
vvestern Rom ania. Approx. 1 :2 . Museul
Banatului, Timi$oara.
82 Terracotta head o fa Classical Vina figurine
decorated vvith incised and vvhite enerusted
meanders and parallel lines. H. 10:0 cm.
Kremcnjak at Potporanj, south o f Vrac,
northeastern Yugoslavia. Excavated 1957
by R . Raajski o f the National (Narodni)
Museum o f Vrac, Inv. No. 81223. Publ. in
Praistorijska nalazita Vojvodine! Catalogue
o f the exhibit in N ovi Sad. 19 7 1: No. 7.
8 1 Upper part o f erude terracotta figurine o f
grey fabric, shovving masked head tilted
upvvards. Large meander incised over neck.
mask. arm stumps and chest. Potporanj at
Vrac. Early Vina settlement. Vrac mu
seum exeavation. Courtesv o f this Museum.
84 Terracotta figurine o fa bird vvith meander
incised on the back and vvings. Starting
belovv the beak, a hole runs through to the
back. Found 6.2 m. deep in Vina mound.
Classical Vina. H. 3.8 cm. Grev fabric.
Vasis excavation. B U Collection. 614
(1279). Vasi. Vina. III: PL C X X X I . Fig.
614.
8$ Stylized Early Vina terracotta figurine
vvith incised eyes, meanders and necklaces.
Light-brovvn fabric. H. 4.2 cm. Z. Torma

Collection from Tur da 5, Murc R iv er

valley, vvestern Rom ania. Archaeological
Museum o f the Institute o f History, Cluj,
M. Roska, Torma Coll.: PL C X X X I X : 4.
86 Fragment o f cylindrical terracotta figurine.
Light-brovvn fabric. Vina site at Agino
Brdo, Grodska, near Belgrade. Belgrade
C ity Museum, Inv. 3829. Courtesy o f this
Museum.
87 Terracotta figurine from Vina. Bottom
part o fa female figure on a throne. H. 6.5
cm. Broken offat vvaist. Vasis cxcavation.
N M Belgrade, Inv. 9232.
88 Terracotta lid decorated vvith design o f
meanders, chevrons and parallel lines;
vvhite-encrusted incisions. Lovver part
broken off. H. 9 cm. Fine grey fabric. Early
Vina. Aiud, Transylvania. Courtesy o f
History Museum, Cluj.
89 Ellipsoid plaquc vvith a flat base. Meander
design surrounded by chevrons and semicirclcs. L. 15.5 cm., W. 9.1 cm. Lightbrovvn fabric. One end reconstructed.
Vina settlement at Banjica near Belgrade.
Excavation o f Belgrade C ity Museum by
J. Todorovi. Belgrade C ity Museum. Inv.
1944.6. Publ. j. T od orovi-A Cerm anovi,
Banjica: PL X III: 5.
90 C lay tablet vvith a !abyrinth design (Cn
1287.V) from Pylos, vvestern Greece. After
L. J. D. Richarson, The labyrinth\ In
Palmer, Chadvvick. eds. Cambridge Colloqttiuni on Mycenaean studies (1966): 286.
91 C iay model o f a temple dedicated to the
Bird Goddess. Excised. vvhite-encrusted
meander pattern over entire front part.
Rectangular gate in centre has a polished
surface. Necklaces indicated in relief. H.
vvith the head (not preserved) about 38 cm.,
W. 28 cm. Vadastra, dist. o f Corabia,
southeast o f Oltenia. Rom ania. Publ. C. N.
Mateesco. 'U n maestru .ii escmilui arheologic Dionisie pecuraru*. Studii <i ccrcctari
de Istoria A rte. Seria Arta Plastica, X V II, 2
(n;70): Fig. 2.
92 Details o f vase decoration and a decorated
vase from Traian (Dcalul Fintinilor), Cu-

-275

cuteni A -B Iayer o f the settlement in north

ern M oldavia, northeastern Rom ania. After
Hortensia Dumitrescu, Dacia, N .S. IV
(1960): 34, Fig. 2.
9 j Upper Palaeolithic figurines o f bone vvith
engraved meanders and chevrons from
Mezin on the R iver Desna, vvestern
Ukraine. After A. Salmony, Some Palae
olithic ivory carving from Mezine, Artibus
Asiae, 12, N o. 1/2 (1949): *07. Figs. 1 and 2;
and 1. G. Shovkopljas Mezinskaja stoj an ka,
Kiev (1965), Pl. 48.

100 Cycladic figurine o f vvhite marble vvith a

massive phallus-shaped head. Protruding
nose, but no eyes. Breasts slightly indicatcd
and held by hands. Almost conical legs.
Rounded, vvell proportioned buttocks. H.
12.9 cm. After Marie Luise and Hans
Erlenmeyer, Von der fruhen Bildkunsc der
Kykladen, Antike Kunst, VIII, 2 (1965):
Pl. 18 :6 and 7.

94 Proto-Sesklo terracotta figurine in form o f

a bird-phallus hybrid. Hole on top. Birdlike vvings and tail indicatcd. Broken ac
bottom. Light-brovvn fabric. H. 10 cm.
Tsangli, Thessaly. Excavated and published
by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson,
Prehistoric Thessaly (1912). Archaeological
Museum in Volos, Thessaly.

101 Fragments o f seated marble figurine vvith

folded arms from the settlement o f Ruse,
northern Bulgaria. Gumelni^a comp!ex
(Karanovo VI). Excavaced betvveen 1948
and 1953- Publ. by Georgiev-Angelov, 107,
Fig. 64.

95 Large vase from Anza, central Macedonia,

Yugoslavia. Anza IV period, Early Vinca.
H. 92 cm. The pithos vvith bird's face
indicatcd on the neck (24 cm. high) vvas
diseovered broken into many small fragments. The body o f che vase except for the
bottom p3rt is decorated vvith bands painted
altcrnately in cream and red. A red band
slants dovvn on either side o f the beak.
Necklace vvith tvvo pendants ac the ends
shovvn in relief. U C L A (auchors) and cip
Naroden Museum excavacion o f 1970.
Housed (unreconstructed) in Naroden Mu
zej. tip. Publ. M. Gimbutas Exeavacions
at Anza, Macedonia'. Archtieology, 25. 2.
1972.
Also 1976.

102 Marble figure vvith folded arms from near

the village o f Blagoevo, region o f Razgrad,
Bulgaria. H. approx. 32 cm. Found in frag
ments in the area o f che settlement mound.
O val head vvith nose, cyes (pupils shovvn
vvith little pics), and ears. The ears have four
perforations each, to vvhich copper earrings vvere attached. Other features inciude
an arm-band 011 the right arm, a small pit
for the navel. a pubic triangle, depressions
for trigonum tumbale on the butcocks and
back of the knees. Traces o f red colouring
on the eyes and ears. Afcer cuccing vvith
flint. che figure vvas smoothed vvith sandseone. and the pits vvere made vvith a bone
tool, sand and vvater. Publ. bv G. Georgiev,
'Eine Marmorscatuecce aus Blagoevo,
Bezirk Razgrad . Izrestija. 19 (1955), 1 1 - 1 3 .

96 Terracotta figurine o fa vvoman seated on a

cabouret holding a babv. Head broken olf.
Painted in brovvn on cream in horizontal,
vertical and spiral bands. Dimini period ac
Sesklo near Volos, Thessalv. Excav.ued and
published bv Tsountas, 1908. Athens
National Museum: 36. Inv. 5937. Zervos.
.\aissancc, Vol. II: 305, Fig. 395.
97 Painted figure ofa Snake Goddess on the leg
o f an altar-table from Phaistos, Southern
Crete. H. 18 cm. Proto-palatial period.
Heraklion. Archaeological Museum, Gal!cry III. Case 42. No. 10576.

276

42.5 cm. high and its lid (noc recovered)

probab!y portrayed the Goddess face. A
gold pendanc vvas found on her chest
bccvveen the breasts. Gumelnita B (or
114-116
Gumelnita III in D. Bercius classificacion).
Incised lines, circles and lozenges enerusted
vvith vvhite colour. D. Rosettis 1934 excavation. Publ. Rosetti, Vidra; Idem, Sceinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem Wohn1/7
h ii gel bei Bucharest, IP E K , 12. Bucharest
Cicy Museum.

98, 99 Terracotta figurines from Hacilar, Konya

Plain, central Anatolia. 98, H. (reconstrueted) 10.2 cm .; 99, 9.2 cm. After J.
Mellaart, Excavation at Hacilar, Anatolian
Studies, X I (1961): Figs. 11 and 14.

106 Pottery dish from Pietrele, county Giurgiu,

district o f Ilfov, area o f Bucharest. Graphitepainted. Diam. 46.3 cm. Gumelnifa complex. East Balkan civilization. Excavated
1943-48 by D. Berciu. N A M Bucharest.
Publ. by D. Berciu in Materiale Cercetari
Arheol. 2 (1956): Fig. 42.
107 Pottery dish from Petreni, vvescern Ukraine.
Painted in chocolace-brovvn on oehre-red.
Diam. 51 cm. Afcer Passek, Cramiqtte
tripolienne.
108 Double-egg (or buttock)-shaped poctery
bowl. Pietrele. Gumetnifa complex. Diam.
15.8 cm. Graphice painted on outsie.
Source as 106.
109, n o Figurines vvich che upper pare broken otf.
shovving double-eggs in the inside o f the
bclly. N o vye Rusesluy I setclemenc. Classi
cal Cucuteni (Tripolye). After V. I. Markevich. Mnogoslojnoe poselenie N ovye
Rusesluv I'. K S IIM K . 123 (1970): 64.

/<>5 Anthropomorphic vase. knovvn as God

dess o f Vidra', from the Gumelnija settle
ment at Vidra, district o f Giurgiu south o f
Bucharest, lovver Danube basin. The vase is

petiitz: 57. Figs. 41 and 42Late Minoan decorative dravvings. Afcer

Evans, Palae o f Minos. 1 1 4 : Vol. II, b, Fig.
456; 1 1 5 : Vol. IV, 1, Fig. 2 9 1 , 1 1 6 : Vol. Ih
b, Fig. 368.
Vessel in che shape o f a dog. H. 8.2 cm.
Found 7.8 m. deep at the Vina site.
Shoulders have perforations for a scring or
ehord to be drawn chrough. Vasis excavation. B U Colleccion. Publ. by Vasi,
Vinca, 11: Pl. X C L 347-

. 1 1 8 Lid handle o f a poc in che shape o f a masked

dog. H. 4.5 cm., L. 5 cm. Diseovered dur
ing che excavation o f 1952-53 in Goljamata
Mogila at Gorni Pasarel, central Bulgaria,
together vvith graphite-painced poctery.
Fiat face vvich a pronounced conical nose obviousIy representing a mask. Notches on
the back and on the front legs. East Balkan
Karanovo VI. Excavacion o f the Institute o f
Archaeology o f the Bulgarian Acaem y o f
Sciences, carried out by N. Petkov. Publ.
N. Petkov, Zhivotinski dekorativen ele
ment v eneoiitnata keramika pri Gorni
Pasarel, Izvestija, X X I (1957): 291-94.
119 Lid o f a sceatite pyxis vvich a handle on top
in the form o f a dog. From Mochlos, Earlv
Minoan II settlement, eastern Crete. Reprouccd from R. Dussaud, Les civilisations
prehelleniques dans le bassin de la mer Egee
(Pari 1914, 2nd ed.) : 38. Fig. 20.

111

Anthropomorphic vase in shape of female

butcocks vvich tvvo small lugs on top.
Painted vvhite on red. H. 10. i cm. Cucuteni
A phase. Izvoare at Piatra Neam^. district
o f Bacim, northeastern Romania. Excavations ofth e Instituce o f Archaeologv ofth e
Academv o f Sciences. Bucharest, bv R .
Vulpe 1936-48. N A M Bucharest. Publ.
Vulpe. Izvihirt". Figs. to6. 107.

120 Stylized dog in a menaeing attitude. painted

i 11 black on a very large, oehre-red vase o f
Cucuteni B period from che seetlement o f
Varvarovka near Kishenev. Soviet Mol
davia. Excavated 1967 bv V. 1. Markevich.
Archaeological Museum o fth e Institute o f
Historv ofth e Academv o f Sciences o fth e
Moldavian S .R ., Kishenev.

1u

Black-on-rcd painted design on inside o fa

bovvl. Koszylovvce. vvescern Ukraine. Late
Cucuteni (Cucuceni B) period. After R vbakov. (?osw(>i*ony: Fig. 24.

12 1 Black-on-rcd painted vase from Krutoborodintsi. vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuceni

civilization. Reproduced from R vbakov,
Cosmogony (1965).

1 i i Exploded dravvings o f shoulder decoration

motifs 011 large amphoras from the Cucu
teni B settlement o f Sipintsi (Schipenitz).

122 Painted vase trom-Valea Lupului, northern

Moldavia. Rom ania. 11. 52.8 em. Black and
red on cream background. Cucuceni B

ii\i Fiat figurines o f bone from the settlement

of Ruse on the lovver Danube. norehern
Bulgaria. Diseovered in the settlement area.
Kxcavarios o f 1950 53 bv GeorgievAngelov. Ruse.
104 Invemorv from a single grave in the
cemeterv o f Vykhvacintsi, Soviet Mol
davia. See ref. 149. 150 (half-tone plates).

northvvest o f Chernovitsi, Bucovina in

vvestern Ukraine. After Kandyba, Schi-

277

period. After M . Petrcscu-Dimbovifa,

S C IV , V I : 704, Fig. 14, 1.

5730 from this level range from 5850 94

to 5781 96. After Meilaart, Qatal: 127,
Fig. 40.

123 Potsherds vvith representations o f a tree in

association vvith dogs, from Sipintsi, 15 km.

130 Figure incised on a globular vase from the

northvvest o f Chem ovitsi, Bukovina. After

settlement at Borsod, Biikk cuiture. Mis-

124

Kandyba, Schipenitz: 75.

kolc, Hermann Otto Museum. Excavation

Patterns on large conical bowls, betvveen

by A. Leszik, J. Hillebrand and F. Tom pa

1926-48. F. Tom pa, Die Bandheramih in
Ungarn, Budapest (1929): PL X V III, 3.

30 and 50 cm. in diameter, from Cucuteni

B settlements in the vvestern Ukraine. Black
or chocolate-brovvn painted on ochre red.
1, 2, 4, 5, 7 after Passek, La iramique tripolienne (1935): V II; 3, 6, 8 after Kandyba,
Schipenitz: 84-87.
125 Orange-coloured bovvt shaped like a
modern salad bovvl, vvith abstract design on
inside. D og, inner crescents and leavcs
around the cdge painted red, rest o f design
black. Diam. 41 cm. Bilcze Zlote, south o f
Tarnopol in vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucu
teni. Courtesy o f Archacological Museum,
Cracovv.
126 O val containers vvith stylized zoomorphic
design. Sipintsi, Late Cucuteni site betvveen
the upper Prut and upper Dniester. R ep rouced from Kandyba, Schipenitz: 89, Figs.
123 and 124.

129. Shrine from (,!atal Hiiviik. Konva Plain,

central Anatolia. Reconstruction b v j. Mcllaart, Level VI A. shovving restored north
,md vvest vvalls. C 14 dates.vvith half-life o f

27*

209.
Terracotta hedgehog from

O scioarcle,

13 1 Anthropomorphic figure engraved on a

sherd from the base o f a dish o f early Lincar
Pottery cuiture. Settlement o f Koleovice,
district o f Rakovnik, Bohemia, Czecho
slovakia. After H. Quitta, Forschttngen zur
Vor- und Fri'ihgeschichte, Leipzig (1957), 2,
81. 2. Pot from the Linear Pottery settle
ment o f Prague-Bubenec, after A. Stock^,
La Boheme Prhistorique, I, L'age de Pierre,
Prague (1929): 183.
132 Painted amphora. H. 12.5 cm. First Palae
o f Phaistos, Southern Crete. Middle Minoan
I.
After Zervos, Crete: Fig. 346.
133

Bronze toad. L. 8.2 cm. Peloponnese. Exact

proveniencc not knovvn, but Corinth is
highly probable. Inscription Afiiov Lcovdov
Bodcovi, as reconstructed by Frankel, is
connected vvith the name o f the vvorshipper.
Datcd not later than the early part o f the
fifth century b c . Berlin, Museum o f the
Archaeological Institute. After M. Frankel,
'Gevveihter Frosch, Jahrbuch des Kaiserlich
Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Bd. I
(1887): 48-53-

134 Terracotta figurine o f a toad. A face, breasts

and vulva are indicated on the underside.
Found in a crcmation grave in the ccmetcry
o f Maissau, lovvcr Austria. After Gulder.
Maissau: 10 1. Abb. 56. 2.
t j3

Amber toad from Vetulonia. diseovered by

I.Falehi in 1894. L. 3.5 cm. After Gulder.
Maissau: 53. Reproduced from I. Falehi.
Not. d. stari 1895: 316, Fig. 33.

t j

Ivorv figurines from the sanctuary at

Orthia at Sparta. After R . M. Davvkins,
'Excavation at Sparta'. Annual ofthe British
School at Athens. No. XIII, Session 1906-7,
and H. J. Rose. 'The Sanetuarv o f Artemis
Orthia .u Sparta, J H S 1906-10: Pl. G X V .

Gold ring from a grave at Isopata, north o f

Knossos. Diam. 2.6 cm. Redravvn from the
photograph in C . Zervos, Crete: Fig. 632.
Mycenaean gold chrysalis and Minoan seal
impression. Reproduced from Arthur
Evans, The R in g o f Nestor, J H S , X L V ,
Part I (1925): Figs- 45. 47-

Gumelni^a layer, Southern Rom ania. H.

6.1 cm. N M Bucharest. Publ. Dumitrcscu,
U art Roumanie: Pl. 109.

127 Terracotta figurine-from Hacilar, Konya

Plain, central Anatolia, north o f Kizilkaya.
L. 7 cm. Found in House Q s o f the Late
Neolithic village (early sixth millennium
b c ) . Hacilar VI period. After J. Meilaart.
Excavations at Hacilar'. Anatolian Studies,
XI (19 6 1); 59, Fig. 20.'
128 Female figure in relief on'a potsherd o f a
large vase o f Starevo type from SarvaS,
Vlastelinski brijeg, district o f Osijek, R iver
Drava basin, northvvestern YugosIavia.
Found in the iovvest laver o f this stratified
site knovvn for its Lcngvel and Vuedol
settlements above the Starevo, during
R . R . Schmidts excavation o f 1942-43.
Osijek Museum. Publ. by R . R . Schmidt.
Dic Bi trg Vuedol (Zagreb 1945). Dravving
after authors photograph in 1968.

146
tf 7 Modern folk toads made o f wax from the
Austrian Alpine region. j, 2, after R . Kriss
Die O pferkrote, Bayerischer Heimatschutz
(1930): 10 7 ; 3, after K. Spiess, Die Krote,
1 4 7, i 48
ein Bild der Gebarmutter , Mitra (19 14):

O nyx gem from Knossos, c. 1500 b c .

Reproduced from Zervos, Crete: Fig. 629.
140 Design on one face o f three-sided bead seal
from Kateli Pedeada, southeast o f Knossos,
Crete. After Evans, Palae oj' Minos, vol.
III: R 4 , Fig. 93 A, d.
141 Design on a painted Boeotian amphora.
After Efemeris Archeol. (1892): PL 10, /.
142 Masked figure painted in chcrry-re on
vvhite Proto-Sesklo vase (shovvn in black;
other similar figures reconstructed). Lovvcr
layer o f the Otzaki Magula, 8 km. north o f
Larissa, Thessaly. xcavated 1954 by Vladi
mir Miloji. Larissa Museum. Publ. by V.
Miloji, Ausgrabungen in Thessalien,
Nette deutsche Ausgrabungen in Mittelmeergebeit und in Vorderen Orient: 226, 22829,
Abb. 2. Typological relationships to other
Proto-Sesklo sites (Argissa, Nea Nikomedeia) place the Proto-Sesklo phase at
Otzaki vvithin the period o f6 5 0 0 -6 3 0 0 b c .
143 R elief o f a schematized Bee Goddess on a
Linear Danubian potsherd from Holaovice.
After V. Karger. Publ. by Gulder. Maissau.
144 Potsherd vvith a relief portraying a figure

vvith upraised arms and outspread legs

flanking a triangular protuberance. Classieal
Cucuteni (Cucuteni A 2 phase) settlement
o f Tru$c$ti-Tuguicta, northern Moidavia.
Rom ania. Publ. by M. Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a, Einigc Probleme der Cucuteni-Kultur
im Lichte der ncucn archaologischen Grabungen . tudijne Zvesti, No. 17 ( f 9^9) ;
368.
143 A Mycenacan gem. after G. E. Mvlonas.
Mycenae and the Mycenaean age (1966): 125.
No. 27.

149 Rcpresentation, on a mould, o f goddess

holding butterfiies (double-axes).
Zervos, Crete: 451, Fig. 746.

After

130 Butterfly signs engraved on inside and outside o f jars and dishes from the Linear
Pottery sites o f B ylan y and elsevvhere in
Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. After B . Soudsky and I. Pavlu, Interpretation historique
de lornement lin<5aire, Pamdtky Archeologiclte, LVII, 1 (1966): 9 1-12 5 .
13 1 Myccnacan krater from Salamis, Cyprus
(Enkomi). British Museum. First publishcd
by Arthur Evans in J H S , X X I (19 0 1): 107,
Fig. 3.
132 Detail o f a Middle Minoan III vase from
Knossos, painted vvith a zone o f doubleaxcs. After Zervos, Crete: 304, Fig. 440.
133 Painted m otif on a Late Minoan 1 vase from
Mochlos. After A. B. C ook, Zeus, vol. II,
1: 527, Fig. 395 (republished from G. B.
G(ordon), The doubIe-axe and some other
symbols , University o f Pcnnsylvania: The
Museum Journal 1916 , VII, 48: Fig. 38).
134 Terracotta rattles containing clay balls, in
shape o f a pregnant goddess, found in a
grave. The rattles are perforated through
the neck. Painted black on red. Cucuteni B
period. Vykhvatintsi cemetcry in Sovict
Moidavia, childs grave No. 13. Attcr T . S.
Passek, K S IIM K . 56 (h ;54): 94- 95133 Broken-off lovvcr portion o f terracotta
figurine, vvith a clav bali vvithin the bellv.
N ovye Ruseshty I settlement near Kishe
nev. upper Dniester region. Sovict M oi
davia. After A. P. Kusurgasheva, Anthropomorfnaja plastika iz poselenija N ovye
Ruscshty*. K S IIM K , 123 (1970): Fig- 7413 0 Terracotta figurines vvith grain impressions.
Luka-Vrublevetskaja,
Proto-Cucuteni
(Early Tripolyc) settlement in Dniester
279

valley. After B ibikov, Luka-Vrublevetskaja, M IA , 38 (1958): Pls. 77, 7#, 82.

1,57 Lower part o f terracotta figurine from Luka
Vrublevetskaja, Proto-Cucuteni (Early
Tripolye) site, vvestern Ukraine. H. 8 cm.
Light-brovvn fabric, vvhite-filled incisions.
Quadripartite lozenge vvith a dot in each
section incised above belly, snake spirals on
buttocks. Tapering legs totally schematized
and incised with horizontal lines. Museum
o f Ethnology, Leningrad. Publ. Bibikov,
M IA , 38 (1958): 400, Pl. 108.
158 Schematic terracotta figurine from Vidra,
Southern Rom ania. Gumclni{a A phase.
Bucharest C ity Museum. After D. Rosetti,
Steinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem
Wohnhugelbci Bukarest , IP E K , 12 (1938):
Pl. 12.
159 , 160 Schematic terracotta figurines from the
Sitagroi mound, Macedonia, Greece. H.
approx. 5 cm. Period II o f this mound (fifth
millennium b c ) . Light-brovvn fabric. 159:
SF 313 0 ; 160: SF 498. Philipi Museum.
161 Terracotta plaque vvith incised and vvhiteencrusted lozenges and spirals. Vinca settle
ment at Potporanj (upper layer o f this site)
near Vrac, northeastern Yugos!avia. 13,4
x 7.9 cm. Narodni Muzej Vrac, Inv. No.
1233. After Praistorijska nalazita Vojvodine,
Novi Sad (1971), Fig. 6.
162 Fragment o f a terracotta figurine. R edslipped, and vvith black-painted design.
Period III o f Sitagroi teli: Gum elnip
cuiture. Excavated 1968 by A. C. Renfrevv
(ShetHel University) - M. Gimbutas
(U C L A ), Philipi Museum.
/6? Fragment o f a figurine comprising abdominal area and part o f a thigh. Geometrical patterns o f vvhite-encrusted incised
lines and dots. Gumelnifa A (or 1) phase
from che Tangiru mound, lovver Danube
region. Max. dimension9.4 cm. Excavation
by the Institute o f Archaeology o f the
Academy o f Sciences o f the Romanian
P .R . by D. Berciu. N A M Bucharest. After
D. Berciu, Sur les resultats du controle
stratigraphique a Tangiru et a Petru Rare\
Docia, 1959: 65. Fig. 5. 71 64 Black polished disc vvith vvhite enerustation.

280

D iam . approx. 4 cm . T eli o f Ploskata

M ogila, Z la ti trap near P lo v d iv , central
B ulgaria. Gumelni^a cuiture. P lo v d iv M u
seum. Publ. P. D etev, Izvestija, Scries 2,
V ol. 18 (19 5 2 )' 337 . Fig- 333 -

165 Fragmentsofterracotta figurinesportraying

pigs impressed vvith grain from the ProtoCucuteni (Early Tripolye) settlement o f
Luka Vrublevetskaja, uppcr Dniester basin.
After Bibikov, M IA , 38 (1958): 406, Fig.
114 . Leningrad, Museum o f Ethnology o f
the Academy o f Sciences.
166 Phallus-shaped clay artifacts, possibly used
as stems for vvine cups , as reconstructed
by . Batovi. Danilo settlement at Smili
near Zadar. Excavated 1958 by S: Batovi.
Archaeological Museum in Zadar. After
. Batovi, Problem kulta phallosa u
Danilskoj kulturi, Diadora, 4 (1968): Fig. 3,
Pl. IV, 3.
167 Cylindrical
terracotta
figurine
vvith
pinehed-up nose, incised eyes, and breasts.
Incisions around the top. Widening ba$e.
H. 5.5 cm. Cmokalaka Bara at Rujite
near Raanj. Found in Starevo layer ofthe
stratified settlement. Excavated 1959 by R .
Galovi. N M Belgrade. Publ. R . Galovi,
Die Starevo-kultur in Jugoslaw ien\ Die
Anfange des Neolithikums von Orient bis
Nordeuropa, U: Pl. 13. 4.
1 68 Phallus-shaped terracotta tand vvith male
genitals. Broken at neck and at arm stumps.
Pavlovac (locality called ukar), upper
Morava basin. Southern Yugoslavia. Early
Vina. H . 5.2 cm. Fine )ight-grey fabric.
NM Belgrade and Archaeological Institute
excavationof 1955. N M Belgrade, Inv, No.
14923. Publ. M. and D. Garaanin in
Starinar (1956-57): 398.
169 Terracotta figurine from the habitation sire
o f Tru$e$ti-Tuguieta. district o f Ia$i,
northern Moidavia. Rom ania. Cucuteni
A' phase. Light brovvn fabric. H. 3.2 cm.
Excavated 1953 by M. Petrescu-Dimbovifa
and Adrian C. Florescu. Archaeological
Museum Ia$i. Publ. A. and M. Florescu,
Santierul arheologie Tru$e$ri\ Materiale
si Cercetari Arheologice. V II: 8 1, 82. Figs. 2
and 3.
170 Srvlized buli o f red baked elav. burnished
and vvell fired. Probably used as a lamp.

Perforations above each leg and through

nose and tail for suspension. Painted black
on red. H. 10,6 cm., L. 16.44 cm. Sitagroi
mound, Drama Plain, eastern Macedonia,
Greece. Period III o f Sitagroi. Dikilitash
(Gumelni{a) variant o f East Balkan civiliza
tion. Diseovered in 1968 during M. Gim
butas (U C L A )-A . C. Renfrevv (ShefTield
Univ.) excavations. Philipi Museum, SF
1207.

H A L F -T O N E

17 1 Terracotta figurine o f a nude seated

Thinker vvearing a large mask vvith six
perforations for attachments. Fine brovvn
fabric. H. 7 cm. Vidra, Gumelni^a settle
ment, lovver Danube. 1934 excavation by
D. Rosetti. Bucharest C ity Museum. Publ.
V. Rosetti, IP E K , 12 (1938): 29-50.

PLATES

1 Bird Goddess from Achilleion, near Farsala,

Thessaly, Greece. H. 6.1 cm. Orange-pink
clay, originally vvhite-slipped. Incised
coffee-bean eyes. The head is that o f a
beaked bird but the hair-do is human and
made. to resemble a bun. The cylindrical
neck damaged during recovery. Excavated
1973 by M . Gimbutas.
2 Terracotta schematized figurine found in
the lovvcst layer o f the Vina mound.
Starevo comp!ex. Hair incised on top o f
cylindrical upper portion. Fine brovvn
fabric. Excavated 1931 by Vasi. H. 10.6
cm. B U Collection, No. 856. Publ.: Vasi,
Vina, II: Pl. 22, Figs. 54/7,6; III: Fig. 36;
N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 44.
ShefTield Catalogue (1969): 48.
3, 4 Early Vina schematic figurine found 8.4 m.
deep in Vina mound. Vasis cxcavations.
H. 12.4 cm. Baked clay, pale red. Normal
breasts, conical belly, pronounccd buttocks.
Stumps for arms. Triangular head indicates
mask. B U Collection, 885. Publ. Vasi,
Vinca, I: Pl. X V III, Fig. 92.
^ Marble figurine from the site o f Gradac,
near Leskovac, Southern Yugoslavia. H.
6.5 cm. Excavated 1909 by Vasi. N M
Belgrade, 861. N M Belgrade Catalogue
(1955), 1: 22, II, Pl. 17. Fig. 5.
6 Bone figurine. No head, globes for arms.
Emphasized abdominal area. Legs reduced
to a cone. H. 4.8 em. Diseovered in a grave

o f the cemetcry o f Cernica - Cildraru,

distr. o f Ilfov, near Bucharest, Rom ania.
Early Boian complex. Excavated 1961-6 7
by Gh. Cantacuzino. N A M , Bucharest.
Publ. Gh. Cantacuzino, The prehistoric
necropolis o f Cernica and its place in the
neolithic cultures o f Rom ania and o f
Europe in the light o f recent iscoveries,
Dacia, N .S. XIII (1969): 53, Fig. 5, jo .
7, 8 Terracotta figurine o f a seated nude female
from Thessaly, assigned by D. R . Theo
charis to the Sesklo period. Isolated fmd.
H. 8 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Three
panels o f hair indicated in relief. Coffeebean eyes. Pronounced nose. Pointed
buttocks. Archaeological Museum Volos,
Thessaly. Publ. D. R . Theocharis, Bakalakis Festschrift (1971).
9 Classical Vina terracotta figurine vvith
flattcned upper, and rounded lovvcr part.
Pentagonal (masked) head. Tvvo perfora
tions in each arm stump. From the site o f
Selevac near Smederevska Palanka, south
east o f Belgrade. Fine grey fabric. H. 12 cm.
1969 excavations o f N M Belgrade and
Smederevska Palanka Museum by R .
Galovi. National Museum, Smederevska
Palanka. Courtesy o f this museum.
10 Terracotta squatting figurine vvith a smooth
grey surface. Incisions and punetate design
indicate dress. Late Vina. Found 5.1 m.
deep in Vina mound. H. 7.9 cm. B U
Collection, 1197. Vasi, Vina, II: 150, Fig.

281

3 i }a,b,c; HI: Fig. 499; N M

Catalogue (1968): N o . 154.
11,12

Belgrade

Terracotta figurine o f a squatting man.

Hands on tightly drawn-up knees. Fafos I
at Kosovska M itrovica. Early Vina period.

published by N . Slavkovi-D juri: Clasnik

Muzeja Kosova i Metohije, VIIV III: Fig. 3.
Regional Museum Pritina, B a-S N /i. N M
Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 105; Sheffield
Catalogue (1969): PI. 15.

H. 6.8 cm. Fine dark-grey fabric. xcavatcd

1959 b y J.G li5iand B.Jovan ovi. Regional
Museum Pritina, Inv. F-I-7c~d/2250. N M

18, 19 Terracotta figurine from Late Vina settle

ment o f Crnokalaka Bara at Rujite near
Raanj, north o f Ni, Yugoslavia. H. c. 14

Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 62; Sheffield

Catalogue (1969): 66, Pl. 13.

cm. Head missing. B row n fabric, burnished,

vvhite-encrusted incisions indicating dress.
Tvvo perforations in each shoulder. Navel
indicatcd by depression. N M Belgrade
excavations o f 1959 by R . Galovi. Courtesy o f N M Belgrade.

13, 14 Terracotta figurine from the Cucuteni B

period ofthe Sipintsi (Schipcnitz) settlement
15 km. northwest o f Chernovitsi in the
upper Prut Valley, Bukovina, U S S R .
Orange-red fabric, polished surface. H. 11
cm. Female body schematically rendered.
Perforations for eyes. Head flat at the back,
protruding nose, no arms, a cone for legs.
Breasts and navel indicatcd. White-filled
incisions for necklaces, belt and fringes in
front. On the back. a lung-shaped design,
probably symbolic. Excavated 1893 by J.
Szombathy et al. Naturhistorisches M u
seum, Vienna. Publ. O. Kandyba, Schipenitz: 15 1, Fig. 5 1.
15 Terracotta figurine. H. 12 cm. Impressed
dots form necklaces and hip-belt and border
pubic triangle. Arm stumps and hips per, forated. Head broken off. Legs shown.as a
cone. End o f skirt indicated by two rovvs o f
circles. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Burnished.
Bilcze Zlote. Late Cucuteni settiement,
upper Dniester basin. Courtesy Craco.vv
Archaeological Museum.
16 Upper part o f a large terracotta figurine.
H. 28.7 cm. Fafos II, at Kosovska Mitrovica,
Kosovo Metohije. Yugoslavia. Late Vina.
Fine dark-grey fabric. Incisions over mask
and body. Eyes and medallion ih raised
relief. Hands on hips. Excavated 1959 bv
J. Glii and B. Jovan ovi. Regional Mu
seum. Pritina, F-II-2B/263. N M Belgrade
Catalogue (1968): 97: Sheffield Catalogue:
104.
17 Tcrracotta figurine. originallv seated on a
throne (novv lost). Orange-red fabric with
\v hi te- filled incisions. H. 25 cm. Surface
find from Bariljevo near Gazimestan.
district o f Pritina. Kosovo Metohije province o f Ytigoslavia. Late Vina, First

282

cm. Contours o f rough!y triangular mask

with large nose and plastically modelled
eyes clearly indicated. The figure leans forward slightly. Protruding belly and but
tocks indicate padded knickers. Knickers
and V-nccked blouse rendered by incision.
Hands broken off. Excavated 1959 by J.
Gliiand B .Jovan ovi. Regional Museum,
Pritina, F -I-i7 0 / 12 5 1. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 60; Sheffield Catalogue (1969):
64 (misleadingly called a wom an).
26 Terracotta figurine from the Vina mound.
Grey fabric, Arms broken. Hump on the
back. O riginally part o f a large vessel.
Pentagonal mask considerably larger than
head. N o facial features. Vasis cxcavation.
B U Collection, 4403. Museum: Kosovska
M itrovica (H 1-V0-80). Sheffield Catalogue
(1969): 178, Pl. 13.

20 Terracotta seated figurine from arija at

Ripen, central Yugoslavia. Fine grey fabric,
polished surface. H. 16.1 cm. Head, arms
and feet broken off. One side and buttocks
damaged. Otherwise vvell preserved.
Breasts, navel, hip-belt, apron, and leg
bindings indicated by white-encrusted in
cisions. Excavatcd 1906 by Vasi and pub
lished by him in Glas Sprske Kraljevske
Akademije, L X X : Pl. X and X I, Fig. 14.
N M Belgrade, 765. N M Belgrade Catalogue
(1968): 14 1.

27 Masked head found 5.7 m. deep in Vina

mound. Ears are indicated protruding from
belovv the mask. Dark-red terracotta. R e
mains o f red paint on top o f head and over
the ears. H. 9.6 cm. Vasis excavation. BU
Collection, 4956. Publ. Vasi, Vina, III:
Pl. X X V III, Fig. 139.

21 Lovver part o f terracotta statuette from Late

Vina settlement o f Crnokalaka Bara at
Rujite near Raanj, north o f Ni. Light
brovvn fabric vvith vvhite-encrusted inci
sions, polished surface. H. 13 cm. N M
Belgrade. inv. 20945.
Galovi, Archeoloki Pregled (1960).

28 Masked head o f fine dark-grey fabric on

cvlindrical neck. Late Vina. H. 7.7 cm.
Surface find during 1955-56 N M Belgrade
excavation by R . Galovi. Regional Mu
seum, Pritina, inv. 162. Publ. R . Galovi,
Predionica: Pl. 16: /; NM Belgrade (1968):
100; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): Pl. 13 : 107.

22 Legs o f a large tcrracotta statuette found

5.1 m. deep in Vina mound. H. 6.9 cm.
Diagonnl incisions over calves. Toes indi
catcd by incision. R ed paint on toes. Black
fabric. smooth. lustrous surface. Vasis
excavation. B U Collection. 4 .12 13 . Publ.
Vasi. Vina, I: Pl. XI. Fig. 36.
23 Upper part o f a Late Vina figurine o f a
masked man from Plonik near Prokupljc,
YugosIavia. H. 18 cm. Incised and redpainted bands 011 chest and neck. Fine darkgrcv fabric. Excavatcd 1927 by M. Grbi.
NM Belgrade, 2257. On display. Publ. M.
Grbi. Plonik: 80, Pl. 7.
24. 25 Terracotta figurine o f fine dark-grey fabric
from Fafos at Kosovska Mitrovica. dis
eovered in laver lb. C'lassical Vina. H. 20

29 R ed terracotta head from Crnokalaka

Bara at Rujite near Raanj. north o f Ni.
Southern YugosIavia. Large semicircular
cyes. ridge nose and rovvs o f incisions on the
cheeks. Spiraliform ears are cut on the mask.
Hair indicated in relief. H. 9 cm. N M
Belgrade occavation bv R . Galovi.
Courtesv o f N M Belgrade and the excavator.

3 1 Terracotta animal head o f grey fabric from

Vina site at Gradac, upper M orava Valley.
H. 5.5 cm. Excavatcd 1909 by Vasi. N M
Belgrade, inv. 783. B. Stalio: N M Belgrade
Catalogue (19 5 5 ), 1: 22, II Pl. X V III. 5.
32 Stvlized animal mask o f terracotta from
Plonik near Prokupljc. Late Vina. Fine
grey fabric. Scmi-globular eyes shiclded by
brow ridges. Fiat cheeks vvith three radial
incisions. Vertical incisions along the upper
part o f forehead. Excavatcd 1927 by M.
Grbi. N M Belgrade cxhibit. Publ. Grbi,
Plonik.
33 Large figurine o f dark grey fabric, bur
nished, vvith pentagonal mask made in a
mould. Beaked nose, raised semi-spherical
eyes and bovv-shaped brovv ridges. De
pression belovv nose. Ears and hair indi
cated. Perforations through shoulders.
Navel and hip-belt indicatcd. Crovvn o f
head and nape painted red. Protruding
buttocks in imitation o f birds body. H.
30.6 cm. Classical Vina. Found 6.2 m.
(7.445 m.) deep in Vina mound. Vasis
excavation. B U Collection, No. 999. Publ.
Vasi. Vina, II: Pl. L X X IX and L X X X ,
Fig. 301 a~d\ III: r. 33, Fig. 203 : D. Srejovi,
1965: PI. 18. j .
34 Cylindrical model o f a masked goddess,
originally attached to the roof o f a sanctuarv. Hollovv inside. H. 20.8 cm. Fine
brovvn fabric. Porodin mound near Bitola,
Southern Yugoslavia. Radiocarbon date
from Porodin: 5300 bc. True age: end o f
the seventh millennium b c. Excavation by
M. Grbi, et al., 1953. Archaeological
Museum Bitola, 68. Publ. Grbi. Porodin:
N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 19.
3 Terracotta masked and crovvned head on a
cvlindrical neck from the Porodin mound
near Bitola. Southern Yugoslavia. Exca~
vated I953~54 bv M. Grbi. et al. Archaeol
ogical Museum. Bitola. Publ. Grbi. Poro
din, Pl. X X X : 2.

30 Neck ofpottery vessel o f fine brovvn fabric

from Gladnice bv ihe monasterv ofG raanica. Kosovo Metohije. Yugoslavia, Star
evo. Large ears at sides o f vvell delineated
contours o f mask. Coffee-bean eves. H.
10.4 cm. E\cavated t<;r)0 bv j . (Jlisi.

36 Terracotta masked Vina head, black

polished vvith vvhite-fllled incisions. Redpainted at corners and centre. Perforations
at upper corners. Medvednjak near Sme

Regional Museum. Pritina G -2E (1246 a).

NM Bei grade ('atalogue (1968): 2(k Publ.
Sheffield. Caiulogue (1969): PI. 5.

derevska Palanka, southeast o f Belgrade.

Hxcavation o f NM Belgrade bv R . Galovi
1969, Smederevska Palanka Museum.

37 Head and shoulders o f dark-grey burnished

terracotta figurine vvith perforations
through mask and shoulders from Crnokalaka Bara near Raanj, north o f Ni,
Southern Yugosiavia. Late Vina. H. 10 cm.
Excavation by R . Galovi, 1959. N M Bel
grade, inv. 16009. R . Galovi, Arkheoloki
Pregled 2 {1960): 24; NM Belgrade Catalogue(i<)6S): 12 4 ; ShefTield Catalogue (1969);
PL 17, 13138 Ornamented Vina mask from Predionica
at Pritina, Kosovo Metohije, Southern
Yugoslavia. Fine dark-grey fabric, bur
nished. H. 10 cm. Excavated 1955-56 by
R . Galovi sponsored by Kosovo Metohije
Museum in Pritina and N M Belgrade.
Regional Museum Pritina (157). Publ. R .
Galovi, Predionica: Pl. 16.
39 Monumental Vina head vvith almondshaped eyes from Predionica, near Pritina.
White-encrusted incisions above and belovv
eyes. Fine light-brovvn fabric, burnished.
H. 17.5 cm., W. 15 cm. Surface fmd.
Kosovo Metohije Regional Museum Pri
tina {158). Publ. Galovi, Predionica: Pl. 1.
40 Clay model o f a sanccuary from Vadastra
(II), southeastern Oltenia, 14 km. northvvest o f Corabia, above the Danube. H.
approx. 15 cm. Grey fabric deeply enerusted vvith vvhitc. R am and buli heads on
roofs o f tvvo temples painted red. 1959
exeavaon by Corneliu N. Mateesco. N A M
Bucharest. Publ. C N . Mateesco: Sapaturi
arheologice la Vadastra', Materiale $i Cer
cetari Arheologice VIII (1962): 189, Fig. 2;
Idem. Acta VI Intern Congress of Pre- and
Protohistoric Sciences, R om e (1962).
41 CIay model o f a sanctuary vvith T-shaped
entrance and hole for a ehimnev-shaped
figurine o f the type shovvn in Pl. 34. God
dess necklace indicated in relief. Protuberances at each corner o f roof. H. 17.1 cm.,
L. 25.6 cm. Fine dark-brovvn polished sur
face. Porodin mound near Bitola, Southern
Yugos!avia. Radiocarbon date for Porodin
(grain sample) 5300 bc: (Berlin Lab.).
Excavated 1953 by M. Grbi, et al. Bitola
Arch. Museum, inv. i, Publ. Grbi, Poro
din : Pl. X X X IV , /; N M Belgrade Catalogue
(1968): 10: ShefTield Catalogue (1969): u .

28 4

42 Baked clay model o f edifice, coloured red

vvith originally vvell polished surface, H.
24.2 cm., L. (max.) 51 cm., W . 13 cm.
Temples on top are approx. 8 cm. vvide
and 9 em. high, forming a superstrueture
49.8 cm. long. Diseovered at Cascioarcle,
an island settlement o f the Gumelni^a cui
ture, 20 km. west o f Olteni^a north o f the
lovver Danube in Southern Rom ania by
Hortensia and Vladimir Dumitrescu. H.
Dumitrescu, Un modle dc sanetuaire
dcouvert dans la station enolithique de
Cascioarcle , Dacia, N .S. XII (1968): 3 8 194345 Terracotta altarpieces from Trueti, Classi
cal Cucuteni settlement in the district o f
Boto$ani, northern Moidavia, excavated
19 5 1-6 1 by M. Petrescu-Dimbovii;a. 43:
H. approx. 150 cm.; 44: H. 65 cm .; 45: 73
x 70 cm. N A M Bucharest. Publ. PetrescuDimbovi^a, Tru$e$ti: 172-86.
', 47 Seated masked male figure holding a sickle,
from Szegvar-Tiizkoves. Arm-ringsshovvn
in relief. Legs broken offbelovv knees. Nose
damaged. Belt indicated by incision o f
chevrons. Fine brovvn fabric. Tisza cuiture.
H. 25.6 cm. Koszta Jo zscf Museum in
Szentes, southeastern Hungary. Czalog
Collection, 5 9 .1.1. Publ. Czalog, J., Die
anthropomorphen Gcftisse und Idolplastiken von Szegva'r-Tuzkoves , Acta Archaeol
ogica (1959), 7-38 ; Kalicz, N, Dieux: 32-34.
48 Copper sickle from Zalaszentmiha'ly,
vvestern Hungary. L. 54 cm., W . 5.7 cm. at
top, 2.5 cm. at perforation. Balaton M u
seum. Keszthely. Publ. F. Czalog, *Das
Krummschvvert des Idols von SzegvarTiizkoves. Acta Archaeologica, 12 : 58-59.
tip, Naroden Muzej. SF 14 21. Publ. M.
Gimbutas, Excavations at Anza, Macedonia'. Archaeo!ogy, 25. 2, 1972.
49 Polvehrome dish. Dark-brovvn and vvhite
on orange-red. Diam. 29 cm. Vale a Lupului,
5 km. vvest o f lni. northern Moidavia.
northeastern Romania. Cucuteni B settle
ment. Excavated 1953-57 by M. PetrescuDim bovija et al. lai Museum. Moidavia.
Publ. V. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: 50.
50 Polvehrome Classical Cucuteni vase.
Painted in red bordered vvith dark-brovvn

on cream. Cucuteni A phase. H. 32 cm.

Trueti settlement, district o f Boco$ani,
northern Moidavia. Excavation by M.
Petrescu-Dimbovi^a 19 5 1- 6 1. N A M Bu
charest, Inv. N o. II. 2285. Publ. Dumitrescu,
L art Roumanie : 49.

group o f Linear Pottery cuiture. Snake

application inside. Nitra Archael. Museum
o f the Institute o f Archaeology, Publ. J.
Pavuk, Grab des eliezovce-typus in
D vory nad itavou, Slovenska Arheologia,
X II1 (1964): Figs. 5, 6.

51 Vase from Podei at Targu Ona, northern

Moidavia. Rom ania Cucuteni B settlement.
H. 33 cm. W . (max.) 29 cm. Painted in
dark-brov/n on vvhite background. Bulls
head and horns in relief. Archaeological
Museum o f Piatra Neam{, Inv. 2790. Publ.
C . Matasa, Asezarea eneolitica Cucuteni B
de la Tirgu Ocna-Podei (raional Tirgu
Ona, rcg. Bacau) , Arheologia Moldouei,
IIIII (1964): 11-6 6 .

60 Detail o f a Late Cucuteni piriform orangered vase vvith dark-brovvn painted design.
Bilcze Zlote. Courtcsy o f Archaeological
Museum in Cracovv.

52 Terracotta figurine in the shape o f a horned

tand vvith female breasts. One horn broken.
Has a deep hole in the middle. H. 5.2 cm.
Mcdvednjak, Vina site at Smederevska
Palanka. N M B excavation o f 1970 by R .
Galovi. National Museum, Smederevska
Palanka, No. 126. Courtesy o f this museum.

6 1 ,6 2 Terracotta snake protomes: fragments o f

cult vessels. 6 1, approx. actual sie; 62,
L. 5 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Porodin
near Bitola, Southern Yugoslavia. Archae
ological Museum Bitola, Inv. 5 6 2 .17 5 , 353,
6 31, 635.
63,64 Pottery vessel vvith a horned head and
snakes shovvn in relief. Brovvn fabric. H.
6.9 cm. Teli Azmak at Stara Zagora. Neoli
thic Karanovo I complex. Excavation by
G. I. Georgiev 1962-65. Stara Zagora
Museum. Publ. Georgiev, Beitrage.

relief.
vessel.
CourBitola.

65 Seated terracotta figurine vvith folded legs

from Kato Ierapetra, Crete. Unusual for its
state o f preservation in the Aegean area.
H. [4.5 cm. Triangular head vvith a prominent nose, crovvned by a triangular cap or
eoitTure vvhich flares out around the head.
Massive cylindrical neck. Stubby arms, held
close to sides o f protruding, angular abdo
men. Exaggerated buttocks. Hair indicated
on the crovvn and the back ofthe neck. Eyes,
fmgers and toes rendered by incision. Lips
shovvn plastically. Decoration or dress
indicated above breasts. front shoulders, and
along the spine at the back by tvvo parallel
lines o f incision. Surface is o f ashen colour
tinged vvith red. vvell burnished. The ore
darker red vvith some impurities. Surface
fmd at the Neolithic settlement presumed
to belong to a period coinciding vvith the
Middle Neolithic at Knossos. The collection
o f Dr Giamalakis in Heraklion. Publ. bv
S. S. Weinberg, Neolithic figurines and
Aegean interrelations, A JA , vol. 55, No. 2
(April 19 51); Pl. IA. Also bv P. J. Ucko.
Anthropomorphic figurines, London (1968):
246-48.

, 59 Thin-vvalled polished dish from the ceme

terv o f D vorv nad itavou. Zeliezovce

66 Zoom orphic lid found 7.2 m. deep in

Vina mound. Early Vina. Fine liglu-

53 Terracotta figurine o fa buli vvith exaggeratedly large horns, broken at each side. L.
13.5 cm. W. (acrosshorns) 8.5 cm., H. 9 cm.
Fafos settlement at Kosovska M itrovica:
phase lb (Mid-Vina period). Archaeo
logical museum o f Kosovska Mitrovica.
Source same as Pls. 24, 25.
54 Pottery snake o f fine dark grey fabric
decorated vvith zigzag incisions and puncturings. Diam. (max.) 3.7 cm. Predionica.
Early Vina settlement. Excavated 1955 by
R . Galovi. Regional Museum Pritina, 76.
Publ. R . Galovi, Predionica (1959): Pl. 5.
, 56 Snake bovvT vvith holes betvveen raised
design on inside from Kukova Mogila
(Duvanli) near Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Grey
fabric. Diam. 20 em. Excavated 1928-30 bv
B. Filov. Found associated vvith Karanovo
Ili-jasatepc tvpe finds. Plovdiv Museum.
Courtesy o f Plovdiv Museum.
S7 R im sherd vvith a horned-snake
Brovvn, medium thiek, unpainted
Dibel at uplevee. north o f Bitola.
tesy o f Archacological Museum in

28>

brovvn fabric. 12 X 10.5 cm. T ip o f nose

broken. Tvvo holes belovv the nose indicate
repair. B U Collection, 399. Vasis cxcavation. Vasi, Vinca, II: Pl. X L V .

ni Muzej Leskovac, Inv. 139 1. Publ. N M

Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 113 .
77 FunncI-shaped vae found 4.3 m. deep in

on orange-red. The cosmogonical (snake,

the Vina mound. Divided by vertical

and horizontal incisions into panels vvith
clusters o f vertical zigzag lines, dots, or a

egg, plane) design covers the entire surface.

Bilcze Zlote, vvestern Ukraine, upper

meander motif. H. 16 cm. Brovvn fabric.

B U Collection, Inv. 744. Vasi, Vina, II:

Dniester Valley.

Pl. CII, Fig. 367; IV, Pl. LVI.

67 Late Cucuceni vase painted in dark brovvn

68 Egg-shaped stone sculpture vvith an en

graved design vvhich probably portrays a
vulva. Found at the corner o f the hearth in
house N o. $ 1 at Lepenski Vir, northern
Yugoslavia. In the classification o f D.
Srejovi it belongs to the lc phase o f the
site. L. 16 cm., W . 13 cm. D. Srejovi,
excavation o f 1968. B U Collection, No. 19.
Publ. D. Srejovi, Lepenski Vir (1969): Pl.
' 48.
69, 70 Ornithomorphic vase found 2.3 rn. (4.1 m.)
deep at Vina site. Late Vina. Fine red
fabric. L. 20.7 cm., H. 14 cm. Opening in
the tail. Ova) body. Channelled decoration.
Head modelled in detail and shovving zoo
morphic features. Ears broken. Stands on a
ring base. Classical Vina. Vasis cxcavation. B U Collection, Inv. 19 13 . Publ. Vasi.
Vinca II: Fig. 356.
71 Ornithomorphic vase from Cascioarele, an
island settlement in the lovver Danube
region, 20 km. vvest o f Olteni^a, Gumelnita Iayer. Excavation by H. and V.
Dumitrescu (see 42). H. 13.2 cm. Fine
fabric. burnished. N A M . Bucharest. Publ.
Dumitrescu. L'art Roumanie: Fig. 109.
7 2 .7 3 .7 5 . Sandstone sculptures from Lepenski Vir.
76
northern Yugoslavia. 73, Brovvn, 22 cm.
14 cm. From House 40: 76, brovvn, H.
t. 50 cm., lovver pnrt damaged. From House
n/5; 75, brovvn. H. 50 cm. From House 44:
72, grey, H. 40 cm. From House 44, near
the sculpture reproduced in PI. 75. D.
Srejovi excavation 1965-68. BU Collec
tion. Publ. D. Srejovi. Lepenski Vir( 1972):
Pls. 24, 26, 3 1. 52. V. VII.
74 Potsherd in form o f a fish from Mala
Grabovnica near Leskovac, central Yugoslavia. Fine dark-gretf fabric. L. (>.3 cm.
Excavation 1953 bv M. Garaanin. Narod-

286

78 Zoom orphic tcrracotta lid found 8.2 m.

dcep at the Vina site. H. 17 cm. Fine fabric,
grey colour. Decorated by incision filled in
vvith vvhite paste. Reconstructed portions
plain vvhite. Vasis excavations. B U C ol
lection, N o. 410. Publ. Vasi, Vinca, II: Pl.
LX I, 110 .
79 Red tcrracotta lid found 4.2 m. deep at the
Vina site. Decorated by bands o f incised
parallel lines filled in vvith vvhite paste. H.
5.5 cm. N M Belgrade, No. 1489. Publ.
Vasi, Vina, II: Fig. 154.
80, 8 1 Bear-shaped cult vessel from the settlement
at Smili near Zadar, Adriatic coast o f
Yugoslavia. H. 10 cm. Archaeological
Museum, Zadar. Excavated and published
by S. Batovi: Neolitsko nalezite u
Smilicu, Radovi Instituta Jtigosl. Akad.
Znanosti i Umjestnosti u Zadru, X : 8 3-138 .
82 Tcrracotta pavv o f a bear vvith bands o f
incisions. Obre II, Sq. V, 2, depth 1.20j.40 m. H. 9 cm. U C L A (M. Gimbutas)Sarajevo Zemaljski Muzej (A, Benac) exca vat ion o f 1968. Publ. A. Benac. Obre II
(19 7 1): Pl- X X V III. 2.
83. 84 Sesklo terracotta bust o f a female figurine
from M. Vrysi. Archaeological Museum o f
Volos. Publ. by Zervos, Naissance: 166, Fig.
104.
<s5 Upper part o f a figurine vvith cylindrical
head and bird's beak. Perforated ears. Deep
hole for mouth. Three bosses applied belovv
the hole on the neck. One breast and per
forated arm stump preserved 011 the lcft
side. H. 13 cm. Brovvn fabric. Porodin at
Bitola. Southern Yugoslavia. M. Grbi et
al. excavation o f 1953-54. sponsored by the
Archaeological Institute o f the Serbian
Academv o f Sciences, Belgrade. Archae
ological Museum. Bitola. Publ. M. Grbi,
Porodin: Pi. X X IX . J.

86 Upper part o f Early or M id-Vina doubleheaded figurine from Rastu, southvvestern

Rom ania, district o f Dolj. H. 7 cm. Per

92 Altar table in form o f seated vvoman vvith

arms around a vessel, decorated vvith in
cised meandering bands alternately painted

forations through shoulders. V s and mean

in red. Fafos I at Kosovska M itrovica,

southem Yugoslavia. H. 17.6 cm. Exca-

ders incised belovv breasts. Heads damaged.

Originally had prominent semicircular eyebrovvs and noses (beaks). Round holes
belovv the noses. Fine grey fabric. Traces o f
red colouring ali over. N A M Bucharest,
Inv. N o. 4833.
87 Vase from Kenzlo belonging to the Bukk
group. OriginaIly in the Archaeological
Museum o f Nyiregyhaza, northeastern
Hungary, lost during W orld War II. Publ.
F. Tom pa, Ober einige ungarische Denkmaler
der prahistorischen Kunst (192&), 23, Pl. II, 3 ;
idem, D ic Bandkcramik in U ngarn, Ar
chaeologia Hungarica, 5/6 (1929): 4 1, PI. 3 1, i .
88 Jar vvich breasts and incised parallel-line
decoration on central band. H. 8 cm.
Painted vvhite. Early Cucuteni ( PreCucuteni III) settlement o f Negreti at
Vaslui, northern Moldavia. History Mu
seum o f M oldavia, Ia$i.
89 Terracotta head o f a Bird Goddess figurine
vvith incised and vvhite-encrusted chevrons
above the beak. Eyes indicated by incised
semicircular lines. W . 6 cm. Kalojanovcc,
18 km. southvvest o f Stara Zagora. East
Balkan civilization. Karanovo IV Period.
Archaeological Museum o f Stara Zagora,
Inv. No. 18 1.
90 Terracotta figurine o f a double-headed
goddess found 6.1 m. deep in the Vina
mound. M id-Vina. H. 4.5 cm. Grcy fabric.
Incised on front and back. Remains o f red
paint over side panels o f the larger head,
around the neck. over the inside o f V-sign
in front, in the back o f the neck and 011 the
back o f masks (contours o f masks as thcv
appear from the back). Vasi. Vina, II:
Pl. 86, Fig. 323.
91 Terracotta altar table o f fine grey fabric,
painted red, vvhite-encrusted. Female figure
broken o ff at vvaist. Cylindrical vessel partly
damaged. H. 9 cm. L. 10.2 cm. Found 5.8
m. deep in Vina mound. Mid-Vina.
Vasis excavation. N M Belgrade. Inv.
1295. Vasi. Vina III: 108. Fig. 512.

vated 1959 by J- Glii and B .Jo v a n o v i.

Regional Museum Pritina, F-I-3B-502.
N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 54; Sheffiel Catalogue (1969): 58.
93 Slightly tapering spoutcd pot. Whitcenerusted incisions. Settlement o f Borsod,
province
of
Borsod-Abauj-Zcm pln,
northeastern Hungary. Tisza-Biikk border.
Excavation by A. Leszik, J. Hillebrand and
F. Tom pa, 1926. F. Tom pa, Die Bandkcramik
in Ungarn (1929): Pl. X L IV , 5.
94 Terracotta figurine o f a seated vvoman
holding a shallovv basin, from Bordjo
near Beej, northern Yugoslavia. Fine red
fabric. Surface find. N M Belgrade, Inv.
16281. M iodrag Grbi, A neolithic statu
ette from Beej in Banat, Archaeologia
Yugoslavia, I (1954): 16 - 17 , Figs. 1-4.
95 Tcrracotta head o f a figurine from Crnoka
laka Bara at RujiSte near Raanj, north o f
Ni. Clear representation o f a pentagonal
mask decorated vvith vertical incisions and
meanders above the righc cye. Raised semicircular eyes, large nose, no mouth. Grey
fabric. H. 6.8 cm. N M Belgradc cxcavations o f 1959. N M Belgradc, Inv. 16006.
Publ. R . Galovi, Arkheoloki Pregled, 2
(1960): 24. Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 124,
96 Terracotta masked head o f fine grey fabric
incised vvith meanders above and spirals
belovv large raised eves. H. 5.6 cm. Med
vednjak near Smederevska Palanka. R .
Galovi (N M Belgrade) excavation of 1970.
Courtesy o f Smederevska Palanka National
Museum.
97 Terracotta figurine vvith vvhite-encrusted
incisions found 2.5 m. deep in Vina mound.
Late Vina. She vvears a birds mask. Arms
broken off. Small breasts, betvveen vvhich
is a raised medallion. Perforations through
hips, sides o f mask and crovvn o f the head.
1-1. 1 5.8 cm. Vasi's excavation. N M Bclgrade Vasi. Vina. I: Pl. X X X I . Fig. 14 1:
III: 94. Fig. 4(17.

98 H a]f o f a terracotta disc vvith incised spiral

and meander patterns. T w o broken projections in the middle. Light-brovvn fabric.
Found 5.4 m. deep at the Vina site. Vasis
excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 537. Vasi,
Vinca, IV : Pl. LIV , Fig. 14 1.

110 Details o f vase decoration and a decorated

vase from Traian (Dealul Ftntinilor), Cu
cuteni A -B layer o f the settlement in north
ern Moidavia, northeastern Rom ania. After
Hortensia Dumitrescu, Dacia, N .S. IV
(1960): 34, Fig. 2.

99 Upper part o f a Vina terracotta figurine.

Settlement o f Medvednjak. Smederevska
Palanka Museum excavations o f 1969.
National Museum Smederevska Palanka.
Courtesy o f this Museum.

1 1 1 Crude cylindrical terracotta figurine vvith

female breasts and male genitals. Conical
abdomen and sharply protruding buttocks.
Eyes indicated by deep incision. Painted
nose. H. 5.5 cm. Light-brown fabric. Vina.
Vasis excavation. B U Collection, Inv.
5.76. Publ. Vasi, Vina.

100, 101 Double-headed terracotta figurine. Fine

dark-grey fabric vvith vvhite-encrusted in
cisions. Three perforations through each
arm, four through each crown and one
through the sides o f the masks. Legs broken
off. Vina layer o f the Gom olava mound on
the R iv e r Sava, district o f Sremska M itro
vica, northern Yugoslavia. 1965 excavation
by Vojvodjanski Muzej, N o vi Sad. Courtesy o f this Museum.
102, 103 Seated goddess from Szegvar-Tiizkoves at
Szentes. Tisza cuiture. Head and legs
broken off. H. c. 22 cm. Light-brovvn
fabric, Decoration in form o f incised panels
o f meanders and zigzags. Excavated 195657 b y j. Czalog. Czalog, Szegvar-Tiizkoves,
Koszta Jozsef Museum, Szentes, Hungary.
104 Vessel on a pedestal from SzegvarTiizkoves. H. 11 cm. Szentes, Koszta
Jzsef Museum, Inv. 59.1.58. J. Czalog,
Das Wohnhaus E
von Szegva'rTtizkoves, Acta Archaeologica Hungarica, 9
(1958): Pl. I, Fig. 1. Kalicz, D ieux: 48.
10 5 -10 7 Vase in the form o f a seated goddess.
Kdknydom b, Tisza cuiture. H. 33 cm.
Light-brovvn fabric. Excavation b y j. Ban
ner, 1942. Tornyai Janos Museum, Hodmezova'sa'rhely. Inv. 762/42. Banner:
Koknydomb: 14 -3 5 ; Kalicz, Dieux: 37.
108, 109 Altarpiece o f clay, 46 cm. high, 53 cm.
\vide at base, 18.5 cm. deep, from the
settlement at Koknyom b southeastern
H ungary. Tisza cuiture. Excavated 1942 by
JL Banner. TornyaiJanos Museum Hodmczovasarhely, Inv. 1089/42. J. Banner and
J. Korek, Les campagnes IV et V des fouilles
pratiques en K5kenydomb de HtSdmczovasarhely\ Archacologiai lirtesito, 76
( 1949)- 9-23. 24-25, Pl. VIII, Fig. S-9.
Kalicz. D icux: 3S-39.

288

1 12 Marble figurine from Attica, Greece. H.

22.5 cm. Typologically early Sesklo. Exact
provenience not knovvn. Museum o f Eleusis. After Zervos, Naissance: 210, Fig. 203.
1 1 3 - 1 1 5 Terracotta figurine from Anza, eastern
Macedonia, found above house vvall built
o f convex bricks and associated vvith a
barbotine sherd and a sherd vvith floral
Central Balkan Neolithic II design. Beaked
nose, slanting excised eyes, slight protru-.
sions for vvings, vvell modelled buttocks.
Legs merge together ending in a conical tip.
Buff-orange burnished. Rem ains o f redpainted hip-belt. H. 4 .11 cm. Authors
excavation 1969. Naroden Muzej, tip,
SF21. Publ. M. Gimbutas, Excavation at
Anza, Macedonia, Archaeology, 25, 2: 120.
116 , 117 Cult vase in the shape o f a crovvned duck
vvearing a human mask found 7.05 m. deep
at the Vina site. Terracotta vvith very thin
vvalls o f light-brovvn fabric. Hollovv. Has
an opening in the tail. Rippled, polished
surface. Decorated vvith bands o f bituminous material. L. 36 cm., H. 20.8 cm. B U
Collection, Inv. 2005. Vasi, Vina, I: Pl.
X X IV .
1 1 8 Vase in the likeness o f Bird Goddess. Fine
light-brovvn fabric, channelled surface,
Mask shovvn in relief. Eyes and nose
plastically rendered. Breasts and knees
indicated. Tvvo perforations in each arm
stump. H. 32.5 cm.. W. 15.5 cm. Vina,
Vasis excavation. N M Belgrade, Inv.
1481. Publ. Vasi, Vina, I {1932): 43, Pl.
XV II.
119 Head o f Bird Goddess modelled on the
neck o f a polychrome painted Cucuteni

vase. Eyebrows and beak form a letter T.

Circular plastic eyes. Most o f left side re
constructed. H. 11.4 em. Classical Cucuteni
(Cucuteni A ), Ruginoasa, district o f lai.
N A M Bucharest, II, 4681. Publ. V. Dumi
trescu, U art Roumanie: N o. 80.

slender, fat hips and buttocks. Decorated

vvith incisions. Six stabbings in front o f
neck. Female breasts slightly indicated.
Short stumps for arms. H. 16.3 cm.
Bernovo Luka site, vvestern Ukraine. After
P. P. Efimenko and I. G. Shovkoplias,
Arkheologicheskie otkrytja na Ukraine za

120 Terracotta female figurine vvearing birds

poslednie go d y\
X IX (1954): 5- 4mask from the Vina mound. Surface find.
In standing position vvith stump arms and 129, 130 Terracotta figurine decorated vvith vvhiteencrusted incisions ali over the body.
tvvo perforations in each. Small breasts.
Forvvard-leaning posture. Fine fabric.
Large eyes, V-neck and skirt indicated by
Classical Cucuteni (Cucuteni A ) period,
incision. Neck and upper top corner o f the
found in Moidavia, locality unknovvn.
mask painted in red. Fine dark-grey fabric,
N A M , Bucharcst, Inv. N o. 573- Publ. V.
burnished. H. 16 cm. N M Belgrade, 4654.
Dumitrescu, La civilisation de Cucuteni,
N M Belgrade Catalogue 1968: 146.
Berichten van de rijksdienst voor het audheid12 1 Terracotta figurine from Supska near
kundig Godemonderzoek, 9 { 1 959) Fig- 10
uprija, central Yugoslavia. Surface find.
2.
Fine rcddish-brovvn fabric. H. 15 cm.
13
1
Terracotta
female figurine from the early
National Museum, uprija, Inv. 300. N M
Lengyel settlement at Strelice at BoskovBelgrade (1968): 129.
tejn, district o f Znojm o, Moravia. Fine
122, 123 Terracotta masked head in shape o f a duck.
light brovvn fabric. H. 15.5 cm. Five neck
Four perforations, one through each eheek
laces indicated by horizontal incisions
and one above each eye. Deep and vvide
around the neck. Eyes incised. Beak-nose.
incisions for eyes and decoration. H. approx.
Hair rendered by application and incision.
5
cm. The Vina mound. Late Vina. NM N o indication o f dress. Stumps for vvings.
Belgrade, Inv. 1443F. Vildom ccs excavation and collection.
Moravian Museum, Brno, Czechoslovakia.
124 Miniature bird-shaped head o f a terracotta
Publ. by W. and B. Forman an d j. Pouh'k,
figurine. Tvvo incised channels round the
Prehistoric Art (in Czechoslovakia), London
neck. Peaked crovvn. Excise dots for eyes.
(undated, c. 1955): Fig. 47.
H. 1.9 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Sitagroi
mound, northeastern Greece. Early Gumel132 Baked clay figure o f mother and ehild
ni^a cuiture. M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C.
vvearing bird masks attached to a burnished
Renfrevv (ShefTield Univ.) excavation o f
pottery fragment found 4.7 m. deep in the
1968.
Philipi Museum, Sitagroi, SF 412.
Vina mound. Fine dark-grey fabric. H.
14.4 cm. Lovvcr part damaged, childs mask
125 Upper torso o f a terracotta figurine. H. 4.8
broken of}'. Eyes, decoration o f masks, dress
cm. Fine grey fabric. Exsed and vvhiteand nccklace indicated by vvhite-encrusted
encrusted decoration, forming spiral and
incisions. Small stumps for arms. probablv
meander designs. Fiat head indicates a mask
symbolizing vvings. Masks are pentagonal.
vvith representation o f Bird Goddess face:
Mothcr's mask has tvvo perforations on
eyebrovvs connected vvith the beak. Vadas
either side. Small breasts indicated. Vasis
tra dist. ofC orabia, Oltenia. Rom ania. MF
excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 1233.
1948. N A M Bucharest.
Publ. Vasi. Vina. II: Pl. L X X X V , Fig.
126, 127 Heads o f terracotta bird-headed figurines
322.
vvith double spiral curls. Three holes in
^33* *34 Terracotta head o f a ram, broken o ff at the
front. Sitagroi mound, East Balkan civiliza
neck. Painted bright red vvith traces o f vvhite
tion, as 124 above.
around eyes and betvveen the lines o f the
horns. Fine fabric, orange clav. H. 3.9 cm.
12S Early Tripolye (Proto-Cucuteni) terracotta
Anza. eastern Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Anza
figurine. Siightlv forvvnrd-leaning posture.
IV. Earlv Vina. Found 1970 above the top
Cvlindrical neck. upper part ot bodv

289

floor o f Vina house during authors

excavation o f site. tip Museum, SF 1691.
135 Terracotta head o f a he-goat or ram that
formed part o f a vase. Horns broken off.
R ou gh ly triangular head vvith ridge down
middle. Raised and sliteyes. Deep parallel
lines incised round neck, encrusted vvith
white. Red-painted neck betvveen and
below incisions. Black burnished surface.
L. 10 cm., W . (of head) 5.4 cm. Sitagroi
mound, eastern Macedonia, Greece, Period
III. East Balkan civilization, Dikilitash
compIex. Diseovered in the stratigraphic
area during the 1968 excavation by C. A.
R en frew
(Sheffield
U niversity)-M .
Gimbutas (U C L A ). Philipi Museum,
SF 203.
136 Terracotta cult vessel in the shape o f a ram.
Horns connected vvith the rim. Fine light
grey fabric. H. 5.8 cm. Incisions o f V s and
chevrons encrusted vvith vvhite paste. Traces
o f red paint. From the Vina mound,
Classical Vina. Vasis excavation. B U
Collection, Inv. 117 5 . Publ. Vasi, Vinca.
II: Pl. L X X V IH , Fig. 335.
137 Zoom orphic ritual vase, rectangular vvith a
horned ram s head at one end. H. 10.5 cm.,
L. 16.5 cm. Grey fabric. Decorated vvith
incised and vvhite-encrusted concentric or
parallel lines. Banjata at Kapitan Dim itrievo, district o f Pazazdzik, central Bul
garia. Gumelni^a compIex. Excavation by
P. Detev 1947-48 o f the Archaeological
Museum Plovdiv. Publ. P. Detev, 'Le teli
Baniata pres de Kapitan Dim itrievo , Godishnik, Plovdiv (1950) II, iC.
13.8 C lay sculpture o f a female in standing posi
tion vvith cylindrical neck and folded arms.
H. 17.5 cm. Grey fabric. Made in sections
(head. torso and tvvo legs) and then pegged
together before thcy hardened. Inciscd eycs.
pinehed-up nose. Small breasts. Found
vvithin the house o f the early phase o f the
Neolithic settlement o f Nea Nikomedeia
at Verroia, vvestern Macedonia, Greece.
Central Balkan Proto-Sesklo comploc.
19 61-6 3 excavations o f Cam bridge and
Harvard Universities. Excav. and publ. by
R . J. Rodden, An carly neolithic villagc in
Greece, Scientific American. Vol. 212 , No.
4,
April 1965.
29O

139 Cylindrical head o f a terracotta figurine

vvith prominent pinehed-up nose and slit
eyes. Deep incisions near upper end. Canal
ends in a hole on top. H. 4.7 cm. Fine grey
fabric. Rudnik Kosovski near Prizren,
Kosovo Metohije, Southern YugosIavia.
Central Balkan Starevo com p!ex. Found
in 1966. Later this settlement vvas excavated
by J. Glii. Regional Museum in Pritina,
R U -A 3-V III-IC . N M Catalogue (196S): 32.
140 Standing tcrracotta figurine vvith pillarneck, phallus-shaped massive breasts, large
abdomen and folded arms. Back is flat. H.
15 .7 cm . Fine brovvn fabric. Cem etery o f
Cernavoda on the lovver Danube, northvvestofConstanta. I9 5 7 c x c a v . by D. Berciu,
sponsored by the Archaeological Institute
o f the Academy o f Sciences, Rom anian
P. R . N A M Bucharest, Publ. D. Berciu,
Cultura Hamangia (1966), I: Fig. 53.
141 Marble figurine found in the nincteenth
century in the vicinity o f Sparta. Publ. in
Athenische Mitteilungen X V I: 52, Fig. 1.
Later by Tsountas, Diminiou ha i Sesklou:
Fig. 3 1 1 , and Zervos, Naissance: Fig. 114 ,
142 Marble figurine. Athens Nat. Museum, inv.
8772. H. approx. 13 cm.
143 Upper part o f a terracotta figurine cupping
breasts. From Sesklo, Thessaly. Sesklo
complcx. Tsountas excavation. Publ.
1908 Tsountas, Diminiou kai Sesklou: Fig.
14. Courtesy o f Athens National Museum,
inv. 5942.
144 White marble figurine. H. 7 cm. Teli
Azmak, central Bulgaria. Karanovo I. Stara
Zagora Museum. 1960-63 excavations by
G. I. Georgiev and P. Detev. Publ. by G. I.
Georgiev Bcitrage: Abb. 12.
545 Tcrracotta torso vvith folded arms. Head
and lovver part not preserved. Fine brovvn
fabric. H. 3.5 cm. Settlement o f Pianul de
Jos near Alba. Transylvania. 1962-63 excavation by Iuliu Paul. Pctrc$ti group vvith
strong Gumelni^a influcnces. Sibiu Mu
seum. Publ. Paul, I, Der Forschungsstand
iiber die Petrc$ti-Kuitur\ Studijn z vesti. 22:
3 3 1. Abb. 2: 10. I don. Asezarea neocneolitica de la Pianul d ejo s (Podei), Jud.
Alba*. Studii fi cominunicari (Sibiu. 1967):
Pl. VI. 8.

fired and compact. Burnished. Fine fabric:

light pink/buff surface, grey ore. Floor o f
Late Neolithic house, Level 17. Argos
Museum. Excavation by J. L. Caskey
(University o f Cincinnati) 1956. Publ.
J. L. Caskey and M. A . Elliot, Neolithic
figurines from Lerna , Hesperia, X X V
(1956), 17 5 -7 7 ; Idem, Where Hercules
slevv the H ydra: a neolithic sculpture o f

146 W eli preserved figurine from the teli o f

Sulica near Stara Zagora. Local grey
marble. H. 13 cm. Wide head, semicircular
eyes, pronounced nose. Five round depressions belovv the mouth, three in each
ear. Breasts slightly indicated. Left hand
covers the right. Short tapering legs. Stara
Zagora Museum. Publ. Gaul, Neolithic
Bulgaria, Pl. L X , 2.
147 Figurine vvith folded arms, no breasts, legs
together. Head broken o ff belovv neck.
Borets (Topra-Asar) near Plovdiv, central
Bulgaria. H. iocm . Locallight-grey marble.
Accidentally diseovered by farmers in
1908. Plovdiv Archaeological Museum.
Assigned to the period o f Karanovo VI on
typo!ogical grounds. Publ. Gaul, Neolithic
Bulgaria: 189, Pl. L X , 3.
148 C y ad ic marble figurine from Syros. H.
2 1.6 cm. Red colouring preserved on chest.
After Zervos, Cyclades: 188, Fig. 248.
149. 150 Slender schematized terracotta figurine.
Breasts and buttocks emphasized, large
incised pubic triangle. Punctate decoration
around head, arm stumps and over hips.
Holes for cyes, large nose. H. approx. 15
cm. Vykhvatintsi cemeterv, grave No. 29.
Cucuteni B - late T ripolyc period. Arch.
Museum o f the Institute o f History, Acad.
o f Sciences, Kishenev, Soviet Moldavia.
Publ. I. G. Rozenfeld, Vvkhvatinski 1110gilnik po razkopkam 1951 goda , K S IIM K ,
56: 98-104.
i 51

Fiat figurine o f bone vvith large incised

pubic triangle and punetated decoration.
Holes for eves. One hole in middle o f neck
and tvvo in the back belovv the vvaist. On
the side o f the head three pairs o f holes for
ear-rings (novv broken). Perforations
through arm stumps and feet. Copper
plates above legs. H. 15 cm. Northern
central Bulgaria. district o f Stara Zagora.
Museum o f Stara Zagora. Bulgaria. Publ.
M. Dim itrov. Kostena ehoveshka figurka
at s. Lovets, Starozagorsko . Arkheologija.
IV. 1 (1962): 65-68.

152 Terracotta figurine from Lema near Argos.

eastern Peloponnese. H. 18.2 cm. Found
beneath the debris o f third building level.
Worn and slightly chipped. Head and
lovver part o f right leg broken otf. Hard

"classic beauty and the relics ofsom e 2500

years from Peloponnesian Lerna, Illustrated
London Neu/s, January 1957: 6 8 -7 1.
153

Schematized terracotta figurine vvith large,

incised pubic triangle. Hole on top for
inscrtion o f a cylinder. Legs reduced to
protruding feet. Fine greyish-brown fabric.
Isolated find from Vina. N M Belgrade,
Inv. N o. 5023. Publ. J. Koroec in Archeoloski Vestniki, 3 ( i952),55f*.and Prehistorijska
plastika.

154 Marble figurine in vvhich the child stands

on top o f mothers head. H. 23 cm. Isolated
find housed in Badisches Landesmuseum,
Karlsruhe. Inv. 64/100, N eg. No. 6275.
Publ. J. Thimm e, Antike Kunst, VIII, Taf.
2 1 : 2. Courtesy o f D r Jtirgcn Thimm e,
Badisches Landesmuseum, Karisruhe.
155 Anthropomorphic vase, decorated vvith
vvhite paint on reddish-brovvn background.
Slipped. H. 32.3 cm. Diseovered in the
settlement area o f the East Balkan Gumclni^a culture at Sultana on the shore o f Lake
Mostistea. Acquired bv Barbu Ionesar,
direetor o f the Olteni^a Museum. Publ. by
S.
Marinescu-Btlcu, Dic Bedeutungeiniger
Gesten und Haltungen in der jungsteinzeitlichcn Skulptur der ausserkarpatischen
Gebiete Rumaniens. Dacia, X I (1967)'

47- 58.
156. 1 57 Squatring vvoman vvith exaggerated but
cocks and dravvn-up legs. H. 7.6 cm. Face
masked. R ight hand at the mouth. left
broken off. Fine black fabric, but not
burnished. Excised lines encrusted vvith
vvhite paste inciude concentric circles vvith
a dot in the middle. 011 back and side ofcach
buttock and ac knees. Narrovv vvaist. Behind. there is a dot in the middle ofth e back
and a lozenge belovv the vvaist. Medvednjak
at Smederevska Palanka, central Yugosiavia. Classical Vina. R . M iioScvi'scxca-

291

vation o f 1969. Smederevska Palanka Naroden Museum, Inv. 944. Courtesy o f this
Museum.
158 A large pithos, vvith tvvo large supematural
hands worked in relief on both sides o f the
upper, and two smaller ones on the lovver
part o f the jar. The vessel, approx. 1 m.
high, has a short cylindrical neck and three
lugs. Low cr part in barbotine, uppcr part
brovvn burnished. Banjata at Kapitan Dimitrievo near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. Gumelni^a complex. East Balkan civilization,
Chalcolithic. Excavations o f the Plovdiv
Archacological Museum by P. Detev in
1947-48. Plovdiv. Arch. Museum. Lit.: P.
Detev Le teli Baniata prs dc Kapitan
Dim itrievo , Godishnik, Plovdiv (1950); II, 1.
159 Vase from Mulava, Neolithic settlement
near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. H. 11 cm.
Karanovo I period. Plovdiv Archaeological
Museum excavation by P. Detev. Publ. P.
Detev, Godishnik, Plovdiv, III, 3 (1959).
160 Binocular vase. Ochre-red vvith chocolatcrbrovvn decorations. Cucuteni B. Bilcze
Zlote, vvestern Ukraine. Courtesy o f Cracow Archaeological Museum.
161 Reining terracotta animai, half fox, half
dog. Fine brovvn fabric. Eyes and mouth
vvhite-encrusted. L. 6 cm. Gumelni^a site
at Pietrele, districtofllfov. N A M Bucharest
I.3472. Publ. by D. Berciu, Conlribufii, and
V. Dumitrescu, L'art Romanie: 103.
162 Dog-shaped handle - fragment o f a pearshaped, slightly biconical Cucuteni B vase.
Fine fabric, ochre-red vvith traccs o f ornamentation in black paint vvhich through
vveathering has lost its original lustre and
colour. The animai figure vvas perpendicularly attached to the upper part o f the vessel.
The fragment measures 9.5 ' 4.5 cm., the
animai itself bcing 6.5 cm. long and 2.5 cm.
high. Its firm attachment by legs and tail to
the vvall o f the vase suggests that it served as
a handle. The anim afs head is rendered
schcmatically, but the rest o f the boy is
na tura listi, vvith even the tensed museles
shovving. Found at Podei, located on a
tcrrace o fth e R iv e r Trotus near the small
tovvn o f Targu-O cna, northeast o f the
Carpathian Mts in Moidavia. bv I. lacobovici, profcssor o f the medica! faeultv at
292

Bucharest. First donated vvith other fmds to

the local museum o f Targu-Ocna and later
taken over by N A M Bucharest, Inv. 5714.
The object vvas first published by R . Vulpe,
Figurine theriomorphe de la civilisation
Cucuteni B , IP EK , 12 (1938): 57-65, Pl. 33.
163 D ogs head carved from rock crystal. H.
4.3 cm., L. 6 cm. Crnokalaka Bara near
Raanj north o f Ni, Southern Yugoslavia.
N M Belgrade (R . Galovi) excavation o f
1960. N M B Inv. No. 16071. Publ. N M
Belgrade Catalogue 1968: 125.
164 Cucuteni B 2 vase from the settlement o f
Valea Lupului 5 km. west o f Iai, northern
Moidavia, Rom ania. H. 3 1.5 cm. Lovver
part o f the vase is reconstructed. The design,
cxccuted in dark red, bordered vvith black
on vvhite, is applied to the cylindrical neck
and extends over the shoulder (seen only
on the other side o f the photographed
object). Betvveen the metopes vvith a flying
dog and catcrpillars, winding snakcs are to
be seen. On the shoulder, belovv the toothcd
line, large eggs are painted in black bands
(not visible in the photograph). Excavated
1953-57 by M. Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a et al.
History Museum o f Moidavia, Ia$i. Publ.
S C IV V (1954) and VI (1955). Also: V.
Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: 52; R ybakov,
Cosmogony: 4.2.
[65 Detail o f large ochre-red, pear-shaped
vase shovving frieze vvith black-paintcd
design on the bulging upper part. This
design ineludes large discs betvveen tvvo
spiralling bands above vvhich fly dogs
stvlized in Late Cucutenian fashion. The
top ofthe frieze has a border o f three parallel
lines and a rovv o f triangles. H. 36 cm., W.
33 cm. Animai figures 5 cm. long. Bilcze
Zlote settlement. upper Dniester Valley.
formerly Polish Galicia. novv vvestern
Ukraine. Archaeological Museum in Cracovv. Poland. Courtesv o f this Museum.
166 Fragment o f a storage vessel vvith figure o f a
stag in relief. H. 18 cm., W. 29 cm. Csepa,
southeastern Hungarv. An isolated find o f
the Starevo (Koros) complex. Tesscdik
S.imucl Museum. SzarvaS. Publ. by Krecsmarik in Archaeologiai Ertesito, 32 (19 12 );
366-68; I. Kutzian. The Koros Cuiture
(1944): l'l- II. / N. Kalicz. DiVi/.v: Pl. 8.

167, 168 Terracotta vase in the shape o f a doe. L. 64

cm., H. 39 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric,

painted in vvhite on red. Carefully modelled
head and neck. Slit-eyes in raised relief.
Round opening at mouth. Cyiindrical
neck to opening 011 back. Muldava mound,
central Bulgaria. Found associated vvith the
Neolithic pottery o f Karanovo I type.
Plovdiv Archaeologica! Museum. Excavated and published by P. Detev, Praistorichestoto Selishche pri selo M uldava ,
Godishnik, Plovdiv, VI (1968): 33, Fig. 26.
169 Vina figurine ofan erect toad found 7.1 m.
deep in the Vina mound. Vasis excava
tion. B U Collection, Inv. 12 8 1. Vasi,
Vina, vol. III: Fig. 616.
170 White marble figurine o f a toad. H. 7.5 cm.
H alf o f conical head missing. Starevo layer
o f the stratified Neolithic settlement at
Anza (Anzabegovo) near tip, southeastern
Yugoslavia. Naroen Muzej tip, SF 2221.
M. Gimbutas (U C LA )-N aroden Muzej
tip (M. Garaanin) excavation 197017 1 Toad carved out ofgrecnish blue serpentine
from Nea Nikomedeia. Courtesy o f the
excavator, R . J . Rodden. See 138.
172 Part o f Late Vina vasc vvith human figures
and snakes in relief. 15.7 < 24.6 cm. Gom olava teli at Sremska Mitrovica, northern
Yugoslavia. Red-brovvn fabric, polished
surface. Found on the floor o f Vina house.
Excavation o f 1955 by Vojvodjanski Mu
seum, N ovi Sad. Vojvodjanski, N ovi Sad.
northern Yugoslavia, Inv. A 2185. Publ.
S. N agy, Rad vojvodjanskikh muzeja, 9
(1960): 119 , Pl. IV, 2. N M Belgrade
Catalogue (1968): 89.
173 Neck o fa pithos, H. 11 cm. Diam. 20.5 cm.
Handles in the shape o f human arms.
Incisions round rim. Designs inelude a face
vvith eves, mouth and raised nose above an
M-sign. and dccplv incised snake and
meander patterns. Diseovered at SzentesJaksorpart, eastern Hungarv. Szaka'lha't
com plex o f the Linear potterv cuiture.
Houscd in Koszta Jozsef Museum in Szentes.
54. >56. 3 1. Publ. G. Csallany, Gcsiehtsdarstellungen auf Gefassen der TheissKultur*. (/{THiiJHitj. 23 (1939): IJ1. X V . Fig.
2; Kalicz, D ieux: Pl. 25.

174 Terracotta figurine o f a tortoise found on

the surface at the Vina site. L. 6 cm., W.
3.9 cm. Fine grey fabric. N M Belgrade,
Inv. N o. 4334 (bought by N M Belgrade
from a farmer in 1934). N M Belgrade
Catalogue, 1968: 72. Publ. Garaanin, Reli
gija: 2 5 1, Fig. 23.
175 Terracotta head ofa hedgehog from a classi
cal Vina site at Crnokalaka Bara, north o f
Ni, Southern Yugoslavia. H. 6 cm. N M
Belgrade by R . Galovi 1969. N M Bel
grade, Inv. 20195. .Unpubiished. Courtesy
o f the cxcavator.
176 Terracotta lid in the form o f a hedgehog
vvith an anthropomorphic face. Gumelni^a
B settlement at Vidra, south o f Bucharest,
lovvcr Danube basin. H. 5 cm. D. Rosettis
cxcavation o f 1934. Bucharest C ity Mu
seum. Publ. by D. Rosetti, Steinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem W ohnhugel bei
Bukarest, IPEK, 12(1938): 29-50. Repeatcd
by V. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: Pl. 100.
177 Terracotta hedgehog from Cascioarcle,
Gumelni^a layer, Southern Rom ania. H.
6.1 cm. N M Bucharest. Publ. Dumitrescu,
L'art Roumanie: Pl. 109.
178 Bulis head vvith large horns cut out o f a flat
piece o f bone. Image o f the goddess in the
centre o f the head is geometrically rendered
by means o f punetate lines. The figure is
composed o f two triangles mceting vvith
their tips at the vvaist. Legs narrovv dovvn
to a point. Head and navel portraycd by
larger dots. Raised arms bifurcate halfway
up. Punetate line also runs dovvn middle o f
horns and along top o f head. Perforations
at each o f the four corners and on top o f the
head probablv vvere used for attaching it to
some other object. Bilcze Zlote (Polish),
BilcheZolotoe (Ukrainian).south ofTarnopol. on the Seret (N.) basin in the vvestern
Ukraine, upper Dniester. a Cucuteni (TripoIye) cave site excavated in the ninctcenth
and earlv tvventicth centuries by G. Ossovvski and W. Demetrykiewicz. Early Cucu
teni B (Tripolyc C II in the classification by
T. Passek, 1949). Archaeological Museum,
Cracovv.
179 Bee Goddess on a gold plaque from Cam ir o s , Rhodes. Seventh centurv b c . Courtesy

293

o f Museum o f Fine Arts, Boston (Neg. No.

B2578). Publ. Ransom , The Bee, 1937:
Pl. V.
180 Pottery fragment showing Bee Goddess in
relief (part only). Kocacpart at Hodmezovas^rhely, southeaster'n Hungary, a Star
evo (Koros) site. Museum o f Tornyai
Janos at Hodmezovasrfrhely, Inv. N o. 748/
32. Publ. by J. Banner, Die neolithische
Ansiedlung von Hdm ezovasarhely-Kopancs und Kocacpart und die III periode der
Theiss-Kultur, Dolgozatok, VIU (1932):
1.
32-48, Pl. X V III, 2. Also in I. KutziAn,
The Koros culture (1944): Pl. X L l, 1. In both
publications the figure appears upside down.
181 Fragments o f a bowl from Ilonapart at
Szentes, southeastem Hungary, with a
figure ofthe Bee Goddess painted in red on a
white baekground. Diseovered b y j. Czalog
Szentes-Ilonapart,
Acta
Archacologica
(Szeged 1966). Courtesy o f Szentes Mu
seum.
182 Brown-on-eream painted vae from a
Cucuteni B settlement o f Podei near TirguOcna, district o f Bac5u. H. 19 cm. Diam.
22.5 cm. Piatra Neam{ Museum, Inv. 1514 .
183 Animal-headed female figurine seated on a
scool o f red baked terracotta, dccorated vvith
dcep incisions filled in vvith vvhite. Navel
indicatcd by hole vvithin an encired raised
bclly. Tvvo perforations through arm
stumps, hips and mask. Four perforations
at back ofcrovvn. Found 4.1 m. deep in the
Vina mound. Vasis excavation. NM
Belgrade cxhibit. Publ. Vasi, Vina, I: 12 1,
Figs. 139a,/;,c; and III: 1 1 4 ,-Figs. 541 a,h.c.
184, 185 Tcrracotta figurine o f a masked goddess,
painted in black and red diagonal bands.
Eves, nose, centre o f forehcad and ehin
painted black. Perforations through the
shoulders and arms and through the corners
o fth e pentagonal mask. Lovver part missing. Was originally seated on a throne. Lefc
arm broken belovv che shouldcr: right hand
011 left breast. H. 15.1 cm. Luscrous surface.
Found 4.38 m. deep in Vina mound. BU
Colleccion. Inv. No. 1222. Vasis excnvation. Publ. Vasi. Vina, I: PI. X X X V I.
1X6, 1X7 Terracotta figurine (cylindrical srand) vvich
head o fa bear cub from Pavlovac (localicv
-9 4

ukar), upper Morava Valley, southeastem

Yugoslavia. Small stumps for arms. H.
16.6 cm. Fine dark brovvn fabric. 1955
excavation o f N M Belgrade and Archae
ological Institute o f Serbian Acadcmy o f
Sciences. N M Belgradc, Inv. 15369. Publ.
M . Garaanin in 39. B R G K (1958): Pl. 1,
a, b. Assumed to be o f Late Vina (VinaPlonik) period.
188 Terracotta figurine in half animal, half
human form. Applied ears, pinehed-up
nose, cyes and mouth exeised. Left arm and
left breast broken off. Right hand on the
abdomen. Lovver part missing. H. 9.5 cm.
Fine brovvn fabric. Starevo comp!ex.
Porodin near Bitola, Southern Vugoslavia.
Excavated 1954 by M. Grbi et al. Archae
ological Museum Bitola, Inv. N o. 14. Publ.
Grbi, Poroditi, Pl. 39; Sheffield Catalogue
(1969): Pl. 6.
i, 190 Terracotta sculpture o f a seated mother
holding a large child 011 her lap. V s,
meanders and crcscents incised on the back.
Both heads missing. Legs and right arm o f
the mother broken off. H. 12.4 cm. Fine
light-brovvn fabric. Early Vina settlement
at Rastu near Dolj, southvvescern Rom ania.
N A M , Bucharest. Publ. V. Dumitrescu,
Raport asupra activitdfii $tiin{ijice a Muzeului
National de Anrichitafi in anii 1942 $i 1943
(Bucharest 1944); 84-87, Fig. 16.
1. 192 Terracotta figurine o f fine dark-grcy fabric
from Supska near uprija. H. 9.2 cm.
Lovver part and lefc arm missing. Pcrforations through shoulders and elbovvs. Inci
sions indicate eves, blouse lines, constricted
slecvcs, fingers, navel and notehed cord by
vvhich pouch on back vvas atraehed. Central
section at front and back (betvveen incisions)
painted in black. Surface find. N M Bel
grade 20196. NM Belgrade Catalogue
(1968): 128.
193 Terracotta figurine o f a bear-masked
vvoman in a seated position holding a bear
cub. Light-grey fabric. Itnpure clay. H. 5.7
cm. Excavated 1959 by J. Glii and B.
Jovanovi. Fafos factorv in Kosovska
Mitrovica, Kosovo Metohije, YugosIavia.
Found in later horizon o f the settlement,
labellcd Fafos II. National Museum, Kosov
ska Micro vica. Inv. 2090. N M Belgrade
Catalogue (1968): 96.

194 Terracotta figurine o f mother holding baby.

Head and legs missing. Was originally
seated on a throne. Tvvo perforations
through each shoulder. Massive arms,
fingers crudely incised. Dress indicated by
vvhite-encrusted incisions. H. 8 cm. Fine
grey fabric. Vina site at Gradac near
Zlokuani, Morava Valley, excavated by
M . Vasi in 1909, but the figurine is a
surface find. N M Belgrade, Inv. 775. Publ.
M. Vasi in Glas Serb. Kralj. Akademie

199 Hamangia-type standing terracotta figurine

v/ith hands on the abdomen. Pillar head,
feet and left shoulder reconstructed. Large
breasts, very wide hips. H. 2 1.7 cm. Cernavoda cemetery, Dobruja. Light brovvn
fabric. N A M Bucharest, Inv. V .22003.
Excavation o f 1957 by D. Berciu o f the
Institute o f Archaeology, Academ y o f
Sciences, Rom anian P .R . Publ. D. Berciu,
Cultura Hamangia (1966).

200, 201 Lovver half o f terracotta seated figurine,

broken at vvaist and end o f legs. Accentated
abdominal part vvith vvide hips and pregnant
195 Mother and child plastically rendered on a
belly. Incised vvith vvhite-encrusted lines,
pottery fragment from early Lengyel vilspirals and dots: double spiral on the belly,
lage o f Zengovrkony near Pcs, province
triangles vvith a dot inside each forming
o f Baranya, Hungary. Holes for eyes.
band on the back. Diagonal lines above the
Schematized animal-shaped head. Massive
legs suggest skirt or trotisers. Upper back
arms and hands. H. 5 cm. Excavation b y j.
plain except for tvvo holes marking TrigoDom bay in 1939. Janus Pannonius Mu
num lumbale and tvvo holes at the back o f the
seum in Pcs, Inv. 5.187.1939. Published
neck. Brown/grey fabric. H. 3.5 cm. M ax.
by D om bay, Zengovdrkony: 2 17 , Pl. 87,
width 3.1 cm. 1968 excavation o f Sitagroi
Fig. 6; PI. 114 , Fig. ^a-b.
mound by C . A. Rcnfrevv (Sheffield) and
196 Terracotta standing figurine from MedM. Gimbutas (U C L A ). Period III, equivavednjak near Smederevska Palanka, south
lent to the East Balkan Gumelni^a civilizaeast o f Belgradc. H. 15.7 cm. One arm
tion. Philipi Museum, Macedonia, Greecc,
stump and head broken off. Fine dark-grey
SF 1276.
fabric. Black polished vvith vvhite-encrusted
202 Schematized figurine o f pregnant female
incisions indicating both dress and magical
vvith band o f inciscd snakes around che
signs - a snake on the abdomen and mean
belly. Orange/buff fine baked c!ay. Whiteder on the back. Snake and meander bands
enerusted incisions. H. 5.15 cm. M ax.
are painted in red. Excavated 1970 by R .
diam. 3 cm. Sitagroi mound (Period III),
Milosjevi, direetor o f the Narodin Muzej
Greek Macedonia, Philipi Museum, SF
Smederevska Palanka, Inv. 112 . Courtesy o f
4489.
this museum.
( 19 11).

197 Terracotta figurine o f a seated pregnant

vvoman vvith hands above the abdomen.
Legs like cones. Head missing. H. 2.5 cm.
Fine rcddish-brovvn fabric. Porodin near
Bitola as above, Inv. 1306. Publ. Grbi,
Porodin: Pl. X X X I : 7.

203 Terracotta figurine in a squatting position.

H. 3.9 cm. Schematically rendered. Head
broken off. Incised lines mark legs. Lozenge
vvith a dot in the middle on bclly. Gladnice,
. site at Graanica near PriStina in Kosovo
Metohije, Southern Yugoslavia, a Neolithic
Starevo settlement. j. Glisis cxcavation
o f 1960. Regional Museum Pritina, Inv.
No. G-2E/1205. Belgrade 1968 Catalogue:

198 Terracotta torso o f a nude and pregnam

vvoman holding her hands above the belly.
3*
Lefc arm broken. Head and lovver porcion
missing. H. 5.25 cm. Fine reddish-brovvn 204, 205 Terracotta figurine o f a standing female
inciscd ali over vvith lines and magical signs.
fabric. Porodin mound near Bitola. vvestern
In front. in the vcry centre, a quadripartite
Macedonia. Excavated 1953 by M. Grbi
lozenge vvith a dot in each section and a
rt al. Central Balkan Neolithic. Starevo
snake design above it 011 chest. Breasts not
com plex. Bitola Archaeological Museum.
indicated. Arm stumps incised on front and
Inv, 470. Publ. Grbi, Porodin, but objccc
back vvith parallel lines. V-line belovv the
mu illustrated.

295

schematized head vvith pinched-up nose.

Hair indicated by application o f small lumps
o f clay. Fine reddish-brovvn baked clay.
Polished surface. H. 15 cm. Cucuteni,
northern Moidavia. Cucuteni A phase.
N A M Bucharest.
206 Terracotta figurine in seated position,
placcd on a terracotta throne (not found
together). The figurine, vvith a multiple
lozenge design incised above the pregnant
belly, from Selo Kalekovets near Plovdiv,
central Bulgaria; the chair (throne) from
Kapitan Dimitrievo. Both are o f Karanovo
VI-Gumelni^a type. H. approx. 10 cm.
Plovdiv Archaeological Museum.
07-209 The seated goddess o f Pazardik at Plovdiv,
central Bulgaria. H. approx. 15 cm. Polished
surface, fine fabric. White-encrusted in
cised lines. Naturhistorisches Museum,
Vienna. Publ. by M . Hoernes, Urgeschkhte
Europas, p. 204. Republished by E. Neumann, The Great Mother (1955), Pl. 6.
Courtesy o f Naturhistorisches Museum,
Prahistorische Abteilung.
10, 2 1 1

Anthropomorphic red-painted vessel in the

form o f an enthroned goddess. Fine reddishbrovvn fabric. H. 23 cm. N o head. Legs
broken o ff below the knees. Small breasts.
Schematic folded arms each vvearing tvvo
bracelets and one arm-ring. Navel indi
cated by a semi-globular protuberance vvith
a dot in the middle. Incised geometric
design, originally vvhite-encrusted, covers
lovver part o f the body. Koknydom b at
Hodmezovasa'rheIy on R iv er Tisza in
southeastern Hungary. Tisza cuiture. T om yai Ja'nos museum. Hodmez6vasa'rhely,
Inv. No. 761/42. Publ. J. Banner, Kokvnydomb.

Dumitrescu, Raport asupra activitafii ftiintifice a Muzeului National de Antichitati in anii

1942 si 1943 (Bucharest 1944): 84-87.
214 Terracotta head o f a pig from Vina.
Leskavica near tip, Macedonia. Fine lightbrovvn fabric. H. 19 cm. Surface fmd in the
area o f Vina settlement. Naroden Muzej,
tip. Publ. N M Belgrade catalogue (1968):
93215 Naturalistically rendered terracotta pig
from the Nea Makri mound, Attica ProtoSesklo cuiture. Volos Museum. L. 6.5 cm.
Fine reddish-brovvn fabric. Excavated 1954
by D. R . Theocharis. Publ. Theocharis in
Athenische Mitteilungen, 71 (1956): iff.
216 Fragment (snout) o f a life-size sculpture o f a
pig. Unbaked clay. From the Vina layer o f
the stratified site o f Anza betvveen Titov
Veles and tip in eastern Macedonia. Dis
eovered by the author during the season o f
1970. With the exception o f one leg, ali
other parts o f the pig had completely
disintegrated. Made o f local orange clay
vvith chaflf temper and ineluding some large
quartz grains. Rough, buff-coloured, unpolished surface. Vertical cross-section o f
snout 3.9 cm. Test pit X IX , 5. Naroden
Muzej, tip.
2 17 Terracotta head o f a pig. It has large cars
vvith three perforations in each and deep
holes in the snout. Plastically rendered eyes.
L. 9.1 cm. Light-brovvn fine fabric. Dalbaki, 15 km. east o f Stara Zagora, central
Bulgaria. Marica-Gumelni^a cuiture. Courtcsy o f Stara Zagora Archaeological
Museum.

213 Uppcr portion o f terracotta figurine o f

goddess vvith pigs head or mask. Fine grcy
fabric. H. 9 cm. Rastu, lovver Danube

2 18 Pigs head and neck o f red baked terracotta,

vvith polished and rippled surface. Hollovv.
Black-painted bands around the neck and
eyes. Face (mask) sharply outlined. Per
forations on both sides. Probably part o f
the cult vase (or a rhyton) found 7.6 m.
(5.8 m.) deep in the Vina mound, during
Vasis cxcavarion. L. 7.8 cm. B U Collection. Publ. Vasi, I'VmV, I: Pl. 27 and Figs.
118 ,/>; II: Pl. X C V II and Fig. 363. Vasi:

region, vvestern Rom ania. Early Vina

settlement. N A M Bucharest. Excavation
by V. Dumitrescu in 1942 and 1943: V.

Illustratvd London Nvws, 1930, October 18

as a rhvton of red clay in the form o f a
goat.

212 Enthroned goddess from Predionica, Vina

site at Pritina Kosovo Metohije, Southern
Yugoslavia. H. 18.5 cm. Fine red fabric.
Surface fmd during excavation. Regional
Pritina Museum, Inv. 16 1. Publ. by R .
Galovi. Predionica, Pritina (1959): Pl. 3.

296

219 One o f the terracotta phalli found in the

Proto-Sesklo compIcx in the Tsangli
mound, Thessaly. Excavation by A. J. B.
Wace and M. S. Thom pson: Prehistoric
Thessaly (19 12), cf. Figs. 74b, 76b, 77c, e,
9 1a, 109b, h, i, k, i4 ia -c . This phallus has a
cream colour thickly applied and is painted
vvith horizontal reddish-brovvn bands. The
rounded top has a slit. H. 9 cm. Volos
Museum, Thessaly, Greece. c. 6000 b c .
After Zervos, Naissance, I (1962): 250, Fig.
283.

ments o f a belt (?) on vvaist. H. 12 cm. Fine

light-brown fabric. Later layer o f Fafos
(Fafos II) at Kosovska M itrovica, Southern
Yugoslavia. Mid-Vina phase. Excavated
1959 by J . Glii. Kosovska Mitrovica
Archaeological Museum, 7-B-850. Publ.
by R . Galovi in Reuiew magazine 1968.
228 Terracotta sculpture from Sesklo, Thessaly.
H. approx. 9 cm. Tsountas excavation.
Publ. by Kh. Tsountas, Dimeniou kai
Sesklou (1908); repeated by Zervos, Nais
sance (1962): Fig. 276. National Museum
Athens, Inv-. 5945. Photo: Courtesy o f
National Museum Athens.

220 Bone phallus from Bohuslavice, a Lcngycl

settlement near Znojm o. The dotted snake
pattern is vvhite-encrusted. Brno Archae 229, 230 Masked ithyphallic and horned (horns
ological Museum, Inv. N o. 2.637. Courtesy
broken off) man vvith the right hand over
o f this museum.
the left shoulder. Left hand holds penis
vvhich is painted red. H. 8 cm. Bracelets
22! Phalli from the Cucuteni B settlement o f
indicated by incision. Eyes incised. Light
Frumuica, Moidavia, northeastern R om a
brovvn fabric. Late Vina settlement o f
nia. H. 13 and 7 cm. In both, a canal runs
Crnokalaka Bara at Rujite near Raanj,
from top to bottom. Excavation by C.
. north o f Ni, southeastern Yugoslavia. N M
MatasS. Publ. MatasS, C. Frumuftca (Bu
Belgrade, Inv. 20.942. Excavated 1959 by
charest 1946). Archaeological Museum in
R . Galovi. Publ. R . Galovi Archvoloki
Piatra Neam{, Moidavia, Inv. 9081296.
Prvgled (1960).
222 Phallus-shaped clay artifacts, possibly used
as stems for wine cups, as reconstructed by
231 Crude terracotta figurine o f an enthroned
. Batovi. Danilo settlement at Smili
male figure in an irhyphallic position.
near Zadar. E.veavated 1958 by . Batovi.
Cylindrical head vvith no facial features.
Archaeological Museum in Zadar. After
Arms broken off. H. 5.3 cm. Grey fabric.
. Batovi, Problem kulta phallosa u
From the Porodin mound. E,xcavated 1954
Danilskoj kulturi , Diadora, 4 (1968): Fig. 3,
by M. Grbi et al. Archaeological Museum,
Pl. IV. 3Bitola. Porodin 629. Publ. M. Grbi,
Porodin: Pl. X L.
23-225 Mushroom-shapcd studs or stands o f light
green marble. H. a 3.5 cm .; b 3 cm .; c 2.3
232 ithvphallic man seated on a stool from
cm. Vina sire. Vasis excavarion. Belgrade
the area o f Larisa. Thesaly. Terracotta.
Univ. Collection, 500. 543. 708.
Raised right arm touching right car. Mouth
226 Butm ir vase. Butmir settlement, Bosnia,
Yugoslavia. Fine dark grev fabric. H. 20.5
cm. Exeavations o f 1893-96 by V. Radim skv. F. Fiala and M. Hoernes. Sarajevo
Zemaljski Muzej. Publ. V. Radim sky and
M. Hoernes, Div nvolitischv Station t'on
Butmir, I (1895). Dare bv analogv to Obre
setrlemenr near Kakanj: r. mid-fifth millen
nium BC.
227 Terracotta masked figurine o fa nude ithvphallic man in a jum ping or dancing
posture, Hands on rhighs. Legs broken off.
Top o f head rounded. Confours o f mask
visibJe. Eves indicated bv deprcssion. Frag-

indicated by incision. nose broken off. Left

arm on left knee. Tense posture. Engraved
necklace around the neck. Radtal incisions
and rvvo semicircles above the genitals.
Penis broken. H. approx. 50 em. National
Museum Athens. Inv. 5894.
-33 Irhvphallie rerracotra figurine o f a sranding
male vvith horned animai head (mask).
Caretullv modelled horns. Semi-spherical
cves. Folded arms vvith arm-rings on the
upper arms indicated in clay. Legs fused
into a narrovv base. H. 4.3 cm. Fine brovvn
fabric. Earliest laver o f Fafos (Fafos la) ar
Kosovska M itrovica, Southern Yugoslavia.
297

Excavated 1959 by J . Glii. M id-Vina

period. Regional Museum, Pritina, Inv.
F
I1 7 C / 1 2 5 1. Publ. by R . Galovi, Review
1968.
234 Schematized terracotta figurine o f an ithy~
phallic man vvith animal head. Horns
slightly indicated. Applied large circular
eyes and a conical phallus. Left hand hold
ing phallus. R igh t arm and horn damaged.
Fiat base. H. approx. 7 cm. Found 6.7 m.
deep at the Vina site. Vasis excavation.
B U Collection, Inv. 12 5 1. Vasi, Vina, III:

585.
235 Masked head o f a terracotta figurine portraying a horned animal, painted in red and
black, with incised vvhite-encrusted lines.
Large semicircular eycs. Horns broken.
H. 7 cm. Crnokalaka Bara south o f Ni,
Southern Yugoslavia. Excavated 1959 by
R . Galovi. N M Belgrade, Inv. No. 19 110 .
Unpublished. Mentioned in Arheoloki
Pregled (1960) by R . Galovi.
236 Terracotta figurine o f a masked man in a
seated position. Head (mask) and shoulders
disproportionally large, the lovver part
compressed. Legs broken o ff belovv knees.
Ornament by incision and vvhite enerustation. Fine grey fabric. H. 22 cm. W. (across
shoulders) 15.4 cm. Vala near Kosovska
Mitrovica, Southern Yugoslavia. Excavatcd
1957 by N. Tasi. Publ. N. Tasi, Kosmet
Glasnik, 2 (1957): 44, Pl. 1 }a sb. Museum o f
Kosovska M itrovica.
237 Tcrracotta figurine o fa buli vvith a human
head (mask) from later Fafos layer (Fafos
II). Late Vina. L. 12.3 cm., H. 5.6 cm. Fine
grey fabric. Excavated 1959 by J. Glii and
B .Jovan ovi. Regional Museum, Pritina,
F 11-2A -160. N M Belgradc Catalogue (1968) :
95; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): Pl. 16.
238 Human-headed buli. Tcrracotta figurine
from the site o f Vala near Kosovska
Mitrovica. Body and hind legs missing.
Fine brovvn fabric, incised decoration vvhiteenerusted and painted dark red and black.
Eycs and middle parts o f forelegs painted
black. H. 10.5 cm. National Museum
Kosovska Mitrovica V a -113/2 . N. Tasi
excavation: publ. N. Tasi, Kosmet Glasnik
,(1960): Fig. 4. N M Belgrade Catalogue
(i 96.x): ro4. Sheffield Catalogue (19 6 9 : 11 1.

29S

239 Bull-legged pottery tripod from Med

vednjak near Smederevska Palanka. Fine
red fabric. H. 11.5 cm. Vina culture.
Diseovered by R . Miloevi before the
systematic excavations in 1969-70 together
vvith tvvo other tripods, one larger, another
smaller, and a figurine (female, in festive
attire and wearing a pentagonal mask, in a
standing position). Narodni Muzej, Sme
derevska Palanka, M V III48. Publ. Sheffield
Catalogue (1969): 181-8 4.
240 Vase in shape o f a crouching buli vvith a
half-human, half-bull mask attached to the
neck. The mask has very large perforations.
Opening at the top o f the head. H. z i .4 cm.
Decoration by graphite painting: five con
centric circles belovv the head, three on each
side o f the body and tvvo spirals on either
side o f the raised ridge representing the
spine. Gumelni^a mound, lovver Danube
district o f Ilfov, Southern Rom ania (Walaehia). Excavations by V. Dumitrescu o f the
Institute o f Archaeology o f the Academy
o f Sciences, Bucharest, 1925-60. Gumelni^a
B period. N A M , 13451. Publ. S. Marinescu,
Doua vase zoomorfe din cultura Gum elni{a\ S C IV , X II, 2 (1961): 345-56; Dum i
trescu, L art Roumanie: 107.
241 Head o f a buli broken o ff at the neck.
Pentagonal, flattened face suggesting a
mask has large diamond-shaped cyes and
line o f incisions along the nose ridge and
eyebrows. Tvvo incised lines round neck,
originally painted red. Reddish~brown
burnished surface. H. 4.4 cm. W . (of mask)
4.6 cm. Sitagroi mound, Period III. Dikilitash variant (equals Gumelni^a). Diseovered
1968 during M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C.
Rcnfrcvv (Sheffield Univcrsity) excavation.
Philippi Museum SF 1286.

perforated ears (female, two holes; male,

Vulkaneshti, K S IIM K , N o. Hi (1967):
one hole) and the female has three holes in
38 -41.
the mouth area. H. 6.8 cm. Fine light247-250 Male and female gods from the cemetery o f
brovvn fabric. Gumelni^a mound, district
Cernavoda, northvvest o f Constan^a, in the
o f Ilfov, lovver Danube. Final Gumelni^a A,
area o f the Danube delta. Hamangia culture.
found at a depth ofo.90 m. belovv the present
Fine brovvn fabric, polished dark-brovvn
ground level. Excavated by V. Dumitrescu.
surface. H. (male) 11.5 cm., (female) 11.3
Olteni^a Archaeological Museum. Publ.
cm. Completely preserved. Both wear
Antiquity (1964): PI. X X X V III a (note by
masks. Flatnecksandbacks. i957excavation
V . Dumitrescu); V. Dumitrescu 'N ew
by D. Berciu sponsored by Archaeological
discoveries at Gumelni(a , Archaeology, X IX
Institute o f the Academ y o f Sciences o f the
(1966), 3 : 16 2 -7 2 ; Idem, Vari Roumanie: 90.
Rom anian P. R . N A M Bucharest, Inv.
244, 245 Terracotta figurine o f an enthroned male
V 6496. Publ. by D. Berciu, Neolithic
god. Head, right leg and tvvo legs o f the
figurines from
Rom an ia, Antiquity,
throne broken off. Hands on knees. H. 7
X X X IV , N o. 136 (1960): 283-84. Ibid.,
cm. Painted red on back and front. The
Mamifcstation d art nolithique en R o u
Pyrasos mound at the modem village o f
manie. Le couple de Cernavoda', IP EK ,
Nea Anchialos, m idway betvveen Volos
2t (1964/65): 42-45and Alm yros. Found in second Neolithic
2 5 1,2 5 2 Terracotta seated man vvith hands to his
stratum (from the bottom) from the Sesklo
head from Tirpejjti, district o f T g. Neam?,
end o f the Proto-Sesklo period. Excavated
region o f Bacau, Moldavia, Rom ania, an
1956 by D. R . Theocharis. Volos Archaeo
early Cucuteni ( Pre-Cucuteni III") settle
logical Museum, Inv. 2429. Publ. D. R .
ment. H. 7.7 cm. Fine oehre-red fabric.
Theocharis 'Pyrasos\ Thessalika (1959):
Polished surface. Flattened back. Legs
29-68, Pl. III, b.
broken off. Long cylindrical neck and upper
246 Terracotta torso ofa seated man vvith a wcll
arms. Fiat head, suggesting a mask. Excamodelled back. Vulkancshti, Soviet M ol
vatcd by V. Dumitrescu and S. Marinescudavia. Excavated by T . S. Passek. Archae
Bilcu. N A M Bucharest. Publ. by S. Mariological Museum o f the Institute o f History
nescu-Bilcu, Reflets des rapports entrc les
o f the Acadcmy o f Sciences o f the Moldacivilizations de Hamangia et de Precucuteni
vian S .R ., Kishenev. Publ. by T . S. Passek
dans la p!astiquc Prcucutenicnne de T irand M. M. Gcrasimov, Novaja statuetka iz
pe$ti\ Dacia, VIII (1964); 3 0 7 -12 .

242 Head o f a buli that formed part o f a cult

vessel. Horns missing. Ears indicatcd. Well
modelled semi-globular eycs. Distinct nose
ridge. Brovvn burnished. H. (of face) 4.6
cm., W. 2.7 cm. Sitagroi mound, Period
III. Philippi Museum SF 210.
243 The Gumelni^a lovers : conjoincd female
and male tcrracotta statuette. The male
(ithvphallic) embraces the female, vvho is
characterized by a large pubic triangle and
small breasts. Both have pinehed-up noses,
299

Index
Abri M ge 1 17
Achilleion 6 1, 241
Acrotiri 200
Aglauros 235
Agrotera 198
Aischylos 198
Alfold cuiture 27
Am orgos 157
Anthesteria 227, 228
Antigonos o fK arystos iSt
Anza 24, 74, 85, 1 13 ,1 3 6 ,16 3 ,1 9 0 ,2 1 4 . 241
Aphrodite 95, 149
Argissa 241
Argos 149
Ariadne 149
Aristophanes 148
Aristotle 179
Ariu$d 241
Arkalokhori 79
Artemis 158, 163, 172, 182, 183, 196-200.
*35
Aszod 241
Athena 95, 14 7 -9 . - 34-5
Athena Aithuia 148
Athenagoras 102
Azmak 29, 30. 32, 10 1, 157, 241-2

Bilcze Zlote 182, 242

Bird Goddess 81, 85, 95, 107, 112 -5 0 , 152,
2 i i , 236
str also Snake Goddess
birds 106
see ako water birds
bisexualism 135-6
Blagoevo 242
Bodrogkeresztur 28, 242
Boian 32, 242
Bordjo 83, 242
Borets 242
Borsod 242
Brane 67, 74. 243
Britomartis 198
Biikk cuiture 27, 94. 117 , 125, 176
Buli God 227
bulls and buli images 91--3, 176, 18 1- 3 , 224
Butmir 25, 43, 44, 93. 116 , 243
butterflies and butterflv images 18 1-19 0
Bylany 243

Daden 146

Callimachus 183
Calomfire$ti 243
Ca marino 214
C'apri 243
Caria 197
Ciiscioarele 32, 68, 7 1. 7N, 88. u>6. 228-9.

Biinilkcrtnnik see Linear Potterv cuiture

Banja ta 242
Banjica 24. 242
Bariljevo 45
bears and bear images 1 13 - 1 6 . 134, 190-5
Boe Goddess 110
bees and bee images 181-9 0
belts, ritual costume 45
Bcrcsfti 242
Bernovo Luka 242

-43
Catal H i i v i i k 56, 1 1 6 . 152. 176. 1 N6.
205
Cavdar 29. 243
Cernavoda 30, 243
Cernica 32. 39, 243
Chaeronca 243
Chalcolithic cultures
in Adriatic 25 7
in Aegean and Central Balkans 22-5

300

19 0 .

in East Balkans 30-3

in Middle Danube Basin 27-9
in M oldavia-W est Ukraine 33-5
chevron symbols 1 1 3 - 1 7 , 132, 135
Chikalenko, Levko 135
childbirth, goddess o f 79
Chotnica 32
coiffure, ritual costume 54-5
Colophon 197, 198'
Corinth 177, 243
cosmic egg 10 1- 7
cosmic vvaters 124-32
cosmogonical images 8 9 - 111
costume, ritual 44 5^>
creation, the 10 1- 7
Crete 18, 66, 74. 93. *0
see also Minoan cuiture
Cri 19-22
Crnokalaka Bara 22, 50, 6 1, 74, 243
cross symbols 89-91
Crvena Stijena 244
Csepa 244
Cucuteni cuiture 32, 33-5, 44 244
Bird and Snake Goddess in 112 , 125, 132,
142
Great Goddess in 158, 166, 168, 169, 17 1,
172. 179. >82, 184. 187
male sculptures 234
masks 57
Pregnant Goddess in 205, 208. 211
ritual costume 43, 50, 5 1, 54
symbols 9 1, 93. 95. 101
temples and shrines 72-4, 80, 82. 83
Cuina Turcului 244
uprija 45
Cvbele 197. >99
Cvprus 149
Danilo cuiture 114 , 116 . 244
dating. radiocarbon and dendroehronologicai 13 - 15
deer and deer images 1 7 1 4
Demeter 82, 163. 214-20
endrochronologieal dating 14 -15
Diana 198
Dikili-Tash 32, 244
Diktynna 198
Dimini 177. 220. 244
Dionvsus 95. 220. 227-30. 236
Divine Child 234- 5
Divostin 24, 74, 244
doe, and the Goddess ol Regeneration

171 .1

dog, and the Moon Goddess 169-71

Donova M ogila 244
Donja Branjevina 244
dot symbols 20 1, 205-8
D ove Goddess 146
Drenovac 22, 195
dresses, ritual costume 45-51
Dude 244
Dumitrescu, Hortensia 68
D vory Nad itavou 244
egg, primordial 10 1-7
eggs, Great Goddess and 163-8
Eileithyia 79
Elateia 245
Enodia 197, 198
Ephesus 183
Erichthonios 234-5
Eros 102
Euripidcs 227
Europa 198
Evans, Sir Arthur 75, 186
Fafos 43, 51. 60. 66, 83, 190, 195, 220, 245
fertilitv, Pregnant Vegetation Goddess and
20 1-35
Fcrtility Goddess 152-200
figurines
costume 44-56
inscriptions on 85-7
role o f 67-8S
fish and fish images 10 7 -11
footvvear, ritual costume 51
four corners o fth e vvorld 89-91
Frumuica 82, 245
Gaia 102
Gazi 146
Ghelaesti 245
Gladnice 6 1, 245
Glaucus 184
Goddess o f Fare 158
Goddess o f Regeneration 152, 17 1-4 . 18 1-19 0
Goddess o f Transformation 181 -90
Goljamo Delchevo 245
Gomolava 124. 245
Gorni Pasarel 169. 245
Gornja Tuzla 24
Gorza 245
Gournia 75
Gradac 39, 195
G radosnica 86. 245-6
Great Goddess ot Life and Death So. 91,
152 200. 2 t t . 230, 234, 236-7
Greater Dionvsi.i 227

30 1

Grivac 22, 13 7 , 77
Grotta Scaloria 79, 246
Gumelni^a culture 32-3, 50, 125, 158, 163.
174, 208, 246
Habacti 246
H acilar 56, 152, 153, 163, 174

Hagia Triadha 66, 79, 146

hair, ritual costume 54-5
Hamangia culture 30-2, 153, 230
hedgehogs and hedgehog images 179--S1
Hekate 163, 17 1, 196-200
Hera 149-50
Heraion II 150
Herakles 102
Herodotus 150, 214
H erse 235

Hippocrates 178
Hirova 32
Hluboke M auvky 246
Homer 149, 150
horns 9 1, 93, 176
Hurbanovo 246
Hvar 246
Hyakinthos 234, 235
'H yde vase 1 36
Ilonapart 184, 246
Impresso culture 25, 186
Iphigeneia 199
Isopata 185, 197
Izvoarele 69, 246
Jakovo-Korm adin 80
j asa tepe 246
Kakanj 246
Kalicz, Nandor 83
Kallisto 198
Kalojanovec 246
Kamares 79
Kapitan Dim itricvo 246
Karanovo 24, 28-30, 32, 87, 174, 246-7
Karbuna 247
Kateli Pcdcada 182
Kato Ierapetra 247
Kazanlik 29, 30, 157, 247
Kcnezlo 117 , 247
Keos 22N
K h v o jk a . V . V. 34

Khronos 102
Kishenev 69
Knossos 75, 78. So. 93. 125. 168. 1X7. 197
K odadcrm en 32, 247
K 6 k nydom b 125, 13 1.2 4 7

Kokenydom b Lady 208

Kolomijshchina 73, 247
Kopanes 184, 247
Kore 163, 214-20
Koros 19-22
Kostcnki IV 132
Koszylowce 168, 247
Kotacpart 185, 247
Koumasa 78
Krannon-Duraki 69
Krynichka 247
Kubaba 197
Kukova Mogila 94, 247
Kurgen W ave N o 2 34
Kybebe 197
Iabyrinth symbols see meander symbols
Lakedemonia 199
Lang-Enzersdorf 247
Laphria 198
Larga-Jijiei 247-8
Lenaia 66, 227, 228
Lengyel culture 27-8, 32, 44, 116 , 125, 342,
169, 248
Tengyel Madonna 195
Lepenski Vir 102, 110 , 163, 248
Lerna 157, 248
Lesbos 149
Let 248
Linear Pottery culture 27, 30, 94
Lipari 25
Lipovac 248
Lisiii 248
Lortet cave i 10
Lovets 248
lozenge symbols 201, 205-8
Luka-Vrublcvetskaya 248
Lykosura 82. 215
Maissau 177. 179
M akkay,J. 83
Mallia 79. 166. 183
Marica culture 32
Marshack. AIexander 107
Masceria de la Quercia 186
masks 57-66
Matera 248
meander symbols 124-32, 135, 147
Medvednjak 22, 24, 74. 8 1, 248-9
Megara 148
Megara Hyblaea 249
Mezin 132. 135
Minoan culture 87
Bird Goddess and Snake Goddess in 14 5 50

Great Goddess in 108, 197

masked figures 66
shrines 74-80
Minos 184
M ochlos 146, 169
Mohelnicc 249
Molfetta 249
moon and moon symbols 9 1, 169-71
M oon Goddess 9 1, 152, 169-71
M other Goddess 152-200
mother symbo!s 142, 190-5
M uldava 172, 249
Murgecchia 249
Murgia Timone 249
mushroom symbols 220
musical Instruments 85
M ycenac 146, 186
Myccnaean culturc
Bird Goddess and Snake Goddess in 147
Great Goddess in 168
shrines in 75-80
Naxos 157
Nea Makri 2 1 1 , 249
Nea Nikomedeia 39, 106, 153, 174, 249
N ebo 2^9
Neolithic culture
in Adriatic 25
in Aegean and Central Balkans 19
in East Balkans 29-30
in Middle Danube Basin 27
in Moldavia-West Ukraine 32
N ezvisko 83
Ninkhursag (Nintiuugga) 196
Nitra 249
Nitriansky Hradok 249
Nosa 249
N o vyc Ruseshty I 249
nurse symbols 142-5, 190-5
N y x 102
Obre 116 , 250
Otzaki 184, 250
Ouranos 102
O vcharovo 250
O vid 181
Padina 250
Paestum 149
Palaikastro 146, 235
Pandrosos 235
parallel line syrnbols 1 1 3 - 1 7 . *45
Par{a 117 . 250
Pasiphae 1X4, 19H

Passo di C orvo 27, 186

Patso 147
Pausanias 198
Pazardik 250
Pazardik Lady 208
Perachora 149
Perieni 250
Pcrsephone 163, 198, 214 -2 0
Petreni 166
Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a, M . 34
Petrcjti culture 28-9, 81
Phaistos 79
Pianul d ejo s 81, 250-1
Pietrele 251
pigs, Vegetation Goddess and 2 1 1 - 1 4
Plato 150, 179
Plonik 22, 251
Plutarch 227
Podei 169
Popudnia 69
Porodin 6 1, 67, 95, 116 , 190, 251
Poros 93
Porphyry 382
Porto Badisco 74, 101
Potporanj 94
Predionica 24, 60, 64, 94, 251
Pregnant Vegetation Goddess 2 0 1-3 5 , 236
Preller, Ludwig 150
primordial egg 301-7
Pritina 208
Proto-Sesklo culture 19-22, 163, 174, 176,
184,220
Psychro 79
PyIos 125
Pyrasos 251
Radingrad 251
radiocarbon dating 13 - 1 5
rain, invocation of' 1 1 3 - 1 7
Ram ad 95
Rastu 195
Rhodcs 182
Ripoli 251
Roszke-Ludvar 67, 251
Rudnik Kosovski 251
Rug Bair 251
Ruginoasa 251
Ruse 32, 69, 157, 251
Sabatinovka II 72, 251
Sacred Marriage' 228
Sa kuta 251
Samos 149
Sa rva 176, 2 5 1-2

303

Scaloria period 2 5 ; site 252

Schliemann 1X6
Schmidt. Hubcrt 34
scripts 85-7
Selevac 22, 43, 252
Scrra d'A lto 25, 252
Sesklo 19-22, 114 , : 16, 152, 153, 163, 220,

252
Shmaglij, N . M . 34
shrines 67-88
Sluivkovka 70
Sipintsi (Schipenitz) 252
Sitagroi 32, 116 . 2 S2
Smili 252
Snake Goddess 80. 85. 10 1. 112 -5 0 , 2311
Si'C also Bird Goddess
snakes and snake symbols 9 3-10 1
Sophoeles 198, 199
sorrowful god 230-4
Souphli 253
Sparta 177
Srejovi, Dragoslav 60, 110
Stachelkugel 181
Sca raj a Buda 253
Starevo 19-22, 1 14, 152. 163, 17 1. 174, 176.
184, 220, 253
steatopygia 106-7
Stentinello 253
Strelice 169, 253
Sukoro 87
Sulica 254
Sultana 32, 163. 253
Sua 68
Suvodol-Dibel 94
Svetozarevo 166
Szegvar 83. 125
Szegvar-Tiizkoves 253
T alnoe 34
Tangiru 32. 253
TartSria tablets 14. 24, 87
Taygete 19
Teci 253
Thcra 182
Tirpejti 234, 253
Tisza cuiture 27, 95. 1 17. 125, 131
Tiszapolgar eomplex 28, 32
Tiszapolgar-Basatanya 28, 253
toad symbols 174-v
Traian 132. 253
T ri pol ye 34. 254
Tripolvc cuiture scc Cucuteni cuiture
T rov 146

304

Tru$e$ti 8 i, 9 1, 254
Tsangli 254
Tsani 254
Tsviklovtsi 74
Turda$ (Tordo) 254
turtle symbols I74~9
Tuzla 24
Tylissos 85, 93
Vadastra 32, 67, 13 1, 137. 254
Valac 22, 64, 254
Valea Lupului 91, 254
Varna 254
Varvarovka 254
vases, ritual 8 1-3
Vasi, M. 22, 23, 54, 60
Vegetation Goddess 9 1, 2 0 1-35 , 236
Venus o f Vina 136
Veseli novo 254
Vetulonia 177
Vidra 32, 163, 234, 254
Vina 37, 43, 80, 14S, 77. 79. 2 1 1 , 220, 254-5
Vina cuiture 22-5, 32
Bird and Snake Goddess in 1 14 - 1 7 , 124,
135-7, 142, 148
Great Goddess in 158, 163, 174. i 77. ' 79.
190. 195
masks 57-66
Pregnant Goddess in 21 1 , 214, 220, 224
ritual costume 44, 45, 50, 51, 54, 55
shrines 67, 74, 81, 85, 87
symbols 94, 101
Vladimirovka 70. 255
Volos, 19
Vorou 93
votive o rterings 85-7
VrSnik 44, 255
Vulkaneshti 230, 255
Vvkhvatintsi 158, 255
Wace, A . J. B. 1S6
\vater and vvater symbols 1 12-50
vvater birds 95. 102. 106, 125. 134-5. >4-- '47
Zaerszentmihaly 83
Zakro 79
Zelenikovo 255
elezovce 94
Zengovarkony 195. 255
Zcrvnthia 197
Zcryntlms 197
Zeus 149, 234, 235
/.hv.mets 255
zigzag svmbols 113 17. 145