SKILLS Project

October 2013

TRUSSES PART 1

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Special

features for the design of truss structures

for single-storey buildings

Design procedure:

Global analysis
Verification of members
Verification of connections

LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Constructional details

Calculation
Preliminary design
Global analysis
Verification of members
Verification of members under compression (and bending)
Verification of members in tension (and bending)
Verification of connections
Bolted connections
Welded connections
Conclusion
4

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Definition:

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually)

straight interconnected structural elements.
The individual elements are connected at nodes; the
connections are often assumed to be nominally pinned.
The external forces applied to the system and the reactions
at the supports are generally applied at the nodes.
When all the members and applied forces are in a same
plane, the system is a plane or 2D truss.
6

INTRODUCTION
The principal force in each element is axial tension or compression.

1 - Compression axial force

2 - Tension axial force

Members under axial forces in a simple truss

When the connections at the nodes are stiff, secondary bending
is introduced.
7

INTRODUCTION
Use of trusses in single-storey buildings
To carry the roof load:

Gravity loads (self-weight, roofing and equipment, either on

the roof or hung to the structure, snow loads);
Actions due to the wind (including uplift due to negative
pressure).

To provide horizontal stability:

Wind girders at roof level, or at intermediate levels if required;

Vertical bracing in the side walls and/or in the gables.
8

INTRODUCTION
Types of general arrangement
of the structure
of single-storey building

Portal frame arrangement

Lateral stability provided by portal trusses;
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical
cross bracings (blue);
No longitudinal wind girder. 9

INTRODUCTION
Types of general arrangement
of the structure
of single-storey building

Beam and column arrangement

Vertical trusses are simply supported by columns;
Lateral stability provided by longitudinal wind girder and vertical
bracings in the gables (blue);
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical
10
bracings (green).

INTRODUCTION
Types of general arrangement
of the structure
of single-storey building

Saw tooth roof arrangement

Main beams are trusses (drawn in blue) with
parallel chords; their span L is the long side
of the column mesh;
Secondary beams (green) are trusses with a
triangular shape and a shorter span A
(distance between main trusses);
Members in red support the north oriented
windows.
11

INTRODUCTION
Main types of trusses
In a Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension
for gravity loads. This type of truss is used where
gravity loads are predominant.
In this truss diagonal members are in tension for
uplift loads. This type of truss is used where uplift
loads are predominant, such as open buildings.

In a Warren truss, diagonal members are

alternatively in tension and in compression. This
type of truss is also used for the horizontal truss of
gantry/crane girders.

All these types of trusses can be used either in portal

truss structures or in simple truss structures with long spans,
range from 20m to 100m.
12

INTRODUCTION
Main types of trusses (continued)
There are two different types of X truss :
if the diagonal members are designed to resist
compression, the X truss is the superposition of two
Warren trusses.
if the resistance of the diagonal members in
compression is ignored, the behaviour is the same
as a Pratt truss.
This shape of truss is more commonly used for wind
girders, where the diagonal members are very long.
It is possible to add secondary members in order to :
create intermediate loading points;
limit the buckling length of members in
compression (without influencing the global
structural behaviour).
For any of the forms shown above, it is possible to
provide either a single or a double slope to the upper
chord of a roof supporting truss. This example shows a
duo-pitch truss.
All these types of trusses can be used either in portal
truss structures or in simple truss structures
13

INTRODUCTION
Main types of trusses (continued)
Single slope upper chord for these triangular
trusses, part of a saw tooth roof.

This type of truss is more commonly used

for the roof of houses and for smaller spans
(range from 10 to 15 m).

This type of truss can be used for larger spans.

These trusses can be used as simply supported.

14

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
General geometry of truss for roof structure
Trusses generally give an economic solution for spans over 20 (25)m;
The ratio of span to truss depth should be in the range 10 to 15;
The

inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords

should be between 35 and 55;

Point loads should only be applied at nodes;

The

orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the

longest members are subject to tension (the shorter ones being
subject to compression).

16

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Section of the members
Sections

should be symmetrical for bending out of the vertical plane

of the truss;

For

members in compression, the buckling resistance in the vertical

plane of the truss should be similar to that out of the plane;

Example

proposals for chords: IPE, HEA, HEB, Tees, hollow sections

or a section made of 2 channels (UPE), or sections composed of two
angles bolted on vertical gusset plates and intermediately battened;

Example proposals for internal members: single or two battened

angles, hollow sections.

17

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Types of connections
Truss connections

Splices

prefabricated in
the workshop
welded
directly to
the chord

site connections

bolted

bolted
with cover
plates

via gusset
plates

18

with
end plates

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Chord continuity
The design of bolted connections of truss chord depend on the
type of chord section to be connected.
Types of recommended connections:

with end plates

with splice plates

When the chords are made of:

a single I or H, either of the connections can be used;

two double angle or channel sections, splice connections are
generally used;
hollow sections end plate connections are generally used.

19

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Connection of diagonals to chords
When the chords are made of double members
(2L or 2UPE sections), common practice is to
insert gusset plates (welded or bolted on the
chords) between the two component members
of the chord. The diagonals and posts are
connected to the gussets, usually by bolting.
When

the chords are made of IPE or HEA/HEB

sections, the most common connection method
is also to use a welded gusset plate on the chord.
The gusset plate is attached to the flange when
the section is upright (vertical web), and to the
web when the section is flat (horizontal web).
20

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Frame stability
Frame stability is provided by bracing in both orthogonal directions,
and the truss is simply pinned to the supporting columns.
To realise a pinned connection, one of the chord members is
redundant (1) and the connection of that redundant member to the
column is usually allowed to slip in the direction of the axis of the
chord.

In

the longitudinal direction, stability is usually provided by vertical

bracing.
21

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Lateral stability

Truss

Cross bracing between trusses

22

Thick black dots: two consecutive

trusses
Blue: the purlin which completes the
bracing in the upper region
Green: the longitudinal element which
closes the bracing in the lower region
Red: Vertical roof bracing

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Lateral stability
The lateral stability of the top chords of trusses is usually provided
by the purlins (and by one panel of bracing, as for portal frames) but
where stressed skin design is permitted, it may provide the restraint
without bracing.

Roof cladding acting as stressed skin in a rigid-framed truss roof

23

CALCULATION

CALCULATION GENERAL
Contractual data:
Geometrical data
Incidence of neighbouring
construction
Obligations or restrictions
in choice of sections
Nature and position of
permanent loads
Nature and position of
imposed loads
Stabilising role of
envelope

DATA

CHOICE OF GLOBAL
ANALYSIS

SLS
VERIFICATION

EN 1993-1-1

Flowchart for the

design of trusses

EN 1993-1-8

25

MEMBER
RESISTANCE
VERIFICATION

CONNECTIONS
RESISTANCE
VERIFICATION

Regulatory data
and Standards:
Climatic loads EN 1991
Seismic loads EN 1998
Exploitation loads

CALCULATION PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Preliminary design steps
Determine the loading on the truss;
Determine a truss depth and layout of internal members;
Determine

the forces in the chords and internal members,

assuming the truss is pin-jointed throughout (using software or by
simple manual methods);

Select the compression chord member;

Select the tension chord member;

Choose

internal members, whilst ensuring the connections are

not complicated;

Check truss deflections.

26

CALCULATION PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Calculation of forces in a pin-jointed truss
Simple manual methods
Resolving forces at joints

Taking moments around node D

determines force CB

27

CALCULATION PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Selection of the compression chord member

The buckling resistance is based on the length between node

points for in-plane buckling;

The out-of-plane buckling is based on the length between outof-plane restraints usually the roof purlins or other members.

Selection of the tension chord member

The critical design case is likely to be an uplift case, when the

lower chord is in compression;

The out-of-plane buckling is likely to be critical. It is common to

provide a dedicated system of bracing at the level of the bottom
chord, to provide restraint in the reversal load combination.
28

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

In

reality, truss structures deviate from this theoretical behaviour

and their global analysis involves consideration of the deviations.

In particular, the deviations include the occurrence of bending in

the members (secondary moments), in addition to the axial
forces, which can cause significant additional stresses in the
members which make up the truss.

The deviations in design:

the members which make up the truss are not usually articulated at their
original node and their end node;
the members are not always strictly aligned on their original and end nodes;
Loads are not always strictly applied to the nodes.

29

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Modelling of a truss
A

truss can even be modelled without its supporting columns

when it is articulated to the columns;

If

separate models are used, it may be necessary, in order to verify

the resistance of certain elements, to combine the results of
several analyses (example: the upper chord of a truss also serves
as chord of the wind girder);

If

a global 3D model is used, parasitic bending can be observed,

which often only creates an illusory precision of the structural
behaviour process. That is why 2D models are generally
preferable.
30

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Modelling of a truss
For trusses, the model is commonly represented as either:
Continuous chords (and therefore chord members rigidly
connected at both ends);
Truss members (diagonals and verticals) pin jointed to the
chords.

31

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Simplified global analysis
A triangulated beam, with a constant depth, can be equated

to an Ibeam. This equivalence is possible and provides a good

approximation, for example, for a truss with parallel chords.
The global shear force Vglobal and the global bending moment Mglobal
in the equivalent beam vary very little along a panel and can be
equated with the mean values in the panel. Therefore the axial load
can be assessed using the following expressions:
In the chords Nch Mglobal / h

In a diagonal N V
d
global / cos

32

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Simplified global analysis
An estimate can also be made for the deflection of the truss beam

by calculating that for an equivalent beam, for the same loading.

In order to do this, the classic approach is to use elementary
beam theory, giving the equivalent beam a second moment of
2
area equal to:
I Ach,i di2
i1

where:
Ach,i is the section area of the chord i
di is the distance from the centroid of both chords to the centroid
of the chord i
In order to take into account global shear deformations, not dealt
with in elementary formulae, a reduced modulus of elasticity is
used.
33

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Secondary forces
There are bending moments and shear forces due to:
influence of chord rigidity
assumption of rigid truss connections
added to the axial loads in the members calculated assuming
the nodes are pined (primary forces).
It is routine in design to use continuous chord members and to
pin the truss members.

34

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Influence of secondary forces
Transforming pinned

connections into rigid nodes hardly leads to any

modification to the axial forces in the members;

Bending

of the member due to secondary bending moments only

causes a slight variation in the distance between the ends of this
member compared to the difference in length due to axial force;

The

greater the stiffness of the chords (which are usually

continuous), compared to the global stiffness of the truss beam, the
bigger the moments developed in the chords => secondary bending
should be taken into account in the chord design;

Comparing

the trusses with rigid connections of diagonals to the

pinned connections, the end moments are in the same range as the
moments resulting from the self-weight of the diagonals =>
assumption of bi-hinged diagonals
is acceptable.
35

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Effect of clearance of deflection
When the connections between elements which make up a truss
beam are bolted connections, with bolts in shear (category A in
EN 1993-1-8), the clearance introduced into these connections
can have a significant effect on displacement of the nodes.

The effect of slack under load

36

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Effect of clearance of deflection
The deflection of a truss due to the slack can be evaluated by
considering the effect of a unit load applied at mid span, using the
ib
Bertrand Fontviolant equation:
Fili
N1,i
ES i
i1
where:
N1,i is the axial force produced in the member i by a unit force
applied at the point where the deflection is required
li is the length of the member i
Si is the section area of the member i
b is the number of the members with bolted connection(s)
Fi li is the variation in length of member i due to the slack recovery,
ESi equal to 4mm according to whether the chord is in compression
or tension.
37

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Effect of clearance of deflection
It

is therefore essential, where truss structures are concerned, to

control the effect of connection slack on the displacements.

In order to do this, it is often necessary:

either to limit slack in category A connections: drilling at +1 mm,

even +0,5 mm and using shear bolts on a smooth bolt shank (to
limit the increase in slack by deformation) of the threads and
pieces; or

to use fit bolts; or

to use preloaded bolts (category C connections); or

to use welded connections instead of bolted connections.

38

CALCULATION GLOBAL ANALYSIS

Modification of a truss for the passage of equipment
It frequently occurs that it is necessary to modify the form of a truss
in order to allow equipment to pass (a large section duct for
example).
Several solutions can be provided:
either to increase the passage area available by an eccentricity
in the connection of one of the chords (case 1); or
break the straight form of a diagonal, by triangulating the
breakage point (case 2).
case 1

case 2

Local modification of the truss due to the passage of duct

39

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

The

resistance of a member to compression is evaluated by taking

into account the different modes of instability:

Local buckling of the section is controlled using section

classification, and when necessary, effective section properties
(class 4);

Buckling of the member is controlled by applying a reduction

coefficient in the calculation of resistance (obtained from the
slenderness of the member, which depends on the elastic critical
force Ncr);

In most truss members, only flexural buckling of the compressed

members in the plane and out of plane of the truss structure
need to be evaluated.
41

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Verification of the design resistance of the cross-section
for uniform compression
N
Ed

Nc,Rd

where:

Nc,Rd
Nc,Rd

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.4(1)

Afy

M0
Aeff fy

M0

for class 1, 2, 3 cross sections

for class 4 cross sections

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.4(2)

NEd is the design value of the compression force

A is the area of a cross-section
Aeff is the effective area of a cross-section, according to EN 1993-1-5
fy - yield strength
M0 - partial factor for resistance of cross-sections whatever the class is
M0 = 1,00
42

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Verification of the design buckling resistance
of the compression member
NEd
1
Nb,Rd
where:

EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.1

Afy
Nb,Rd
M1 for class 1, 2, 3 cross sections
Aeff fy
Nb,Rd
for class 4 cross sections
M1

Nb,Rd the design buckling resistance of the compression member

the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode
M1 partial factor for resistance of members
M1 = 1,00
43

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.2

Calculation of the reduction factor

where:

1
2

0,5[1 ( 0,2) ]
is the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness, determined from
the relevant buckling curve
is an imperfection factor corresponding to the relevant buckling
curve
Buckling curve
Imperfection factor

a0

0,13

0,21

0,34

0,49

0,76

44

EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.2
Table 6.1

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Selection of the buckling curve
for a cross-section
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.2 Table 6.2

45

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Calculation of the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.2

Afy

Lcr 1

Ncr
i 1

Aeff fy
Ncr

Lcr

for class 1, 2, 3 cross sections

Aeff
A

for class 4 cross sections

where:
Lcr is the buckling length in the buckling plane considered
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis, determined using
the properties of the gross cross-section
E
235
1
93,9

fy
fy
46

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Determination of the buckling length

EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB BB.1

CHORDS
in plane

out of plane

I or H
sections

other open
sections

hollow
sections

I or H
sections

open
sections

hollow
sections

0,9L

1,0L

0,9L

1,0Ls

1,0Ls

0,9Ls

where:
L is the in plane system length (distance between nodes)
Ls is the out of plane system length (segment between lateral supports)

47

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Determination of the buckling length

EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB BB.1

TRUSS MEMBERS
in plane (except angle sections)

out of plane

appropriate fixity
and end restraint
(with at least 2 bolts or by welding)

inappropriate
end restraint
(with 1 bolt)

all cases

0,9L

1,0L

1,0L

L is the system length (distance between nodes)

48

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Angles as web members
EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB BB.1.2
Provided that the chords supply appropriate end restraint to web
members of angles and the end connections of such web members
supply appropriate fixity (at least 2 bolts if bolted), the
eccentricities may be neglected and end fixities allowed for in the
design of angles as web members in compression.

The effective slenderness ratio may be obtained as follows:

eff, v 0,35 0,7 v for buckling about v-v axis

eff, y 0,50 0,7 y for buckling about y-y axis
eff,z 0,50 0,7 z for buckling about z-z axis
where is as defined in EN 1993-1-1 6.3.1.2
When

only one bolt is used for end connections of angle web

members the eccentricity should be taken into account and the
buckling length Lcr should be taken as equal to the system length L.
49

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Determination of the compression resistance of built-up members
It is quite common to make up members from a truss structure using
two angles, or two channels (UPE);
It is not specified in EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB if the particular rule as for
angle truss members also concerns members made up to two pairs of
angles: by way of simplification, it is recommended that Lcr = 0,9L of
the axis be retained;
In order to ensure that such built-up members will behave as sole
members in the flexural buckling mode, the two components are
connected by small battens.
1 - Batten
2 - Gusset

Members composed
of two angles

50

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION

Built-up members must be connected without slack;
The

gap between the angles, and the thickness of the battens, should
be the same as the thickness of the gusset to which the built-up
member is connected;

The

maximum spacing of the connections between members is

limited by EN 1993-1-1 to 15imin (imin - the minimum radius of gyration of
the isolated component). Otherwise a more complex verification
needs to be carried out, by taking into account the shear stiffness of
the composed member.

51

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

Verification of the design resistance of the cross-section
for bending
MEd
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.5
1
Mc,Rd
where:
Wpl fy
Mc,Rd Mpl,Rd
for class 1 or 2 cross sections
M0
Wel,min fy
Mc,Rd Mel,Rd
for class 3 cross sections
M0
Weff, min fy
Mc,Rd
for class 4 cross sections

M0

MEd is the design value of the bending moment

Wpl plastic section modulus respectively
correspond to the
Wel,min minimum elastic section modulus
fibre with the max.
Weff,min minimum effective section modulus
elastic stress
52

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.9
Bending and axial force
For class 1 or 2 cross sections: MEd MN,Rd
MN,Rd is the design plastic moment resistance reduced due to the axial
force NEd,
For cross-sections where bolt holes are not to be accounted for, the
following approximations may be used for standard rolled I or H
sections and for welded I or H sections with equal flanges:
MN,y,Rd Mpl,y,Rd (1 n) /(1 0,5a)
but MN,y,Rd Mpl,y,Rd
for n a: MN,z,Rd Mpl,z,Rd
n a 2
for n > a: MN,z,Rd Mpl,z,Rd 1

1 a

where: n = NEd/Npl,Rd
a = (A-2btf)/A but a 0,5
For other cross-sections see EN 1993-1-1 6.2.9(5)
53

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.9
fy
Bending and axial force
x,Ed
For class 3 or 4 cross sections:
M0
x,Ed is the design value of the local longitudinal stress due to moment
and axial force taking into account of bolt holes where relevant
(see EN 1993-1-1 6.2.4 and 6.2.5);
For class 4 cross-sections x,Ed is calculated using the effective cross
sections and following criterion should be met:
My,Ed NEd eNy
Mz,Ed NEd eNz
NEd

1
Aeff fy / M0 Weff, y,min fy / M0 Weff,z,min fy / M0
where:
eN is the shift of the relevant centroidal axis when the crosssection is subjected to compression only

54

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

Verification of the design resistance of the cross-section for shear
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.6

in the absence of torsion and for plastic design:

Av ( fy / 3)
Vc,Rd Vpl,Rd

M0
For verifying the design elastic shear resistance:

VEd
1
Vc,Rd

Ed

1,0

fy /( 3 M0 )
V
VEd S
Ed

Ed
Ed
or
for
Ior
H-sections:
if Af/Aw0,6
Aw
I t
where: VEd is the design value of the shear force
Av is the shear area according to EN 1993-1-1 6.2.6(3)
S is the first moment of the area above examined point
I is the second moment of area of the whole cross section
t is the thickness at the examined point
Af is the area of one flange
Aw is the area of the web: Aw = hwtw
hw, tw is the height and thickness
of the web, respectively
55

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

Influence of the shear force on the resistance of the cross-section
under bending moment and axial force
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.10
Provided that VEd 0,5Vpl,Rd

and hw/tw 72/ (for see EN 1993-1-5

or conservatively: = 1,0), no reduction of the resistances defined
for bending and axial force in EN 1993-1-1 6.2.9 need be made.

Where

VEd > 0,5Vpl,Rd the design resistance of the cross-section to

combinations of moment and axial force should be calculated using
a reduced yield strength (1-)fy for the shear area, where:
2VEd

V
pl,
Rd

56

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

Verification of the buckling resistance of the member under
compression and bending
EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3
My,Ed My,Ed
Mz,Ed Mz,Ed
NEd
kyy
kyz
1
y NRk
My,Rk
Mz,Rk
LT
M1
M1
M1
My,Ed My,Ed
Mz,Ed Mz,Ed
NEd
kzy
kzz
1
zNRk
My,Rk
Mz,Rk
LT
M1
M1
where:
M1
NEd, My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the design values of the compression force and
the maximum moments about the y-y and z-z axis along
the member, respectively
My,Ed, Mz,Ed are the moments due to the shift of the centroidal axis
according to EN 1993-1-1 6.2.9.3 for class 4 sections
y and z are the reduction factors due to flexural buckling from 6.3.1
LT is the reduction factor due to lateral torsional buckling from 6.3.2
kyy, kyz, kzy, kzz are the interaction factors 57

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS UNDER COMPRESSION AND BENDING

Values for NRk = fyAi, Mi,Rk = fyWi and Mi,Ed

EN 1993-1-1 6.3.3

Class

Ai

Aeff

Wy

Wpl,y

Wpl,y

Wel,y

Weff,y

Wz

Wpl,z

Wpl,z

Wel,z

Weff,z

My,Ed

eN,yNEd

Mz,Ed

eN,zNEd

The

interaction factors kyy, kyz, kzy, kzz have been derived from two
alternative approaches. Values of these factors may be obtained from
EN 1993-1-1 Annex A (alternative method 1) or from EN 1993-1-1 Annex B
(alternative method 2). The National Annex may give a choice from
alternative method 1 or alternative method 2.
58

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS IN TENSION

Verification of members in tension

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.3

NEd
1
N t,Rd

where:
Nt,Rd - design tension resistance

Afy

For welded joints: N t,Rd Npl,Rd

M0
EN 1993-1-8 3.1.1(4)

For bolted joints: according to connection type

Category A connections: Bearing type
Category B connections: Slip resistant at service limit state
Category C connections: Slip resistant at ultimate limit state
59

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS IN TENSION

Resistance of tension members with bolted connections

EN 1993-1-1 6.2.3

particular feature is the existence of criteria which bring into play

the net section of the member.
For sections with holes, for category A and B connections, the design
tension resistance Nt,Rd:
Afy

the design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section

Npl,Rd
M0
Nt,Rd mi n
0,9 Anet fu the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section
Nu,Rd
at holes for fasteners

M2
In category C connections the design resistance Nt,Rd:

Nt,Rd Nnet,Rd

Anet fy

Anet A tnd0

where:
M0
t is the thickness of the leg
A cross-sectional gross area
n is the number of vertically aligned holes
Anet net area of a cross section
d0 is the diameter of the hole
M2 =1,25 - partial factor for resistance of60cross-sections in tension to fracture

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS IN TENSION

Resistance of tension members with bolted connections
Angles connected through one leg
EN 1993-1-8 3.10.3
A single angle in tension connected by a single row of bolts in one leg,
may be treated as concentrically loaded over an effective net section
for which the design ultimate resistance should be determined as:
with 1 bolt

Nu,Rd

2,0(e2 0,5d0 )t fu

M2

with 2 bolts

2 Anet fu
Nu,Rd
M2

with 3 or more bolts

3 Anet fu
Nu,Rd
M2

where:
2 and 3 are reduction factors dependent on the pitch p1
Anet is the net area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by
its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as equal to the net section area of
an equivalent equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg
61
fu is the ultimate tensile strength

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS IN TENSION

Resistance of tension members with bolted connections
Angles connected through one leg
EN 1993-1-8 3.10.3
(a) 1 bolt
(b) 2 bolts
(c) 3 bolts

EN 1993-1-8 3.10.3 Table 3.8

Pitch

p1

2,5d0

5,0d0

2 bolts

0,4

0,7

3 bolts

0,5

0,7

Similar

For intermediate values of p1 the value of

may be determined by linear interpolation

consideration should also be given to other type of sections

connected through outstands. 62

VERIFICATION OF MEMBERS IN TENSION AND BENDING

Verification of members in tension and bending
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.1(7)
NEd
MEd

1
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.3
where:
Nt,Rd Mc ,Rd
EN 1993-1-1 6.2.5
Nt,Rd - design tension resistance
Mc,Rd - design moment resistance considering fastener holes
Consideration of fastener holes in the design moment resistance
Fastener holes in the tension flange may be ignored provided that for
the tension flange: Af,net 0,9 fu Af fy

M2
M0
where:
Af is the area of tension flange

Fastener holes in tension zone of the web need not be allowed for,
provided that the above limit given is satisfied for the complete
tension zone comprising the tension flange plus the tension zone of
the web
63

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.2

Categories of bolted connections

Category

Criteria

Remarks

Shear connections
A bearing type

Fv,Ed Fv,Rd

No preloading required.
Bolt classes from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.

Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
B slip resistance at SLS

Fv,Ed,ser Fs,Rd,ser
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd

C slip resistance at ULS

Fv,Ed Fs,Rd

Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.

For slip resistance at serviceability see
EN 1993-1-8 3.9.
Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.
For slip resistance at ultimate see
EN 1993-1-8 3.9; Nnet,Rd see EN 1993-1-1.

Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
Fv,Ed Nnet,Rd

Tension connections
D non-preloaded

E preloaded

Ft,Ed Ft,Rd
Ft,Ed Bp,Rd

No preloading required.
Bolt classes from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.

Ft,Ed Ft,Rd

Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.

Ft,Ed Bp,Rd

65

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Design resistances of individual bolts subjected to shear
Fv,Rd - Shear resistance per shear plane

v fub A
Fv,Rd
M2

where the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt
(A is the tensile stress area of the bolt As):
- v = 0,6 for classes 4.6, 5.6. 8.8
- v = 0,5 for classes 4.8, 5.8. 10.9
where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the
bolt (A is the gross section of the bolt A): v = 0,6
k1 b fudt
Fb,Rd Bearing resistance F

b,Rd

M2

e1 fub

p2
e2
k1 min 1,4 1,7; 2,8 1,7; 2,5
b min
; ;1,0
d0
d0

3d0 fu
for end bolts
p1 1 fub

p2
b min
; ;1,0 for inner bolts k1 min 1,4 1,7; 2,5
66
3d0 4 fu

d0

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Symbols for end and edge distances and spacing of bolts

e1 4t 40mm
1,2d0
e2 8t or 125mm

For structures made of steels confirming to EN 10025

except steels confirming to EN 10025-5
For structures made of steels confirming to EN 10025-5

Staggered spacing - compression

1 outer row, 2 inner row

Spacing in tension members

2,2d0 p1 min14t ,200mm

14t
28t

2,4d0 p2 min14t ,200mm p1,0 min

p1,i min
200mm
400mm
67

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Design for block tearing

Block tearing consists of failure in shear at the row of bolts along the
shear face of the hole group accompanied by tensile rupture along the
line of bolt holes on the tension face of the bolt group.
1 small tension force
2 large shear force
3 small shear force
4 large tension force

Ant is net area subjected to tension

Anv is net area subjected to shear

For a symmetric bolt group subject to concentric loading the design

block tearing resistance: VEd Veff,1,Rd fu Ant / M2 1 / 3 fy Anv / M0
For a bolt group subject to eccentric loading the design block shear
tearing resistance:
VEd Veff,2,Rd 0,5 fu Ant / M2 1 / 3 fy Anv / M0

68

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Design resistances of individual bolts subjected to tension

Bp,Rd punching shear resistance Bp,Rd 0,6dmtp fu / M2

where: dm is the mean of the across points and across flats dimensions
of the bolt head or the nut, whichever is smaller,
tp is the thickness of the plate under the bolt or the nut;

Ft,Rd tension resistance

Ft,Rd

k2 fub As

M2

where: k2 = 0,63 for countersunk bolts otherwise k2 = 0,9.

Combined shear and tension

Fv,Ed
Ft,Ed

1,0
Fv,Rd 1,4Ft,Rd
69

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Design slip resistance

Fs,Rd

ks n

Fp,C

M3
where:
n is the number of the friction surfaces
Fp,C 0,7 fub As
Fp,C is the preloading force
is the slip factor
EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.7
ks is the factor from EN 1993-1-8 Table 3.6
M3 =1,25 - partial factor for slip resistance

EN 1993-1-1 3.9.1
Class of friction
surfaces
(see EN 1090)

Slip
factor

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

Description

ks

Bolts in normal holes

1,0

Bolts in either oversized holes or short slotted holes with axis of the slot
perpendicular to the direction of load transfer

0,85

Bolts in long slotted holes with axis of the slot perpendicular to the direction of load
transfer

0,7

Bolts in short slotted holes with axis of the slot parallel to the direction of load
transfer

0,76

Bolts in long slotted holes with axis of the slot70parallel to the direction of load transfer

0,63

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - WELDED CONNECTIONS

EN 1993-1-8 4.5.3.2(6)

Design resistance of fillet welds

A uniform distribution of stress is assumed on the throat section of

the weld, leading to the normal stresses and shear stresses:
is the normal stress to the throat plane
is the shear stress perpendicular to the axis of the weld
is the shear stress parallel to the axis of the weld
The normal stress parallel to the axis is not considered when verifying
the design resistance of the weld.

The design resistance of the fillet weld is sufficient if the following

conditions are both fulfilled:
w 2 3 2 II2 fu /w M2 and 0,9 f /

M2

where: w is the appropriate correlation factor from EN 1993-1-8 Table 4.1

71

VERIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS - WELDED CONNECTIONS

EN 1993-1-8 Table 4.1

72

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION
The

use of the truss form of construction allows buildings of

all sizes and shapes to be constructed.

This

presentation provides guidance on the design of trusses

for single-storey buildings including issues connected with
constructional details, global analysis as well as verification of
members (chords and truss members: posts and diagonals)
and connections (splices, truss member to chord connections).

74

REFERENCES

REFERENCES
EN

1993-1-1 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures Part 1-1:

General rules and rules for buildings

EN 1993-1-8 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures Part 1-8:

Design of joints.

76

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