Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE DOVER EDITION
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
INTRODUCTION
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v
xiii
1
3
6
7
8
10
11
17
18
Authority in Science
Observation and Description
Cause and Effect
Analysis and Synthesis
Hypothesis.
Deduction
The Testing of Hypotheses
Models and Mathematics
The Search for Causes
Fallacies
Notes and References
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22
23
24
25
27
27
30
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34
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Vlll
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
CONTENTS
Psychological Bias
Replication
Factorial Design
Irrelevant Variables
Randomization in Factorial and Other Experiments
Level of Significance
Fractional Replication and Confounding
Latin Squares
Detection of Rare Events
Notes and References
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46
48
52
54
57
61
63
66
67
69
71
73
75
77
78
82
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109
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112
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137
140
6.6
6.7
6.8
CONTENTS
IX
Trouble Shooting
Getting the Most out of Observations
Notes and References
145
148
149
Classes of Things
Practical Definition of Classes
Induction
Sampling .
Induction in Science
Further Remarks on Sampling
The Definition of Measurable Scientific Quantities
The Operational Viewpoint
Notes and References
151
151
153
354
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161
164
166
167
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175
176
177
178
179
189
191
195
197
202
215
217
223
226
228
Classification of Errors
The Normal Law of Error
Applicability of the Normal Law
Treatment of Nonnormal Data
Importance of Size of Scale Divisions
Limits on Gain in Accuracy by Replication
Ways of Expressing Limits of Error
The Rejection of Observations
Quality Control and Experimentation
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234
246
247
251
252
254
256
258
CONTENTS
263
272
274
Probability
Random Processes
The Practical Use of Tables of Random Numbers
The Algebra of Classes
Symbolic Logic
Scientific Inference
Notes and References
277
283
286
287
289
293
299
303
304
306
307
308
312
313
315
317
317
322
328
330
General Considerations
Mental Arithmetic
The Slide Rule
Nomographs, or Alignment Charts
Logarithms and Other Tables
Keyboard Calculating Machines
Punched-card Computers
Checking Numerical Work
Analog Computers
Digital Computers
Interpolation
'.
Differentiation and Integration
Numerical Solution of Equations
Notes and References
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333
335
336
339
340
342
343
344
345
346
348
350
351
CONTENTS
XI
Types of Reports
Organization of Reports and Papers
The Title and Abstract
The Text
Acknowledgments
Notes and References-.
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356
358
359
363
363
CONCLUSION
365
INDEX
367