18

lntroductlon

carbon-12 atom is a fixed quantity, changing the unit of mass on the reference
mass of carbon-12 will change the numbcr of atoms that are contained in onemole
of carbon-12. The number of atoms in one gram mole of carbon-12 is known as
Avogadro's number, A, and its most accurately known value 3 is 6.0220943 x 1023
6.3 x 1017 Since
12_g carb( Jl-12/gmol
Mass of one carhon- 12 atom

A atorns/gmol

the number of elementary entities in 1 kgmol will be equal to 103A, in one gold
brick mole will be equal to l000/3A, ami so on. Fortunately, the cakulations of
the mole-mass equivalences use the rclative atomic/molecular weights and do not
explicitly require Avogadro's numher or its multiples. Thus, knowledgc of its pre
cise numerical value is not essential for most calculations.
The key points to rctain from the preceding discussion are the following. First,
although the standard mole is the gram mole, mole units can be defincd in terms
of any desired unit of mass. Second, the mole-to-mass conversion factor for any
compound in any mass unit will always be numerically equal to the molecular
weight of the compound. For instancc, for water thcre are 18 g per gmol, 18 kg/
kgmol, 18 gold bricks/gold-brick mole, and so forth. For this reason, thc molecular
weight is oftcn dircctly written as thc mas:-;-mole convcrsion factor wilh an assigned
set of units, although strictly :.;peaking it is dimensionless. We employ this loose
practice in subsequent chapters because of its widespread usagc in the field.

1.3.3 Equation-Solvlng Concepts

The application of the conservation laws to steady-statc systemsultimately requires
the solution of sets of balance cquations for the values of unknown process flow
rates. In general, the equations will be algebraic, may be linear or nonlinear, and
their number muy be quite largc. Since thc solution of such cquation scts can be
a formidable task, it is appropriate to devote attention to the study of efficient
solution strategies and methods, as is done in subsequent chapters. For the present ,
we briefly recall some elementary equation-solving concepts which ought to be
familiar to the reader.
Linear Equations
of the form

where
in the
power.
unique
3

A linear equation of the variables x 1 through xN is a function

the coefficients a; and the right-hand side b are known constants. Each term
function contains a single variable, and each variable occurs to thc first
If the linear equation contains but a single unknown, say, x 1, then the
solution to the quatio11; can be obt ined by mere division, that is, x 1 = b/

Anon., "Metrology: A More Accurat Value of Avogadro's Number," Sciet ce,183, lll37-1038 (Sept.
20, 1974).

1 .

'
Review of Baslc Concepts

19

a 1 1f the linear equation contains more than one variable, then it will ave an
infinite number of solutions since we can always set all variables but one to arbitrary
values and solve the resulting single-variable equation for the remaining un nown.
The process of s2tting N - 1 variables to fixed values is equivalent (o aug- !
menting the multivariable linear equation with N - 1 trivial equations of th'e form
X; = e;. This is but a special instance of the well-known fact that a system olinear
equations has a unique solution if and only if the system contains as many inde
pendent equations as there are unknowns. A set of linear equations is independent
if and only if no one equation in the system can be obtained by adding tdgether
multiples of any of the remaining equations.
1

Example 1.1O The system of equations

+ X2 = 1
Ox 1 + lx2 = 2
X1

:\

is independent beca use neither equation can be expressed as a multiple of the pther.
The system of equations
1
x1
Ox2 = 1
l

+ lx2 = 2
lx 1 + lx2 = 3
Ox 1

:
' 1

is dependent because the third is equal to the sum of the firs.t two.

\ \.

The solution of systems of linear equations can be accomplished in two ays:

by Cramer's rule or by variable elimination.
\
Cramer's Rule Cramer's rule is a classical construction which expresses te so
lution of a system of linear equations in terms of ratios of determinants of the
aay of coefficients of the cquations. In the case of a system of two equatiqns in
two unknowns,
\
a 11x 1 + a12x2 = b 1
\
'

The solution wil1 be given by

det 1 b 1
b2
X= -

detlll
a21

21
"22

b1a22

at2

at,a22

---

hzllz
al2az,

llz2
b1

Xz

b2

b2a11

llz

llnll22

= ----- =
ll z z

- b ,a2t
- llzll21

20

lnlroductlon

The form of the solution cxtends in an obvious way to larger:systems. In each

case, the denominator of the ratios will consist of the determinant of the array of
variable coefficients, while the numerator for the ith variable
consist of the
determinant of the array formed when the ith column of the array of variable
coefficients is replaced by a column of right-hand side <;:onstants. Unfortunately,
the evaluation of detcrminants becomes quite cumbersome ami error pronc for
systems larger than 2. 1-Icnce, thc use of Cramer's rule is not recommendcd beyond
the case N = 2.
Variable Ellminatlon The solution strategy for linear equation sets which is al
ways applicable is successivcly to salve onc of the equations of the set for one of
the unknowns and to climinate that variable from thc remaining equations by
substitution. The elimination proccss is continucd until the system is reduced to a
single equation in one unknown. This upproach is considcrably simplified if each
of the original equations contains only a fcw of thc unknowns.

will

Example 1.11 Solve the system of equations given below using elimination.

+ 2x2 + 4x3 = 5

2x

+ x3

x1
x1

+ 3x2

= 7

Solutio11 Suppose we solve Lhc second equation for x3:

} =2
and the third equation for x2 :

x2

-X

!(7 - x1)

The results can be substituted into the first equation to ohtain a single equation in
x 1 That is,
2x 1 + 2(!(7 - x1)) + 4(2 - x1) = 5
Collecting terms, we obtain
or
X

1f

The values of the remaining variables can then be obtained by back-substituting

the value of x 1 in the expressions for x2 and x3 Thus, x2 = V. and x3 = - Thc
solution can and always should bchecked by substituting it into the tluee equa
tions.
The variable elimination strategy is quite adequate for manual calculations
involving perhaps up to five equations, particularly if each variable is not present

21

Review of Basic Concepts

j

in every equation. We use this approach extensively in Chapters 2 and 3 and s lect,
whenever possible, the equations to be solved so that the above condition islmet. .
For computer solution or manual solution of larger problems, formulatioos of the
elimination strategy are available which opera te on the array of detached equ ition
coefficients. Such an approach is discussed in Chapter 4.
l
!

Nonlinear Equations A nonlinear equation is quite simply any equation that is

not linear. As such, a nonlinear equation can take on any of an unlimited nu;nber
of different forms. For ..ome of these forms, analytical solution formulas are avail
able; hence, determinatYon of the solution of a specific equation is a straightfoiward
matter. For instance, the well-known analytical solution of the quadratic equ tion

f(x)
given by the formula
X=

ax2 + bx + e

-b (b2

= O

4ac) 112

2a

can easily be evaluated for any specific values of the constants a, b, and (;. By
1
contrast, the equally elementary equation

f(x) = x exp (ax) - b = O

1

has no analytical solution formula; hence, for any specific values of a and p, its
solution requires the use of either graphic,,) or numerical methods.
1
Graphica/ So/ution The graphical method for solving a nonlinear equatioin a
single variable involves the construction of a graph of the function f(x). Thecon
struction of the graph of course requires that the function be evaluated at a sui able
number of trial points and that a smooth curve be drawn through these trial pqints.
The solution is then obtained as the intersection of the curve with the X ax s. In
principie, the accuracy of the solution can be improved as desired by repeatin'g the
graphical construction using more closely spaced tria) points and a graph with a
finer scale.
1
Example 1.12 Obtain an estima te of the solution of the function f(x)
- 5 = O graphically.

=X

exr (x)
1

i .
!

Solutioll Sinct! at x = O, f(x) is negative, while at x = 2 it is positive:, the

solution must le in the interval O x 2. The function can be evaluated' at a
suitable number of trial points, say, 10 equidistant points in the interval. The
resulting (x, y) pairs can then be used to construct the graph shown in Figur<i 1.6.
From the graph, the solution can be estimated to be about 1.33, whereas the sol tion
exact to seven decimals is 1.3267247. At x = 1.33, the function value is 0.0288,
1
while at the more exact solution the function value is 3.05 x 10,- 7
1
Numerical Solution Graphical solution is adequate in applications in which the
function is easy to evaluate and a solution with two- or three-figure accuracy is
acceptable. Repeated application of graphical constructions is generally ineffifient
1

22

lntroductlon
Y,

-6 -

Figure 1.6

Graph of f(x) = xex - 5.

as a means of improving accuracy. If increased accuracy is desired or if the function

lf.; complex to evaluate, then numerical methods are much tq be preferred. A
numerical method or algorithm is a clcarly defined series of logical and algebraic
steps which, given an estmate x" - t of the solution, will generate an improved
estmate x" by using information about the function at xk - t as well as possibly at
prior solution estimates. The most common type of function information used by
numerical algorithms is the value of the function at thc previous solution estimates.
The key requirement of a successful numerical method is that it successively
improve the solution estmate. In this context, an improved solution estmate is
simply one whose function value is closer to zero then that of the previous solution
estima te. If the algorithm has this property, then then; is sorne assurance that af ter
repeated application of its steps, a sufficicntly accurate solution estima te will be
obtained. The algorithm is then said to have converged. Normally, an equation
solving algorithm will be terminated when the absolute value of the function at the
current solution estima te is lcss than sorne specificd accurucy paramctcr t:1 (say,
I0-4). Sometimes, an algorithm might also be terminated if thcrelative difference
between successive solution estimates becomes smallcr than some specified tol
erance E2 (say, 10-5). That is, if x" is the current estimate and x" - 1 is the previous
estmate of the solution, then one would termnate thc application of the numerical
method if
and/or

Review of Basic Concepts

23

'!he si plest of thnume.rical. methods for the .solution of he equatin f(x)

mterval halvmg or b!sect10n method. In tlus method, g1ven two slutlon
estima teS XL and XR, One Wth a pOStVe function VaJue and the Other Wth a negatVe
function value, the next estmate z of the solution is obtained by setting

= O 1s the

z =
1

Then, if f(z) < O, the new stimate z is used to replace the point x4 or xR .
that has a negative function value. Alternatively, if f(z) > O, the new esti ate z
is used to replace the point with positive function value. The calculations continue
in this fashion until either f(z) becomes sufficiently close to zero or the dif(erence
between the points xL and xR becomes sufficiently small. Observe that si ce the
1within which the solution of f(x) must Iie is reduced .bY one
interval xL x x
half with each tria! point, the size of the interval after N tria) points will be: (XR x 1-)f2N, Where XR and XL are the OtiaJ estimateS Wth Which the bisectOO method
is started. As a result, the desired accuracy of the estmate of the solution:x* can
also be controlled by' choosing N appropriately. The complete interval halving ;
algorithm is summarized below:
Given N, :: 1, and the bounds xn and x 1 such that f(xL) f(xR) <O, set {' = l.
1

Step 1
Step 2

Calculate z

xR + xL and evaluate f(z).

2

Step 3

The point z is the solution.

1
If f(z) f(xn) O, set xL
= z and go to Step 5. Otherwise, contin e.

Step 4

If f(z) f(xL)

Step 5

If n = N, stop. Otherwise, set n = n

If 1 f(z)l

E 1, stop.

< O, set xR

= z and continue.

'

+ 1 and continue with Ste1

Example 1.13 Obtain a solution of f(x) = x exp (x) - 5 = O such that l (x)l :=;;;
10 -2 starting with xL = 1.2 and xn = 1.4 using interval halving. As a cons rvative
estmate, set N = .10.
1
1

l
V

Solutio11 At xL, f(xL) = -1.0159; and at xR, f(xR) = 0.67728. F llowing

Step 1, we obtain z = (1.2 + 1.4)/2 = 1.3 and f(z) = -0.2299. Since Step 2 is
notsatisfied, we check
! ' .!
'
= (! 1 ;1
f(z) f(x)
0.2299)(0.67728) < O
l
'

Following Step 3, wc set xL = z = 1.3 and continue with Step 1. The re u ts of

the next six iterations are summarized below. At the seventh trial point, 1the re
quiremcnt 1 .f(z)l ::s: 10-2 is satisfied ami, hence the calculations are termiqated.
1

1.3
1.4

f(z)

0.2075

1.3
1.35

1.325
1.35

1.325
1.3375

1.325
1.33125

-0.0151

0.0952

0.03981

0.01229

'

1.325
i.328125
-0.00142

24

lntroduction

After seven iterations, the solution x* has been bracketed within the interval
1.326563x* 1.328125. The length of this interval is equal to the initial interval
1.4-1.2 divided by 27
As evident from the example, the p rformance of the interval halving method
is sure but rather slow. Hence, in Chapter 5 we study a broader selection of
algorithms for the numerical solution of n single nonlinear equation.
Systems of Equatlons Solution of systems of nonlinear equations is considerably
more difficult than the single equation case. As with linear equations, it is sometimes
possible to use the variable climination strategy to reduce the system to a single
nonlinear equation. However, unlike in the linear case, the success of this strategy
is not guaranteed sincc it may simply not be possible to explicitly solve any given
nonlinear equation for a single unknown. For instance, the function in the previous
example cannot be directly solved for x. In most cases, it is at best only possible
to use the elimination strategy to reduce thc system of equations to a smaller set;
and when this is possible, it is useful to do so. Graphical solution of systcms of
nonlinear equations is normally not feasiblc; hence, in most cases numerical solution
is the only alternative. In Section 5.2 we discuss such methods md thcir use with
computers. The dcvelopment of thcse methods assumes familiarity with the con
cepts of derivative and partial derivative. The reader unfamiliar with thcse concepts
is strongly encouraged to consult the introductory chapters of any calculus text.

1.3.4 Dimensional Quantities and Their Manipulation Scientific

measurcmcnts ami engineering culculations are normally performcd using quantities
whosc magnitudes are exprcssed in terms of standard units of mcasure
or dimensions. Thus, the mass of water in a barrel might be reportee! in kilograms
or the length of a pipe in meters. While the association of dimensions with physical
quantitics is essential in removing mnbiguities which can arise in communicating
all(J using these quantities, it docs rcquire knowlcdgc of the dcfinitions of the
standard units, the ability to convcrt between equivalent units, and the skill to
manipulate dimensional quantities in a consistent fashion. In this section, wc bricfly
review these topics.
Units of Measure A limensional quantity is simply one that is defincd by a
magnitude and the namc of a unit of mensure. In ordcr for the unit of measure to
serve its function, its definition must be hcld in common by all users. Morcover,
the definition should, if possible, be vcrifiable through standardized physical ex
periments. These considcrations havc led to the worldwide adoption of the Inter
national System of Units formalizcd in 1960 and last reviscd in 1971. Thc SI system
has seven base units: the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kclvin, mole, and
candela. With the exccption of the kilogram, these units are defined in tcrms of
appropriate physical cxpcriments.
The definitions of the base units of conccrn in balance calculations are the
following.
The unit of length, thc meter (m), is the lcngth cqual to 1,650,763.73 wavc
lengths in vacuum of thc radiation corrcsponding to thc transiiion between the
levels 2p10 and 5d 5 of the krypton-86 atom.

25

Revlew of Basic Concepts

The unit of mass, the kilogram (kg), is the mass of a prototype hel,d by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Pars.
1
The second (s) is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation cor
responding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the grOl nd state
of the cesium-133 atom.
The temperature unit, the kelvin (K), is the fraction 1/273.16 of the!thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
j 1
The definition of the mole was given in Section 1.3.2, while the precise definitions of the remaining units can be found elsewhere.4

These SI units can be used with standard prefixes and their symbols to designate
decimal submultiples. Preferred submultiples are

,r,

109 = giga (G)

106 = mega (M)
103 = kilo (k)
' 103 = milli (m)

'
;
l.

1,!

10

10

ii.'

1
'i

'

!.

= micro ( J.)
= nano (n)

Thus, 103 m can be called a kilometer and abbreviated km.

The base units can be used in combination to obtain derived units, .such as
the unit of force, the newton (N), dcfined as one kilogram meter per! second
squarcd.
.
i
Other various l; its of Jength, mass, time, or tempcrature which have come;
into use for historical reasons are by agreement defined in trms of the1 units.
For instance, the hour (h) is defined as 3600 s; the ton (t), as 103 kg; the iiter (1),
as w- 3 m 3 ; and the centimeter (cm), as 10- 2 m. Similarly, the unit of m ss, the
pound mass (lb111) , until reccntly widely uscd in the English-speaking world, is
defined as 0.45359237 kg and the unit oflength, the foot (ft), as 0.3048 m. Paalleling
the definition of the mole given in Section 1.3.2, a molar unit called the, pound
mole (lbmol) is sometimes usedin conjunction with mass quantities expr ssed in
lb,w Following the discussion given earlier, it is clear that 1 lbmol = 45?.59237
mol:.

'

i
--

1 '

Manipu/ation of Dimensional Quantities Since the units of a dimension41 quantity are as important as the magnitude of that quantity, both should always be used
in reporting. The units should also be explicitly shown for each dimensional9uantity
involved in a computation as an aid in deducing the units of the result and in
verifying the consistency of the units involved in the intermediate steps of the
calculation. If thc units are shown explicitly along with the magnitudes\ of the
quantities, then the unit symbols can be manipulated just like any other algebraic
quantity. Specifically, the manipulation of units takes place via :the followirif rules: !
i

'\

'

ASTMIIEEE Standard M etric Practice, ASTM E380-75, lnstitute of Electrical and Electro ic
Engi- necrs, New York, N.Y., Jan. 30, 1976.
.1

26

lntroduction

l. The addition or subtraction .of quantities all expresscd in the same units yields
a result exprG6sed in those units. The addition or subtrac.tion of quantities
expressed in different units is
obviously meaningless.

1
2. The multiplic:a tion or division of quantities expressed in arbitrary units yields
a result which will have units given by the product or ratio of the units of those
quantities.
.
3. The division of quantities in the same ' units gives as result a dimensionless.
quantity, thal is, the units cancel.
.
4. The product of quantities expresscd in the same units yields a result which has
these units raised to a suitable exponcnt.

In short, thc units associat<rd with 'dimensional quantitics follow the conven
tional rules of algc braic manipulation..
Example 1.14

Unit Manlpulatlon Rules

(a) 10 kg/h + 20 kg/h = 30 kg/h.

(b) 10 kg/s - 7200 k /h is not' defined.
(e) 20m x 10 m x 5 m = 1000 m3
(d) 10kg/s x 3600s/h = 36,000kgs/sh = 36,000kg/h.
m/h-x 4 kg/m
--15 - 3-- x 50 h = 12m 3molkgh
(e)
= 12, where 12 is dimen10 mol/m2 x 25 kg/mol .
m 3molkgh
sionless.
J

Unit Conversion In the above example, the difference 10 kg/s - 7200 kg/h can
only be computed if the units of both quantities are the same. Since both quantities
have dimensions of mass per unit time, they ought to be expressible in the same
units. In particular, since by definition 1 h = 3600 s, the ratc of 7200 kg/h can be
transformed to a ntte exprcssed in kg/s by multiplying the former by thc dimcn
sionless ratiu 1 h/3600 s, that is,

7200 kg/h

1 h/3600 S

= 2 kg/s

In this manipulation, we ha ve mercly re<irranged the definition of the hour to a

dimensionless ratio and have applicd the ratio in such a way as to allow the hour
units to cancel out. The process of successive application of the definition of units
to transform a quantity in one set of units to the equivalcnt quantity expressed in
another desired set of units is called unit conversion. The process of unit conversion
is clearly just a special instance of thc application of the unit rimltiplication rule.
In material balance computations, the unit conversions required willnormally only
involve direct interconversion between mass, mole, and time units. In encrgy bal
ance applications, more involved unit conversions will be required, ami these are
given special attention in Section 6.4.

27

Review of Basic Concepts

Example 1.15 Elementary Unit Converslon

(a) Convert a flow of 10 kgls to a flow in tons pe'r hour.

(b) Convert a flow of C02 of 88 kg/h to pound moles per hour.
Solution

(a) To convert seconds to hours and kilograms totons, the definitioqs 1 h =

3600 ,S and 1 t = 103 kg are needed. Applying the definitions successively,
we obtain

3
100 kg/s x 1 t/10 kg x 3600 s/h = 360 t/h
1
,. , .
(b) To convert mass to moles, we need the definition of the pound mole. Since
the molecular weight of co2 is 44, it follows that
1
:
'
' 1 lbmol co2 = 44 lbm
'
1
' . '. '
lo use this mass-to-mole conversion factor, we first must convert mass in kg
to mass in lb111 using the definition 1 lb111 = 0.45359237 kg. The cbmbined
result is
i

88 kg/h

1 lbn,/0.45359237 kg

1
1

x 1 lbmol COi44 lb111 = 4.41lbmo l C02 /h

1

1
1

One special type of unit conversion which is required

quite frequently in material balance computations is that of transforming oe meas
ure of the composition of a mixture to another measure. This need arises; because
composition can be expressed in various ways:
).
l. Molar concentration
moles of a component per volume of solutioh.
2'. Mass concentration e, mass of a component per volume of solution.
3. Mole fraction x, moles of one component per mole of mixture.
i :
4. Mass fraction w, mass of one comp.onent per unit mass of mixture. \
S. Solvent-frec mole/mass fractions, moles or mass of a given species per mole
of mixture excl 1sive of the solvent or sorne other designated component.
Composltlon Converslons

'

While composition can be measured and reported in various units, the principie
of conservation of mass only applies to mass of species or to moles in nonreacting
cases. Consequently, for material balance purposes it is ultimately nece&sary and
preferable to deal with mole/mass fractions or, better yet, species mole/mass flows
rather than with sorne of thc other composition measures.

To carry out the conversions betwcen composition measures, sorne or all of

the following bulk properties of mixtures are required: density, specific pr molar
1

volume, and average molecular weight. These properties can simply be viewed as
conversion factors which are specific to a given mixture.
j
i
The mass or molar density of a mixture, designated respectivly as p'and p, is
the mass or number of moles of mixture per unit volume of mixture.

'

28

lntroductlon

The specific volume V or n>Iar volume V of a mixture is, respectively, the

reciproca! of the mass or molar density.
The average molecular weight of a mixture, M, is simply the sum of the products
of the mole fraction times the molecular weight of each of the mixture components.
If x, indicates the mole fraction of species s and Ms is its molecular weight,
then

whcre thc sum is over all spccics s in thc mixture. In genernl, the conversion of
concentration measures to mole br mass fractions involves two steps: first, con
version of the unit volume of mixture to mass or mole quantitics and second, if
appropriate, convcrsion between the molcs/mass of the species iri question. Thus,
for a given species s,
Xs

es

c.., (mass/volumc)

(mol/volumc)

V (volurne/mol)
V

(volume/mol)

'\..1 (mol/mass)
-Ms

'

and

w,

es (mol/volume) V (volume/mass) M_. (mass/mol)

.

= es (mol/volume) V
i

.
1
(volume/mol) M.. (mass/mol) M (mol/mass)

In the last equality, note that the molecular weight of spccies s, Ms, convcrts the
moles of species sin the concentration to mass of species s. The average molecular
weight M converts the moles of mixture in the molar volume V to mass of mixture.
Example 1.16 A solution of NaOH in water has a mlarity of 2.0 anda density
of 53 kgmol/m3 Calculate the mole fraction of NaOH and the mass density of the
solution in tons per cubic meter.

Solution The molarity is a molar concentration dcfincd in units of gmol/1.

Thus, it is first necessary to convert liters to cubic meters and then cubic meters
of solution to moles of solution. Thus,
l m3
2.0 gmol NaOH
11
1 kgmol
=
x - --x---53 kgmol
3

:l

= 0.0377

10] gmol

kgmol NaOH/kgmol solution

Since by definition 1 kgmol solution contains 0.0377 kgmol NaOI-1, thc balance,
or O.9623 kgmol, must be water. Thc average molecular wcight is thcrcfore givcn
by

= 0.0377(40)

+ 0.9623(18) =

18.83

29

Revlew of Basic Concepts

The mass density will be equal to

= p (kgmol/m3) M (kg/kgmol)
p (kg/m 3)

=
Since 1 t

53 kgmol/m3 x 18.83 kg/kgmol

998.0 kg/m3

103 kg, this is equivalent to 0.998 t/m 3

1
1

Example 1.17 A mixture contains 10 g/1 each of toluene and xylene in berizene.
lf the mixture density is 0.85 g/cm3, calculate the benzene free mass fraction of
toluene.
j

Solutioll . First the- mass concentrations of toluene and xylene must bcon
verted to mass fractions. Then, the benzene free mass fraction can be calcolated
from its definitipn. Thus,
.
j

10 g toluene
Wc6IIsCU 3

=
=

J0- 2 g toluene
0.85 g solution

1J
J0- 3 m 3
=

0 01176

cm3
0.85 g SO)ution

m)3
1 cm3

(lQ-2
X

lt is easy to verify that Wc6115(cH32 will also be equal to 0.01176. Th n,

by definition, the benzene free mass fraction of toluene will be equal to

Mass toluene
Mass toluene + mass xylene
=

10-2/0.85 g toluene/g solution

--=----------::::.----!:7--------= 0.5
w- 2/0.85 g toluene/g solution + w -2/0.85 g xylene/g solution
1

Dimensional Equations Since the units of a dimensional quantity are rtterely

labels expressing the scale in terms of which the magnitude of the quantitis to be
interpreted, a dimensional quantity need not always be a constant. It can also be a
variable. If an equation involves dimensional variables as well as sorhe, di
mensional constants; then each of the terms of the equation becomes a dimensional
quantity. The ruies for manipuiating dimensional quantities are equaily appcabie .
to such terms, and hence to equations, as they are to dimensional constants. In
particular, rule 1 (p. 26) indicates that if an equation consists of a sum of terms,
lhen each term must have the sume units. Thus, the right-hand side constat of a
linear cquation must havc the same units as each of the tcrms on the left-han\d side
of the equation. Moreover, the multiplication or division of factors or vJri ble
groupings mst also fc31ow rules 2 through 4. An equation which satisfies ules 1
through 4 is said to be dimensional/y homogeneous. AH dimensional equationmust
be dimensionally homogeneous.

Example 1.18 A mili pond has two inlets, one of which supplies water at 1 ft 3/
min, and one outlet whih services the mill, as shown in Figure 1.7. If the jwater
flow to the mili is 7440 lb,/h, what must be the additional inlet flow to the :pond, .
1
1

30

lntroducllon
Mili

Figure 1.7 Schematic of Example 1.18.

assuming that the pond leve!' is to remain constant? The density of water is 62 lb'"/
ft3
Solution lf the pond leve) and the ' flows are constant with time, then the
system consisting of the water in the pond must be at steady state. The application
of the mass conservation cquatiOI, eq. (1.2). Thus yields
F!ow water in = flow water out
or
1 ft3/min +

7440 lbn.fh

where x is the unknown additional water inlet flow. For this equation to be mean
ingful, the units of both quantitics Oll the lcft-hand sidc must be the same. Thus,
the unknown flow x must be defincd in tcrms of ft 3/min. Moreover, the units of
the right-hand side of the equation must be the same as those of the left-hand side.
The flow rate of 7440 lb,/h must thercfo1c be converted to ft3/min, that is,
7440 lb,/h x ffl/62 lb"' x 1 h/60 min

= 2 ft3/min

Thus, the dimensionally homogcncous way of writing the. above equation is

1 ft3/min

+ x (ft 3/min) = 2 ft3/,min

The solution is obviously x := 1 ft3/min.

Example 1.19 The density of liquid ethanol in g/cm3 as a function of temperature
T in degrees Kelvin has been correlatcd via the equation

p (g/cm3) = 1.032 - 5.392 X I0- 4 T - 8,7]2 X 107 2

T

(a)

What a're the units of the three constants if the equation is dimensionally
homogeneous?
(b) How would the correlation be altered to yield liquid density in gmol/1?
Solution

(a)

For the equation to be dimensionally homogcneous, all three

tcrms on the right-hand side of the equation should have the
samc units as those of thc density (gh:m 3) . Thereforc, the con-

1
1
1

31

Preview of Subsequent Chapters

l
1

stant 1.032 should have units of g/cm3; the constant 5.392 x

w-4 should have the units of giK cm3; and the constant 8.712
7
2
3
X 10- should have the units of g/K cm
1
(b) Since the molecular weight of C2H50H is 46, it follows that
1
3
'
103 cm
gmol
p (gmol/1)

p (g/cm 3) x

p (g/cm 3) x - (gmo1 cm3/g 1)

46

11

x -46 g

1()3

Therefore, to convert the correlation to give density in gmol/1, all three cons ants
in the correlation should be multiplied by 103/46.
1
1
1

lt should be noted that while each equation in an equation set must b:e dimensionally homogeneous, it certainly is not necessary that all equations in the set
be expressed in the same units. In many cases, this is in fact impossible be<ause
the equations will have arisen from different physicallaws (e.g., a mass conserv tion
quation and an energy conservation equation) and hence may involve en(irely
different dimensional quantities. It is however critica!that in each instance in hich
a given variable appears in the equations of the set that variable be expressfdin
the same units. Thus, if x represents the flow of water into the system in un ts of
m3/h in one equation, then it must 1 be similarly defined in all other equations.
This completes our review of basic concepts. We conclude the chapter \with
an overview of the organization of the remainder of the book:
\
i

1.4 PREVIEW OF SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS

1

Thc chaptcrs of this book can be divided into thrce parts. Chaptcrs 2 through 5
deal with the application of the principie of conservation of mass. Chapt rs 6
through 8 deal with the application of the principie of conservation of en rgy.
Finally, Chapter 9 discusses the solution of problems in which the two types of
balances must be sol ved jointly.
.

With the exception of Chapter 5, each of the material balance chaptdrs is

organized with a dual purpose: to develop the particular structure and prope'rties
of a particular type of balance equation and to present analysis and solution sat
egies for treating increasingly more complex flowsheet problems. Thus, Chapfer 2
develops the properties of species material balances for nonreacting systems, Chap
ter 3 discusses the properties of species material balances for reacting systyms,
while Chapter 4 presents the characteristics of material balance equations wrjtten
on the individual chemical elements. Concurren tiy, as we proceed from Chapters
2 through 4, we advance from the solution of tlowshect problems with justa si.ngle
processing unit and a few streams to flowsheets with many units and numerous
streams. In Chaptcr 5, wc cap thc dcvelopment of material balance concepts ith
a discussion of iterative and computer-oricnted so1ution strategies.
\ ,
,