Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Training Session on Refrigeration
& Air Conditioning
Refrigeration & Air

Conditioning
Presentation by
Mohammad Salim
M/s Unitech Ltd., Gurgaon.
1
Training Agenda: Refrigeration &

Air Conditioning
Introduction
Reference Handbooks/Standards
Type of refrigeration
Applied Psychrometric
Heat Load Calculation
Air Duct Design
Pressurization System
Chilled/Condenser Water Piping Design
Compressors
Condensers & Evaporators
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
Assessment of refrigeration and AC
Energy efficiency opportunities
Introduction
How does
it work?
High Temperature
Reservoir
Heat Rejected
R
Work Input
Heat Absorbed
Low Temperature Reservoir
3
Introduction
How does it work?
Thermal energy moves from left to right through five
loops of heat transfer:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Indoor air
loop
Chilled
water loop
Refrigerant
loop
Condenser
water loop
Cooling
water loop
(Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2004)
Introduction
AC Systems
AC options / combinations:
Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)
Split air conditioners
VRV System in Group Housing etc.
Fan coil units in a larger system
Air handling units in a larger system
Evaporating Cooling in a larger system
Introduction
Refrigeration systems for industrial
processes
Small capacity modular units of direct
expansion type (50 Tons of Refrigeration)
Centralized chilled water plants with
chilled water as a secondary coolant
(50
250 TR)
Brine plants with brines as lower

temperature, secondary coolant (>250 TR)
6
Introduction
Refrigeration at large companies
Bank of units off-site with common
Chilled water pumps
Condenser water pumps
Cooling towers
More levels of refrigeration/AC, e.g.

Comfort air conditioning (20-25 oC)
Chilled water system (8 10 oC)
Brine system (< 0 oC)
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
ASHRAE Handbook of Refrigeration
ASHRAE Handbook of Application
ASHRAE Handbook of System & Equipments
ASHRAE Standards 62.1
ASHRAE Standards 90.1
ISHRAE Weather Data
Carrier Handbook
NBC-2005
LEED-2009
NFPA-92A
ECBC-2007
Heat and Mass Transfer
SMACNA Standard
Indian Standards
Types of Refrigeration
Introduction
Types of refrigeration
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
10
Refrigeration systems
Vapour Compression
Refrigeration (VCR): uses
mechanical energy
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
(VAR): uses thermal energy
11
Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Highly compressed fluids tend to get
colder when allowed to expand
If pressure high enough
Compressed air hotter than source
of cooling
Expanded gas cooler than desired
cold temperature
12
Two advantages
Lot of heat can be removed (lot of
thermal energy to change liquid to
vapour)
Heat transfer rate remains high
(temperature of working fluid much
lower than what is being cooled)
13
Refrigeration cycle
3
Condenser
High
Pressure
Side
4
Expansion
Device
Compressor
1
Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Side
14
Low pressure liquid
refrigerant in evaporator
Vapour Compression
absorbs heat and
changes toRefrigeration
a gas
cycle
Refrigeration
3
Condenser
High
Pressure
Side
4
Expansion
Device
Compressor
1
Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Side
15
The superheated vapour
enters the compressor
Vapour Compression
where its pressure is
raised
Refrigeration cycle
Refrigeration
3
Condenser
High
Pressure
Side
4
Expansion
Device
Compressor
1
Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Side
16
The high pressure
superheated gas is
cooled in several
stages
Vapour
Compression
in the condenser
Refrigeration
Refrigeration cycle
Condenser
High
Pressure
Side
4
Expansion
Device
Compressor
1
Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Side
17
Vapour
Liquid passes through expansion

device, which reduces its
Compression
Refrigeration
pressure and controls
the flow
into the evaporator
Refrigeration cycle
Condenser
High
Pressure
Side
4
Expansion
Device
Compressor
1
Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Side
18
Type of refrigerant
Refrigerant determined by the
required cooling temperature
Chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs) or
freons: R-11, R-12, R-21, R-22 and R502
19
Choice of compressor, design of
condenser, evaporator determined by
Refrigerant
Required cooling
Load
Ease of maintenance
Physical space requirements
Availability of utilities (water, power)
20
Condenser
Generator
Hot
Side
Evaporator
Cold
Side
Absorber
21
22
23
24
25
Refrigerant-absorbent combinations for VARS
The desirable properties of refrigerant-absorbent mixtures for
VARS are:
i
The refrigerant should exhibit high solubility with
solution in the absorber. This is to say that it should exhibit
negative deviation from Raoults law at absorber.
ii.
There should be large difference in the boiling points of

refrigerant and absorbent (greater than 200 oC), so that
only refrigerant is boiled-off in the generator. This
ensures that only pure refrigerant circulates through refrigerant
circuit (condenser-expansion valve-evaporator) leading to
isothermal heat transfer in evaporator and condenser.
26
iii.
It should exhibit small heat of mixing so that a high

COP can be achieved. However, this requirement
contradicts the first requirement. Hence, in practice a
trade-off is required between solubility and heat of
mixing.
iv.
The refrigerant-absorbent mixture should have high

thermal conductivity and low viscosity for high
performance.
v.
It should not undergo crystallization or solidification

inside the system.
vi. The mixture should be safe, chemically stable, noncorrosive, inexpensive and should be available easily.
27
The most commonly used refrigerant-absorbent pairs in commercial
systems are:
1. Water-Lithium Bromide (H2O-LiBr) system for above 0oC
applications such as air conditioning. Here water is the refrigerant
and lithium bromide is the absorbent.
2. Ammonia-Water (NH3-H2O) system for refrigeration applications
with ammonia as refrigerant and water as absorbent.
Of late efforts are being made to develop other refrigerantabsorbent systems using both natural and synthetic refrigerants to
overcome some of the limitations of (H 2O-LiBr) and (NH3-H2 O)
systems.
Currently, large water-lithium bromide (H2O-LiBr) systems are
extensively used in air conditioning applications, where as large
ammonia-water (NH3-H2O) systems are used in refrigeration
applications, while small ammonia-water systems with a third inert
gas are used in a pumpless form in small domestic refrigerators
(triple fluid vapour absorption systems).
28
Evaporative Cooling
Air in contact with water to cool it close to wet

bulb temperature
Advantage: efficient cooling at low cost
Disadvantage: air is rich in moisture

Sprinkling
Water
Hot Air
Cold
Air
(Adapted from
Munters, 2001)
29
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Air Duct Design

Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
86
Air Duct Design
87
Air Duct Design
88
Air Duct Design
89
Air Duct Design
90
Air Duct Design
91
Air Duct Design

TABLE 7 RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM DUCT
VELOCITIES FOR LOW VELOCITY SYSTEMS (FPM)
92
Air Duct Design
93
Air Duct Design
94
Air Duct Design
95
Air Duct Design
96
Air Duct Design
97
Air Duct Design
98
Air Duct Design

Methods of Duct Design
1- Equal friction Method
2- Static Regain Method
1-Equal Friction Method
This method of sizing is used for supply, exhaust and
return air duct systems and employs the same friction loll
per foot of length for the entire system. The equal friction
method is superior to velocity reduction since it requires
less balancing for symmetrical layouts. If a design has a
99
Air Duct Design
mixture of short and long runs, the shortest run

requires considerable dampering. Such a system is
difficult to balance since the equal friction method
makes no provision for equalizing pressure drops in
branches of for providing the same static pressure
behind each air terminal.
100
Air Duct Design

Example 4 Equal Friction Method of Designing
Ducts
Given:
Duct systems for general office (Fig.47).
Total air quantity 5400 cfm
18 air terminals 300 cfm each
Operating pressure forall terminals 0.15 in. wg
Radius elbows, R/D = 1.25
Find:
1.Initial duct velocity, area, size and friction rate in the
duct section from the fan to the first branch.
2.Size of remaining duct runs.
3. Total equivalent length of duct run with highest
resistance.
4. Total static pressure required at fan discharge
101
Air Duct Design

2-Static Regain Method
The basic principle of the static regain method is to
size a duct run so that the increase in static pressure
(regain due to reduction in velocity) at each branch or air
terminal just offsets the friction loss in the succeeding
section of duct. The static pressure is then the same
before each terminal and at each branch.
The following procedure is used to design a duct
system by this method: select a starting velocity at the fan
discharge from Table 7 and size the initial duct section
from Table 6.
102
Air Duct Design

The remaining sections of duct are sized from Chart
10 (L!Q Ratio) and Chart 11 (Low Velocity Static Regain).
Chart 10 is used to determine the L/Q ratio knowing the
air quantity (Q) and length (L) between outlets or
branches in the duct section to be sized by static regain.
This length (L) is the equivalent length between the
outlets or branches, including elbows, except
transformations. The effect of the transformation section is
accounted for in Chart 11 3 Static Regain. This
assumes that the transformation section is laid out
according to the recommendation presented in this
chapter.
103
Air Duct Design
104
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
105
STAIRCASE PRESSURIZATION CALCULATION FOR BASEMENT PART - A
BASEMENT TO GROUND FLOOR)
Q1
Kf A P
Q1
Air Leakage in Cu. M./ Sec.
Area of Leakage in Sq.M.
Pressure Difference in Pascal ( 50 Pa)
Kf
Coefficient 0.839
No. of Floors
Basement to Ground Floor = 2
No. of Doors
Door Size
1.2 M x 2.1 M
Gap Between door and Frame/Floor
6 mm at Top and on side
15 mm at Bottom
2 x H x gap (side) + 1 x W x gap (Top) + 1 x W x gap (Bottom )
2 x 2.1 x 6/1000 + 1 x 1.2 x 6/1000 + 1 x 1.2 x 15/1000
0.0252 + 0.0072 + 0.018
0.0504 Sq. M.
Area of Leakage Between Door & Frame
106
Area of Leakage in Closed Condition/Door
0.0504 Sq. M.
Total Leakage Area for 2 No. Doors
0.0504 x 2
0.10 Sq.M.
0.839 x 0.10 x 50
0.60 Cu. M/Sec.
1270 CFM
Q1
Leakage of Air Thru 2 No. Open Door ( 1 No. at affected floor + 1 No. at Exit to Building )
Q2
Total Required Air Quantity
Area of Doors x Velocity
2.1 x 1.2 x2 No. x 1.0 M/sec.
5.04 Cu. M./Sec
10671 CFM
Q1 + Q2
1270 + 10671
11941 CFM
107
LIFT WELL PRESSURIZATION CALCULATION
TOWER T1 (G+13)- 5 Nos.
Q
Kf A P
Air Leakage in Cu. M./ Sec.
Area of Leakage in Sq.M.
Pressure Difference in Pascal ( 50 Pa)
Kf
Coefficient 0.839
No. of Floors
Lower Basement (Part-A) to 13th Floor = 16
No. of Doors
16
Door Size
2.1 M x 1.2 M
Area of Leakage Between Lift Door & Wall/ Door
0.065 Sq. M.
Total Leakage Area for 16 No. Doors
0.065 x 16
1.04 Sq.M.
0.839 x 1.04 x 50
6.17 Cu. M/Sec.
13063 CFM
13063x2
26126 CFM
26500 CFM
Fan Capacity for Two Lift Well
Say
1 No. 26500 CFM DIDW Centrifugal Fan Section For Fresh Air Supply
108
Chilled/Condenser Water Piping

Design
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
109

Design
110

Design
111

Design
112

Design
113

Design
114

Design
115

Design
116

Design
117

Design
118

Design
119

Design
120

Design
121

Design
122
Compressors
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
123
Compressors
124
Compressors
125
Compressors
126
Compressors
127
Compressors
128
Compressors
129
Compressors
130
Compressors
131
Compressors
132
Compressors
133
Compressors
134
Compressors
135

Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
Expansion Devices
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
162
Expansion Devices
163
Expansion Devices
164
Expansion Devices
165
Expansion Devices
166
Expansion Devices
167
Cooling Tower
Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
Assessment of Refrigeration and AC
168
Cooling Tower
169
Cooling Tower
170
Cooling Tower
171
Cooling Tower
172
Cooling Tower
173
Cooling Tower
174
Cooling Tower
175
Cooling Tower
176
Cooling Tower
177
Cooling Tower
178
Cooling Tower
179
Cooling Tower
180
Cooling Tower
181
Cooling Tower
182
Cooling Tower
183
Cooling Tower
184
Cooling Tower
185
Cooling Tower
186
Cooling Tower
187
Cooling Tower
188
Cooling Tower
189
Cooling Tower
190
Cooling Tower
191
Cooling Tower
192
Cooling Tower
193
Cooling Tower
194
Cooling Tower
195
Cooling Tower
196
Cooling Tower
197
Cooling Tower
198
Cooling Tower
199
Cooling Tower
200
Cooling Tower
201
Cooling Tower
202

Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
203

Assessment of Refrigeration
Cooling effect: Tons of Refrigeration
1 TR = 3024 kCal/hr heat rejected
TR is assessed as:
TR = Q xCp x (Ti To) / 3024
Q=
Cp =
Ti =
To =
mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr

is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg deg C
inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in 0C
outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in 0C
204

Specific Power Consumption (kW/TR)
Indicator of refrigeration systems
performance
kW/TR of centralized chilled water
system is sum of
Compressor kW/TR
Chilled water pump kW/TR
Condenser water pump kW/TR
Cooling tower fan kW/TR
205

Coefficient of Performance (COPCarnot)
Standard measure of refrigeration efficiency
Depends on evaporator temperature Te and

condensing temperature Tc:
COPCarnot
Te / (Tc - Te)
COP in industry calculated for type of

compressor:
COP =
Cooling effect (kW)

Power input to compressor (kW)
206

COP increases with rising

evaporator temperature
(Te)
COP increases with

decreasing condensing
temperature (Tc)
207

Assessment of Air Conditioning
Measure
Airflow Q (m3/s) at Fan Coil Units (FCU) or Air

Handling Units (AHU): anemometer
Air density (kg/m3)
Dry bulb and wet bulb temperature: psychrometer
Enthalpy (kCal/kg) of inlet air (hin) and outlet air

(Hout): psychrometric charts
Calculate TR
TR =
Q ( h in h out )
3024
208

Assessment of Air Conditioning
Indicative TR load profile
Small office cabins: 0.1 TR/m2
Medium size office (10 30 people
occupancy) with central A/C: 0.06
TR/m2
Large multistoried office complexes
with central A/C: 0.04 TR/m2
209

Considerations for Assessment
Accuracy of measurements
Inlet/outlet temp of chilled and condenser
water
Flow of chilled and condenser water
Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)

kW/TR for 100% load but most equipment
operate between 50-75% of full load
IPLV calculates kW/TR with partial loads
Four points in cycle: 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%
210
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Introduction
Air Duct Design
Compressors
Expansion Devices
Cooling Tower
211

1. Optimize process heat exchange
2. Maintain heat exchanger surfaces
3. Multi-staging systems
4. Matching capacity to system load
5. Capacity control of compressors
6. Multi-level refrigeration for plant needs
7. Chilled water storage
8. System design features
212

1. Optimize Process Heat Exchange
High compressor safety margins:
energy loss
1. Proper sizing heat transfer areas of
heat exchangers and evaporators
Heat transfer coefficient on refrigerant side:
1400 2800 Watt/m2K
Heat transfer area refrigerant side: >0.5 m2/TR
2. Optimum driving force (difference Te and

Tc): 1oC raise in Te = 3% power savings
213

Evaporator
Temperature (0C)
Refrigeration
Capacity*(tons)
Specific Power
Consumption (kW/TR)
Increase
kW/TR (%)
5.0
67.58
0.81
0.0
56.07
0.94
16.0
-5.0
45.98
1.08
33.0
-10.0
37.20
1.25
54.0
-20.0
23.12
1.67
106.0
(National Productivity Council)
Condenser temperature 40C
Condensing
Temperature (0C)
Refrigeration
Capacity (tons)
Specific Power
Consumption (kW /TR)
Increase
kW/TR (%)
26.7
31.5
1.17
35.0
21.4
1.27
8.5
40.0
20.0
1.41
20.5
*Reciprocating compressor using R-22 refrigerant. Evaporator temperature.-10 C
214

3. Selection of condensers
Options:
Air cooled condensers

Air-cooled with water spray condensers
Shell & tube condensers with water-cooling
Water-cooled shell & tube condenser
Lower discharge pressure

Higher TR
Lower power consumption
215

2. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Poor maintenance = increased power
consumption
Maintain condensers and evaporators
Separation of lubricating oil and refrigerant
Timely defrosting of coils
Increased velocity of secondary coolant
Maintain cooling towers

0.55C reduction in returning water from cooling
tower = 3.0 % reduced power
216

2. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Effect of poor maintenance on
compressor power consumption
Te
(0C)
Tc
(0C)
Refrigeration
Capacity* (TR)
Specific
Power
Consumption
(kW/TR)
Normal
7.2
40.5
17.0
0.69
Dirty condenser
7.2
46.1
15.6
0.84
20.4
Dirty evaporator
1.7
40.5
13.8
0.82
18.3
Dirty condenser
and evaporator
1.7
46.1
12.7
0.96
38.7
Condition
(National Productivity Council)
Increase
kW/TR
(%)

3. Multi-Staging Systems
Suited for
Low temp applications with high
compression
Wide temperature range
Two types for all compressor types
Compound
Cascade
218

3. Multi-Stage Systems
a. Compound
Two low compression ratios = 1 high
First stage compressor meets cooling load
Second stage compressor meets load

evaporator and flash gas
Single refrigerant
b. Cascade
Preferred for -46 oC to -101oC
Two systems with different refrigerants
219

4. Matching Capacity to Load System
Most applications have varying loads
Consequence of part-load operation
COP increases
but lower efficiency
Match refrigeration capacity to load

requires knowledge of
Compressor performance
Variations in ambient conditions
Cooling load
220

5. Capacity Control of Compressors
Cylinder unloading, vanes, valves
Reciprocating compressors: step-by-step
through cylinder unloading:
Centrifugal compressors: continuous

modulation through vane control
Screw compressors: sliding valves
Speed control
Reciprocating compressors: ensure
lubrication system is not affected
Centrifugal compressors: >50% of capacity
221

5. Capacity Control of Compressors
Temperature monitoring
Reciprocating compressors: return water (if
varying loads), water leaving chiller
(constant loads)
Centrifugal compressors: outgoing water
temperature
Screw compressors: outgoing water
temperature
Part load applications: screw

compressors more efficient
222

6. Multi-Level Refrigeration
Bank of compressors at central plant
Monitor cooling and chiller load: 1 chiller full

load more efficient than 2 chillers at part-load
Distribution system: individual chillers feed all

branch lines; Isolation valves; Valves to isolate
sections
Load individual compressors to full capacity

before operating second compressor
Provide smaller capacity chiller to meet peak

demands
223

6. Multi-Level Refrigeration
Packaged units (instead of central plant)
Diverse applications with wide temp range
and long distance
Benefits: economical, flexible and reliable
Disadvantage: central plants use less power
Flow control
Reduced flow
Operation at normal flow with shut-off periods
224

7. Chilled Water Storage
Chilled water storage facility with
insulation
Suited only if temp variations are
acceptable
Economical because
Chillers operate during low peak demand
hours: reduced peak demand charges
Chillers operate at nighttime: reduced tariffs
225
and improved COP

8. System Design Features
FRP impellers, film fills, PVC drift eliminators
Softened water for condensers
Economic insulation thickness
Roof coatings and false ceilings
Energy efficient heat recovery devices
Variable air volume systems
Sun film application for heat reflection
Optimizing lighting loads
226
Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Refrigeration & Air

Conditioning Systems
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
227

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

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Training Session on Refrigeration

& Air Conditioning

Refrigeration & Air

Training Agenda: Refrigeration &

(Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2004)

Brine plants with brines as lower

More levels of refrigeration/AC, e.g.

Liquid passes through expansion

There should be large difference in the boiling points of

It should exhibit small heat of mixing so that a high

The refrigerant-absorbent mixture should have high

It should not undergo crystallization or solidification

Air in contact with water to cool it close to wet

Advantage: efficient cooling at low cost

Disadvantage: air is rich in moisture

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Heat Load Calculation

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

mixture of short and long runs, the shortest run

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Duct Design

Air Leakage in Cu. M./ Sec.

Area of Leakage in Sq.M.

Pressure Difference in Pascal ( 50 Pa)

Basement to Ground Floor = 2

Gap Between door and Frame/Floor

6 mm at Top and on side

2 x H x gap (side) + 1 x W x gap (Top) + 1 x W x gap (Bottom )