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1. What is Grammar?
2. The 8 English Parts of Speech.
A. English Parts of Speech:
1. Parts of Speech Table.
2. Parts of Speech Examples
3. Words with More than One Job
What is Tense?
Tense & Time
Basic Tenses
Basic Tenses Regular Verbs
Basic Tenses Irregular Verbs
Basic Tenses Be
1.
VERBS
1) What Are Verbs?
Verb Classification
helping verbs
main verbs
Regular and Irregular Verbs
2) Verb Forms
3) Phrasal Verbs
4) Conditionals
5) Modal Verbs.
6) Gerunds (-ing)
7) Questions
8) Tag Questions
9) Subjunctive
10)Active Voice, Passive Voice
11)Infinitive or -ing?
12)Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects
13)Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses
14)Used to do / Be used to
15)Going to
16)Future Time
17)For & Since for Time 113pg
2. NOUNS
1
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
3. PRONOUNS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Personal Pronouns.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Pronoun Case
4. ADJECTIVES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Determiners
Adjective Order
Comparative Adjectives
Superlative Adjectives
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives
Noun as Adjective
5. ADVERBS
1) What is an Adverb?
2) Adverb Form
3) Kinds of Adverbs
4) Adverb Position
5) Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Manner List
Adverbs of Place List
Adverbs of Time List
Adverbs of Degree List
6. PREPOSITIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
List of Prepositions
A Simple Rule for Prepositions
Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of Time
7. CONJUNCTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Form
Function
Position
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
8. INTERJECTIONS
Grammar
Welcome to English Grammar for English learners.
Many of these grammar lessons also have quizzes to
check your understanding. If you still don't understand
something, feel free to ask a question at the Elluminate
Sesion .
1. What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language.
Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words,
phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All
languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection
of a language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? if you are serious about
learning a foreign language, the answer is "yes, grammar can help you to
learn a language more quickly and more efficiently.
It's important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a
friend. When you understand the grammar (or system) of a language, you
can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or
look in a book. So think of grammar as something good, something positive,
something that you can use to find your way - like a signpost or a map.
Function or
"job"
example
words
example sentences
Noun
thing or person
Pronoun
replaces a noun
Adjective
describes a noun
a/an, the,
some, good,
big, red, well,
interesting
Verb
action or state
Senavirtual.edu.co is a
web site. I like
Senavirtual.edu.co
Adverb
Describes a verb,
adjective or
quickly, silently,
well, badly,
Adverb.
very, really
Preposition
links a noun to
another word
We went to school on
Monday.
Conjunction
joins clauses or
sentences or
words
Interjection
short
exclamation,
sometimes
inserted into a
sentence
verb
nou
n
Ver
b
Verb
John
works
.
John
Is
Working
.
verb
Stop!
pronou
n
verb
Noun
Noun
ver
b
adjectiv
e
noun
She
love
s
animals
.
Animal
s
like
kind
people.
nou
n
verb
noun
adver
b
nou
n
verb
adjectiv
e
noun
Tara
speak
s
Englis
h
well.
Tara
speak
s
good
English
.
pronou
n
ver
b
prepositi
on
adjectiv
e
noun
adver
b
She
ran
To
The
statio
n
quickly.
pro
n.
ver
b
adj
.
Noun
conjuncti
on
pro
n.
ver
b
pron
.
She
likes big
Snake
But
hate
them.
s
interjecti
on
pro
n.
conj
.
adj.
nou
n
ver
b
prep
.
Well,
she
and
young
John
walk to
noun
adver
b
school
slowly.
3. Words with More than One Job: Many words in English can have
more than one job, or be more than one part of speech.
but
well
afternoon
part of speech
example
Noun
My work is easy.
Verb
I work in London.
Conjunction
John came
come.
Preposition
Adjective
Adverb.
Interjection
Noun
but
Mary
didn't
What is Tense?
Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time - past, present and
future, But:
we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going
to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense
one tense does not always talk about one time (see Tense & Time for
more about this)
Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.
*
Mood:
Indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be
positive (affirmative) or negative
Example: I like coffee.
I do not like coffee.
Interrogative mood expresses a question.
Example: Why do you like coffee?
Imperative mood expresses a command
Example: Sit down!
Subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possible
Example: The President ordered that he attend the meeting.
It is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use
it to talk about time.
For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)
The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about
different times.
TIME
TENSE
past
present
future
I want a coffee.
I leave tomorrow.
Present Simple
She
likes
I
am
dinner.
Present
Continuous
They
London
Present
Simple
Perfect
Present Perfect
Continuous
having
are living
I am taking my
exam
next
month.
in
I have finished.
I
have
been
playing tennis.
We have been working for four
hours.
Past Simple
I finished
hour ago.
Past Continuous
I was working
at
2am
this
morning.
Past
Simple
coffee
one
If I had been
We had been
Past
Perfect
working now, I
working for 3
Continuous
would
have
hours.
missed you.
If I had been
working
tomorrow, I could
not have agreed.
Future Simple
I
will
be
working at 9pm
tonight.
Future
Continuous
Future
Simple
you
I
will
have
finished by 9pm
tonight.
Perfect
Future
Perfect
Continuous
Basic Tenses
For past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using
auxiliary verbs).
To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary
verbs will/shall).
This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are
available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses.
24 Tenses
simple
tenses
ACTIV
E
PASSIV
E
complex
tenses
formed
with
auxiliary
verbs
past
present
future*
past
present
future
past perfect
present
perfect
future perfect
past
continuous
present
continuous
future
continuous
present
past
perfect
perfect
continuous
continuous
future perfect
continuous
past
present
future
past perfect
present
perfect
future perfect
past
continuous
present
continuous
present
past
perfect
perfect
continuous
continuous
future
continuous
future perfect
continuous
present
future*
I worked
I work
I will work
intensiv
e
do
base
perfect
have
past
participle
I
had I
have I will have
worked
worked
worked
continuous
be
present
participle
-ing
I
was I
am I will be
working
working
working
continuous
perfect
have
been
present
participle
-ing
I
had I
have I will have
been
been
been
working
working
working
* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal
auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The
examples are included here for convenience and comparison.
Basic Tenses: Be
10
This page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the
affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative
or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive (+): subject + main verb
subject + main verb +
negative (-):
not
question
main verb + subject
(?):
These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the
tenses:
base
past
simple
past
participle
present
participle
present
simple
be
was,
were
been
being
am, are, is
past
+ I was
SIMPLE
present simple or
past
simple - I was not
(except future: will +
be)
? Was I?
+ I had been
SIMPLE
PERFECT
have + been
?
I
had
been
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + being
Had I been?
I
was
being
Was I being?
I had
being
future
I am
I will be
I am not
I will not be
Am I?
Will I be?
I have been
not I
have
been
+ I was being
CONTINUOUS
be + being
present
not
Have I been?
I am being
I will be being
I am not being
I will
being
Am I being?
Will I be being?
been I have
being
not
be
11
Had I
being?
been Have I
being?
singular
plural
past
present
future
was
am
will be
you
were
are
will be
he/she/it
was
is
will be
we
were
are
will be
you
were
are
will be
they
were
are
will be
past
present
future
had been
have been
you
had been
have been
he/she/it
had been
has been
we
had been
have been
you
had been
have been
they
had been
have been
past
present
future
was being
am being
will be being
you
were being
are being
will be being
he/she/it
was being
is being
will be being
we
were being
are being
will be being
you
were being
are being
will be being
they
were being
are being
will be being
past
present
future
PERFECT
singular
plural
CONTINUOUS
singular
plural
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
12
singular
had
being
been have
being
been will
have
being
been
you
had
being
been have
being
been will
have
being
been
he/she/it
had
being
been
will
have
being
been
we
had
being
been have
being
been will
have
being
been
you
had
being
been have
being
been will
have
being
been
they
had
being
been have
being
been will
have
being
been
plural
This page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the
affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative
or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main
negative: verb
question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base verb
past
past
participle
present
-ing
work
worke
d
worked
working
past
SIMPLE
+ I
did
do + base verb
I worked
present
work I
do
I work
participle
future
work I will work
13
(except
will
+
verb)
future: base
?
I do not work
Did I work?
Do I work?
Will I work?
I have worked
I
will
worked
+ I had worked
SIMPLE PERFECT
have
+
past participle
?
I
had
worked
not I
have
worked
Had I worked?
+ I was working
CONTINUOUS
be + ing
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + ing
have
have
Have I worked?
Will
I
worked?
I am working
I will be working
not I
am
working
have
I
was
working
Was
working?
I
had
been I
have
working
working
Had
I
been Have I been Will I have been
working?
working?
working?
Am I working?
Will
I
working?
be
be
This page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing. It includes
the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the
interrogative or question form (?).
The basic structure is:
positive: + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main
negative: verb
question: ? auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:
base verb
past
past
participle
present
-ing
participle
14
sing
san
g
sung
singing
past
present
I
did
sing
+
SIMPLE
I sang
do + base verb
(except
future:
- I did not sing
will
+
base
verb)
? Did I sing?
Do I sing?
Will I sing?
I have sung
I will
sung
Had I sung?
Have I sung?
I am singing
I will be singing
I
was
singing
Was I singing?
I
had
singing
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
have been + -ing
?
I will sing
I will not sing
+ I was singing
CONTINUOUS
be + -ing
sing
I do not sing
+ I had sung
SIMPLE PERFECT
have
+
past participle
I
do
I sing
future
not I
am
singing
Am I singing?
been I have
singing
not
have
be
Will I be singing?
15
auxiliary
verb
do
+main verb
base
subject
I, you,
they
main
verb
we,
He, she, it
I, you,
they
we,
like
coffee.
likes
coffee.
do
not
like
coffee.
He, she, it
does
not
like
coffee.
Do
I, you,
they
like
coffee?
Does
he, she, it
like
coffee?
we,
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no
auxiliary:
16
subject
main verb
am
French.
are
French.
He, she, it
is
French.
am
not
old.
are
not
old.
He, she, it
is
not
old.
Am
Are
you,
they
Is
he, she, it
late?
we,
late?
late?
present
future
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and
future.
Look at these examples:
I live in New York.
The Moon goes round the Earth.
John drives a taxi.
He does not drive a bus.
We meet every Thursday.
We do not work at night.
Do you play football?
17
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for
situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk
about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present
tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am
I
Tara is not at
You are happy.
past
prese
nt
right?
home.
future
I
am
Why
are
Ram is tall.
past
not
so
you
present
fat.
beautiful?
future
auxiliary
verb
be
+main verb
base
ing
18
subjec auxiliary
t
verb
main
verb
+ I
am
speaking
to you.
+ You
are
reading
this.
She
is
not
staying
in London.
We
are
not
playing
football.
Is
he
watching
TV?
Are
they
waiting
for John?
present
future
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just
before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
John is going out with Mary.
past
present
future
19
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. We
must add (or understand from the context) a future word.
"Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at
Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the
future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have
already made a decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past
present
future
!!!
A
firm
plan
or The action is in the
programme exists now.
future.
Look at these examples:
We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the
table..
They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking.
The decision and plan were made before speaking.
>
working
play
>
playing
assist
>
assisting
20
see
>
seeing
be
>
being
stop
>
stopping
run
>
running
begin
>
beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable
of the base verb is not stressed:
open
>
opening
lie
>
lying
die
>
dying
come
>
coming
mistake
>
mistaking
auxiliary
verb
have
+main verb
past
participle
main
verb
+ I
have
seen
ET.
+ You
have
eaten
mine.
She
has
not
been
to Rome.
We
have
not
played
football.
Have
you
finished?
Have
they
done
it?
I've
You have
You've
He
She
It
John
The
has
He's
She's
It's
John's
The
car's
has
has
has
has
car
We have
We've
They have
They've
22
He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used for the auxiliary verbs
have and be. For example, "It's eaten" can mean:
It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active voice]
It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]
It is usually clear from the context.
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection
with the past and with the present. Non-continuous actions completed
before a certain time. There are basically three uses for the present perfect
tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the
past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to
know if you did it:
I
have
He
has
Have
you
We have never eaten caviar.
past
seen
in
been
lived
present
ET.
Bangkok.
there?
future
!!!
The action or state was In my head, I have a
in the past.
memory now.
Connection
with
past:
the
event
was
in
the
past.
present
future
23
present
future
present
$1.50
future
present
future
I
have
worked
He
has
been
How long have you known Tara?
here
ill
for
since
2
June.
days.
24
past
present
future
with
past:
the
situation
(It
will
continue
future.)
started
in
probably
into
the
the
past.
since
of a point
time
in
past
x-----------20 minutes
6.15pm
three days
Monday
6 months
January
4 years
1994
2 centuries
1800
a long time
I left school
ever
the
beginning
time
etc
etc
of
25
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses
only.
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I
have
been
singing
auxiliary
verb
have
has
auxiliary
verb
+main verb
base
ing
been
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
+ I
have
been
waiting
+ You
have
been
talking
too much.
It
has
not
been
raining.
We
have
not
been
playing
football.
Have
you
been
seeing
her?
Have
they
been
doing
their
homework?
I've been
You've been
He has
She has
It
has
John has
The
car
been
He's
She's
It's
John's
The
been
been
been
been
been
has
We have been
been
been
been
been
car's
We've been
26
They've been
present
future
!!!
Recent action.
Result now.
present
Action
now.
future
is
continuing
27
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time - 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6
years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time - 9 o'clock, 1st
January, Monday.
for
since
a period
time
of a point
time
in
past
x
20 minutes
6.15pm
three days
Monday
6 months
January
4 years
1994
2 centuries
1800
a long time
I left school
ever
the
beginning
time
etc
etc
of
28
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular
verbs and regular verbs:
regular
verb
irregular
verb
V1
base
V2
past
V3
past participle
work
explod
e
like
worked
explode
d
liked
worked
exploded
liked
gone
seen
sung
go
see
sing
went
saw
sang
auxiliary
verb
did
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary
verb
did
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did,
you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look
at these examples with the main verbs go and work:
29
subjec auxiliary
t
verb
main
verb
went
to school.
You
worked
very hard.
+
She
did
not
go
with me.
We
did
not
work
yesterday.
Did
you
go
to London?
Did
they
work
at home?
main verb
I, he/she/it
was
here.
were
in London.
I, he/she/it
was
not
there.
were
not
happy.
Was
I, he/she/it
right?
Were
you,
they
late?
we,
present
at
to
hear
9.30am
the
the
yesterday.
door.
telephone.
Future
30
Bangkok
for
lasted
about
62
sing
at
present
10
million
the
years.
years.
concert.
Future
31
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to talk about past events.
But note that there are some other uses for the simple past tense, for
example in conditional or if sentences.
6. Past Continuous Tense
I
was
singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to
say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb BE
conjugated
tense
in
+ main verb
simple
past
was
were
present
participle
base + ing
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
past continuous tense:
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
+ I
was
watching
TV.
+ You
were
working
hard.
Mary.
subject
He, she,
was
it
not
helping
We
were
not
joking.
Were
you
being
silly?
Were
they
playing
football?
The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the
same as for the present continuous tense.
present
Future
8p
m
At 8pm, I was in the
middle of watching TV.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I was working at 10pm last night.
They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
What were you doing at 10pm last night?
What were you doing when he arrived?
She was cooking when I telephoned her.
We were having dinner when it started to rain.
Ram went home early because it was snowing.
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.
We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use
it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action
begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then
moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was
blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the
killer in a telephone box..."
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense.
We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the
simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of
the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
past
present
Future
Long action.
33
Whe
n
it exploded.
whil
e
Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.
"Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few
milliseconds.
7. Past Perfect Tense
I
had
sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use.
This tense talks about the "past in the past".
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?
The structure of the past perfect tense is:
subject
+
I
been
34
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the
auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
past perfect tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb
main
verb
+ I
had
finished
my work.
+ You
had
stopped
before me.
She
had
not
gone
to school.
We
had
not
left.
Had
you
arrived?
Had
they
eaten
dinner?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject
and auxiliary verb:
I had
I'd
you had
you'd
he had he'd
she had she'd
it had
it'd
we had
we'd
they had
they'd
The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example,
we'd can mean:
We had
or
We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
We had arrived (past participle)
We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in
the past. This is the past in the past. For example:
The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the
train had left.
35
present
Future
9.1
5
We arrive in past at
9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
"Mary
wasn't
at
home
when
I
"Really? Where had she gone?"
arrived."
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect
tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect tense
had
|
done
|
>|
past
now
future
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The
stationmaster says to you:
"You are too late. The train has left."
Later, you tell your friends:
"We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said,
told, asked, thought, wondered.
Look at these examples:
He told us that the train had left.
I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
I wondered if I had been there before.
I asked them why they had not finished.
8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I
had
been
singing
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
36
in
simple
had
auxiliary verb
+ main verb
BE
past
participle
present
participle
been
base + ing
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not
after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with
the past perfect continuous tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
+ I
had
been
working.
+ You
had
been
playing
tennis
.
It
had
not
been
working
well.
We
had
not
been
expecting
her.
Had
you
been
drinking?
Had
they
been
waiting
long?
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract
the subject and first auxiliary verb:
I had been
I'd been
you'd been
he
had he'd been
she had been she'd been
it had been
it'd been
we had been
we'd been
they'd been
37
present
Future
11
continuous
present
tense
|
|
|
|
past
future
perfect
have
been
doing
>>>> |
now
continuous
|
|
|
Future
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
"Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."
9. Simple Future Tense
I
will
sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple
future tense with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject +
auxiliary
WILL
invariable
verb
+ main verb
base
38
will
V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the
simple future tense:
subjec auxiliary
t
verb
main
verb
+ I
will
open
the door.
+ You
will
finish
before me.
She
will
not
be
at school tomorrow.
We
will
not
leave
yet.
Will
you
arrive
on time?
Will
they
want
dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and auxiliary verb:
I will
I'll
you will
you'll
he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will
we'll
they
will
they'l
l
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't,
like this:
I will not
I won't
you won't
39
we will not
they
not
we won't
will they
won't
subject +
auxiliary
WILL
invariable
verb
auxiliary
BE
invariable
verb
+ main verb
present
40
participle
will
be
base + ing
auxiliary
verb
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
+ I
will
be
working
at 10am.
+ You
will
be
lying
on
a
tomorrow.
She
will
not
be
using
the car.
We
will
not
be
having
dinner at home.
Will
you
be
playing
football?
Will
they
be
watching
TV?
beach
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and will:
I will
I'll
you will
you'll
he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will
we'll
they
will
they'l
l
I won't
you won't
he will not he
won't
41
we won't
will they
won't
present
future
4p
m
At 4pm, I will be in the
middle of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
What will you be doing when I arrive?
She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return
11.Future Perfect Tense
I will have
sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use.
The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
The structure of the future perfect tense is:
subject +
auxiliary
WILL
invariable
verb
auxiliary
HAVE
invariable
verb
+ main verb
past
42
participle
will
have
gone
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
+ I
will
have
finished
by 10am.
+ You
will
have
forgotten
me by then.
She
will
not
have
gone
to school.
We
will
not
have
left.
Will
you
have
arrived?
Will
they
have
received
it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and
will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have
I'll have
I'll've
you'll have
you'll've
we'll have
will they'll
have
we'll've
they'll'v
e
present
future
43
9.1
5
past
will
have
done
>|
future
now
|
|
|
subject +
auxiliary
verb WILL
auxiliary
verb HAVE
auxiliary
verb BE
+ main verb
invariable
invariable
past
participle
present
participle
will
have
been
base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not
between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect
continuous tense:
subjec
auxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary
main
44
verb
verb
verb
verb
+ I
will
have
been
working
for
four
hours.
+ You
will
have
been
travelling
for
two
days.
She
will
not
have
been
using
the car.
We
will
not
have
been
waiting
long.
Will
you
have
been
playing
football?
Will
they
have
been
watching
TV?
I'll
you will
you'll
he will he'll
she will she'll
it will
it'll
we will
we'll
they
will
they'l
l
I won't
you won't
we won't
will they
won't
45
46
VERBS
1) What are Verbs?
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb.
You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You
cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many
verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like
run, fight, do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of
existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and
belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is
the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say
that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
action (Ram plays football.)
state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although
nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in
form.
For example, the verb to work has five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to
you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have
no meaning on their own.
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".Helping verbs have no
meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure
of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use
helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the
real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we
divide them into two basic groups:
o Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three
verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them
as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:
be
o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
47
have
o
o
o
o
o
do
48
main verb
John
likes
coffee.
You
lied
to me.
They
are
happy.
The children
are
playing.
49
We
must
do
not
go
now.
want
any.
regular
hang,
hanged, to kill or die, by dropping with a rope around
hanged
the neck
irregul
ar
hang,
hung
50
2. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the past tense of
some irregular verbs:
regular
found,
founded
founded,
irregul
ar
accept
add
admire
admit
advise
afford
agree
alert
back
bake
balance
ban
bang
bare
bat
bathe
battle
beam
calculate
call
camp
care
carry
carve
cause
challenge
change
charge
chase
cheat
check
cheer
chew
dam
allow
amuse
analyse
announce
annoy
answer
apologise
appear
beg
behave
belong
bleach
bless
blind
blink
blot
blush
boast
applaud
appreciate
approve
argue
arrange
arrest
arrive
ask
boil
bolt
bomb
book
bore
borrow
bounce
bow
box
brake
choke
chop
claim
clap
clean
clear
clip
close
coach
coil
collect
colour
comb
command
communicate
deliver
attach
attack
attempt
attend
attract
avoid
brake
branch
breathe
bruise
brush
bubble
bump
burn
bury
buzz
compare
compete
complain
complete
concentrate
concern
confess
confuse
connect
consider
consist
contain
continue
copy
correct
disapprove
cough
count
cover
crack
crash
crawl
cross
crush
cry
cure
curl
curve
cycle
dress
51
damage
dance
dare
decay
deceive
decide
decorate
delay
delight
depend
describe
desert
deserve
destroy
detect
develop
disagree
disappear
earn
educate
embarrass
employ
empty
encourage
face
fade
fail
fancy
fasten
fax
fear
fence
fetch
file
fill
film
fire
fit
fix
flap
gather
gaze
glow
glue
grab
grate
grease
greet
hammer
hand
handle
hang
happen
harass
harm
hate
haunt
head
heal
heap
identify
ignore
imagine
impress
improve
include
increase
influence
inform
inject
injure
instruct
jail
jam
kick
kill
label
end
enjoy
enter
entertain
escape
examine
disarm
discover
dislike
divide
double
doubt
drag
drain
dream
excite
excuse
exercise
exist
expand
expect
flash
float
flood
flow
flower
fold
follow
fool
drip
drop
drown
drum
dry
dust
explain
explode
extend
force
form
found
frame
frighten
fry
guard
guess
guide
heat
help
hook
hop
hope
hover
hug
hum
hunt
hurry
intend
interest
interfere
interrupt
introduce
invent
invite
irritate
itch
jog
join
joke
judge
juggle
jump
kiss
kneel
knit
knock
knot
learn
lighten
load
grin
grip
groan
guarantee
52
land
last
laugh
launch
level
license
lick
lie
like
list
listen
live
lock
long
look
love
man
manage
march
mark
marry
match
mate
matter
measure
meddle
melt
memorise
mend
mess up
milk
mine
miss
mix
moan
moor
mourn
move
muddle
mug
multiply
murder
nail
name
need
nest
nod
note
notice
number
obey
object
observe
obtain
occur
offend
offer
open
order
overflow
owe
own
pack
paddle
paint
park
part
pass
paste
pat
pause
peck
pedal
peel
peep
perform
permit
phone
pick
pinch
pine
place
plan
plant
play
please
plug
point
poke
polish
pop
possess
post
pour
practise
pray
preach
precede
prefer
prepare
present
preserve
press
pretend
prevent
prick
print
produce
program
promise
protect
provide
pull
pump
punch
puncture
punish
push
question
queue
race
radiate
rain
raise
reach
realise
receive
recognise
record
reduce
reflect
refuse
regret
reign
reject
rejoice
relax
release
rely
remain
remember
remind
sack
sail
satisfy
shiver
shock
shop
remove
repair
repeat
replace
reply
report
reproduce
request
rescue
retire
return
soothe
sound
spare
rhyme
rinse
risk
rob
rock
roll
rot
rub
ruin
rule
rush
stop
store
strap
53
save
saw
scare
scatter
scold
scorch
scrape
scratch
scream
screw
scribble
scrub
seal
search
separate
serve
settle
shade
share
shave
shelter
shrug
sigh
sign
signal
sin
sip
ski
skip
slap
slip
slow
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snatch
sneeze
sniff
snore
snow
soak
talk
tame
tap
taste
tease
telephone
tempt
terrify
test
thank
undress
unfasten
unite
unlock
vanish
visit
wail
wait
walk
wander
want
warm
warn
wash
waste
watch
water
wave
weigh
welcome
whine
whip
x-ray
yawn
yell
zip
thaw
tick
tickle
tie
time
tip
tire
touch
tour
tow
spark
sparkle
spell
spill
spoil
spot
spray
sprout
squash
squeak
squeal
squeeze
stain
stamp
stare
start
stay
steer
step
stir
stitch
trace
trade
train
transport
trap
travel
treat
tremble
trick
trip
strengthen
stretch
strip
stroke
stuff
subtract
succeed
suck
suffer
suggest
suit
supply
support
suppose
surprise
surround
suspect
suspend
switch
trot
trouble
trust
try
tug
tumble
turn
twist
type
unpack
untidy
use
whirl
whisper
whistle
wink
wipe
wish
wobble
wonder
work
worry
wrap
wreck
wrestle
wriggle
zoom
54
Past
Simple
Past
Participle
finish
finished
finished
stopped
stopped
worked
worked
sing
sang
sung
buy
bought
bought
cut
cut
cut
the
verb
changes
One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as
above.
Here is a list of irregular verbs in English.
V1
Base
Form
V2
Past Simple
V3
Past Participle
awake
awoke
awoken
be
was, were
been
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
bet
bet
bet
bid
bid
bid
55
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
build
built
built
burn
burned/burnt
burned/burnt
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamed/dreamt
dreamed/dreamt
drive
drove
driven
drink
drank
drunk
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
56
forgive
forgave
forgiven
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
gotten
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
learn
learned/learnt
learned/learnt
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
57
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read
read
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
show
showed
showed/shown
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
spend
spent
spent
stand
stood
stood
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
58
understan
d
understood
understood
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
write
wrote
written
59
2) Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be:
to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. English
tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the
tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be,
English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not
confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make the
tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary)
verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
13.Forms of Main Verbs, remember Main verbs are also called "lexical
verbs". Main verbs (except the verb "be") have only 4, 5 or 6 forms.
"Be" has 9 forms.
regular
irregul
ar
V1
V2
V3
infiniti
ve
base
past
simple
past
participl
e
present
participle
present
simple, 3rd
person
singular
(to)
work
work
worked
worked
working
works
(to) sing
sing
(to)
make
make
cut
(to) cut
sang
made
cut
sung
made
cut
singing
making
cutting
sings
makes
cuts
(to) do*
do
(to)
have
have*
did
had
done
had
doing
having
does
has
infiniti
ve
base
past
simple
past
participl
e
present
participle
present
simple
(to) be*
be
was,
were
been
being
am, are, is
60
Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive
I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him have one.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
Work well!
Make this.
Have a nice day.
Be quiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
I work in London.
You sing well.
They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
I can work tomorrow.
You must sing louder.
They might do it.
You could be right.
Past simple
I worked yesterday.
She cut his hair last week.
They had a good time.
They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
I have worked here for five years.
He needs a folder made of plastic.
It is done like this.
I have never been so happy.
Present participle
I am working.
Singing well is not easy.
Having finished, he went home.
You are being silly!
3rd person singular, present simple
He works in London.
She sings well.
She has a lot of money.
It is Vietnamese.
14.Forms of Helping Verbs: All helping verbs are used with a main verb
(either expressed or understood*). There are 2 groups of helping
verbs:
Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of
the main verb, and in making questions and negatives.
Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.
61
Study the table below. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses of helping
verbs, and explains the differences between primary and modal helping
verbs.
* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to
have no main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at the
following examples:
Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is
"expressed".)
Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is
"understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I can speak
English.
But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would
understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary
Modal
Do
could
Be
might
Have
will
would
shall
should
must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs
have exactly the same forms as when Modal
helping
verbs
are
they are main verbs (except that as invariable. They always have the
helping verbs they are never used in same form.
infinitive forms).
"Ought" is followed by the main
verb in infinitive form. Other
Primary helping verbs are followed by
modal helping verbs are followed
the main verb in a particular form:
by the main verb in its base form
do + V1 (base verb)
(V1).
be + -ing (present participle)
ought + to... (infinitive)
have + V3 (past participle)
other modals + V1 (base
verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function
as main verbs.
cannot
62
look
look
after
take care of
phrasal verbs
look up
phrasalprepositional
verbs
look
forward
to
anticipate
pleasure
single-word verb
prepositional
verbs
Multiword
verbs
Who is looking
after the baby?
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words.
Phrasal verbs are made of:
verb + adverb
Phrasal verbs can be:
intransitive (no direct object)
transitive (direct object)
Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:
Examples
intransitiv
phrasal
verbs
meaning
get up
Direct
object
I don't like to get up.
63
e phrasal break
verbs
down
transitive
phrasal
verbs
cease
function
put of
postpone
the
meeting.
turn
down
refuse
my offer.
transitive phrasal
are
separable
verbs
The
y
turne
d
The
y
turne
d
down
my offer
my offer.
down
.
John
switche
d
John
switche
d
the
radio
on
.
John
switche
d
it
on
.
John
switche
d
on
on
the
radio.
These are
possible.
it.
This
is
possible.
all
not
64
Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words.
Prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have
direct objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:
examples
prepositional
verbs
meaning
believe in
have
faith
existence of
look after
take care of
He is looking
the dog.
after
talk about
discuss
Did you
about
wait for
await
John is waiting
Mary.
for
direct
object
in
the
I believe in
God.
talk
me?
Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the
direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after
the baby". We cannot say "look the baby after":
prepositional
inseparable
verbs
are
the This is
possible.
is
not
Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from
a verb plus another word or words.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + adverb + preposition
65
phrasalprepositional
verbs
meaning
get on with
have
a
friendly He doesn't get
his wife.
relationship with
on with
put up with
tolerate
look forward to
anticipate
pleasure
run out of
direct
object
run
eggs.
phrasal-prepositional
inseparable
verbs
are
We
ran out of
fuel.
We
ran out of
it.
66
4) English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.
"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is
true, then a particular result happens.
If y = 10 then 2y = 20
If y = 3 then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are
some more conditionals that we do not use so often.
People sometimes call conditionals " IF " structures or sentences, because
there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.
conditio
n
result
2y
20
IF y = 10
or like this:
result
I
F
2y
20
IF y = 10
conditio
n
If
condition
Result
present
simple
WILL
verb
it rains
I will
home.
base
stay
at
67
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But
the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain.
We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition.
We use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result.
The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real
possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more
examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result]
and [result IF condition]?):
I
F
Condition
result
present simple
If
I see Mary
If
If
If
it rains tomorrow
If
it rains tomorrow
I
F
result
WILL + base verb
teacher
will
be
condition
present simple
if
I see her.
if
they do
exam.
not
pass
if
it rains tomorrow?
if
it rains tomorrow?
their
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you
are good today, you can watch TV tonight.
68
and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this
condition will happen.
For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No
lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future.
I
F
If
condition
result
past simple
WOULD
verb
I
won
lottery
the
base
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple
tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk
about the future result. The important thing about the second conditional is
that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
Here are some more examples:
I
F
condition
result
past simple
If
I married Mary
I would be happy.
If
If
it snowed
July
next would
you
surprised?
If
it snowed
July
next
I
F
result
be
condition
past simple
I would be happy
If
I married Mary.
If
he became rich.
Would
surprised
If
it
snowed
July?
you
be
next
69
If
it
snowed
July?
next
If
condition
result
Past Perfect
WOULD HAVE
Participle
I had
lottery
won
the
Past
We use the past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition.
We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about the impossible past
result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the
condition and result are impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of
would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might
have won.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
I
F
Condition
result
past perfect
If
If
If
they had not passed their their teacher would have been
exam
sad.
If
If
70
I
F
Result
WOULD HAVE + past participle
condition
past perfect
if
if
they had
exam.
not
passed
if
if
their
If
condition
Result
present
simple
present
simple
it melts.
Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this
condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are
thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about
the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result.
The important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition
always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss
my bus.
Look at some more examples in the tables below:
I
F
Condition
result
present simple
present simple
If
If
my
boss
gets
71
angry.
If
If
does it melt?
I
F
result
present simple
condition
present simple
if
My
boss
angry
if
if
if
gets
Conditionals: Summary
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not
take the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.
probability
conditional
example
time
100
%
zero
conditional
any
time
50%
first
conditional
10%
second
conditional
0%
third
conditional
72
Can
is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
talk about possibility and ability
make requests
ask for or give permission
o Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t
+ I
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
can
play
tennis.
play
tennis.
play
tennis
?
cannot
-
He
can't
Can
you
Notice that:
Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
We cannot say: I CAN TO PLAY TENNIS
o Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
She can drive a car.
John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we
make present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
73
Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:
talk about past possibility or ability
make requests
o
Structure of Could
subject + could + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject
auxiliary verb
main
verb
My
grandmother
could
swim.
She
could not
walk.
couldn't
?
Could
your
grandmother
swim?
Notice that:
Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:
I COULD TO PLAY TENNIS
o Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were
able or free to do:
I could swim when I was 5 years old.
My grandmother could speak seven languages.
74
We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the
past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be
able to (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:
Past
General
Specific Occasion
My
grandmother
speak Spanish.
o could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The
use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):
Could you tell me where the bank is, please?
Could you send me a catalogue, please?
Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the
verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be
able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.
We use be able to:
to talk about ability
o Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive
subjec
t
+ I
be
main
verb
able
adjectiv
e
infinitiv
e
am
able
to drive.
able
to drive.
able
to
drive?
is not
-
She
isn't
Are
you
75
auxiliary
verb
+ She
main
have
has
to work.
do not
have
to see
the doctor.
Did
you
have
to go
to school?
76
o Use of Have to
In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have
to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the
Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:
In France, you have to drive on the right.
In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or
idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.
We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We
conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
subjec
t
auxiliary
verb
main
have
verb infinitiv
e
past simple
had
to work
yesterday.
present simple
have
to work
today.
future simple
will
have
to work
tomorrow.
present
continuous
She
is
having
to wait.
present perfect
We
have
had
to
change
the time.
modal (may)
They
may
have
to do
it again.
main
verb
must
go
home.
You
must
visit
us.
77
We
must
stop
now.
Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:
I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)
o Use of Must
In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the
speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:
I must stop smoking.
You must visit us soon.
He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the
person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from
outside.
It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule
or a law. But generally we use have to for this.
We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these
examples:
I must go now. (present)
I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about
the past.
mustn't
forget
my
keys.
You
mustn't
disturb
him.
Student
s
must not
be
late.
NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:
78
Singula
r
Plural
Person
Ver
b
Example
Contractio
n
shall
I'll
you
will
he, she,
will
it
we
shall
you
will
they
will
2nd Conjugation
command)
(subjective,
strong
He'll
They'll
assertion,
promise
or
79
Singula
r
Person
Ver
b
Example
will
you
shall
You'll
shall
It shall be done.
It'll
we
will
We won't
you
shall
You'll
they
shall
They shall
notice.
They'll
he,
it
Plural
she,
Contractio
n
give
one
month's
Would
Would is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use would mainly to:
talk about the past
talk about the future in the past
express the conditional mood
We also use would for other functions, such as:
expressing desire, polite requests and questions, opinion or hope,
wish and regret...
Structure of Would
subject + would + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
would
+ She
like
tea.
like
whisky.
like
coffee?
'd
would not
-
She
wouldn't
Would
she
Notice that:
Would is never conjugated. It is always would or 'd (short form).
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
80
the
bare
infinitive.
We
cannot
say:
Be careful! Would and had have the same short form 'd:
He'd finished. (He had finished.)
He'd like coffee. (He would like coffee.)
o Use of Would
would: Talking about the past
We often use would as a kind of past tense of will or going to:
Even as a boy, he knew that he would succeed in life.
I thought it would rain so I brought my umbrella.
Using would as as a kind of past tense of will or going to is common in
reported speech:
She said that she would buy some eggs. ("I will buy some eggs.")
The candidate said that he wouldn't increase taxes. ("I won't increase
taxes.")
Why didn't you bring your umbrella? I told you it would rain! ("It's
going to rain.")
We often use would not to talk about past refusals:
He wanted a divorce but his wife would not agree.
Yesterday morning, the car wouldn't start.
We sometimes use would (rather like used to) when talking about habitual
past behaviour:
Every weekday my father would come home from work at 6pm and
watch TV.
Every summer we'd go to the seaside.
Sometimes she'd phone me in the middle of the night.
We would always argue. We could never agree.
would: Future in past
When talking about the past we can use would to express something that
has not happened at the time we are talking about:
In London she met the man that she would one day marry.
He left 5 minutes late, unaware that the delay would save his life.
would: Conditionals
We often use would to express the so-called second and third conditionals:
If he lost his job he would have no money.
IfI had won the lotteryI would have bought a car.
Using the same conditional structure, we often use would when giving
advice:
I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
If I were in your place I'd refuse.
If you asked me I would say you should go.
Sometimes the condition is "understood" and there does not have to be an
"if" clause:
Someone who liked John would probably love John's father. (If
someone liked John they would probably love John's father.)
81
You'd never know it. (for example: If you met him you would never
know that he was rich.)
Why don't you invite Mary? I'm sure she'd come.
Although there is always a main verb, sometimes it is understood (not
stated) as in:
I'd like to stay. | I wish you would. (would stay)
Do you think he'd come? | I'm sure he would. (would come)
Who would help us? | John would. (would help us)
82
John said he didn't steal the money. | Well, he would, wouldn't he?
Should
Should is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use should mainly
to:
give advice or make recommendations
talk about obligation
talk about probability and expectation
express the conditional mood
replace a subjunctive structure
Structure of Should
subject + should + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subjec
t
+ He
auxiliary
verb
main
verb
should
go.
should not
-
He
go.
shouldn't
Shoul
d
he
go?
Notice that:
Should is invariable. There is only one form of should.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb
He should to go.
is
always
the
bare
infinitive.
We
cannot
say:
There is no short form for should. The negative should not can be
shortened to shouldn't.
o Use of Should
should: Giving advice, opinions
We often use should when offering advice or opinions (similar to ought to):
You should see the new James Bond movie. It's great!
You should try to lose weight.
John should get a haircut.
He shouldn't smoke. And he should stop drinking too.
What should I wear?
They should make that illegal.
83
Using
should
84
85
6) Gerunds (-ing)
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is
important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is
usually a present participle:
Anthony is fishing.
I have a boring teacher.
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".
In this lesson, we look at how we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a
sentence:
Smoking costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing.
My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the
whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or
complement of the sentence.
Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing letters.
My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.
Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other
determiners):
pointless questioning
a settling of debts
the making of Titanic
his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct
object:
a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
Making "Titanic" was expensive.
The making of "Titanic" was expensive.
Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a
gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
My favourite occupation is reading.
My favourite niece is reading.
Gerunds after Prepositions
This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!
86
exceptions!
87
88
7)Questions or Interrogative
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence
that asks for information. Questions are also called "interrogative".
Stateme
nt:
I like EnglishClub.com.
Question
:
Do
you
EnglishClub.com?
like
subject
main
verb
Do
you
like
Mary?
Are
they
playing
football?
Will
Anthony
go
to Tokyo?
Have
you
seen
ET?
Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an
auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:
Stateme
nt:
He
is
German.
Question
:
Is
he
German?
89
1. Yes/No Questions
auxiliary
verb
subjec
t
main
verb
Answer
Yes or No
Do
you
want
Can
you
drive?
Has
she
finished
her work?
Did
they
go
home?
No,
didn't.
dinner?
Yes, I do.
No, I can't.
they
Anne
French?
Was
Ram
at home?
No, he wasn't.
auxiliary
verb
subjec main
t
verb
Answer
Information
Where
do
you
live?
In Paris.
When
will
we
have
Who
did
she
meet?
Why
hasn't
Tara
done
lunch?
At 1pm.
She met Ram.
it?
Because
can't.
she
is
Bombay?
In India.
How
was
she?
Very well.
3. Choice Questions
auxiliary
verb
subjec
t
main
verb
O
R
Answer
In the question
Do
you
want
tea
or
coffee?
Coffee, please.
Will
we
meet
John
or
James?
John.
Did
she
go
to
or
New
She
went
to
90
London
York?
London.
your car
white
or
black?
It's black.
Were
they
$15
or
$50?
$15.
91
8)Tag Questions
You speak English, don't
you?
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed
by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the miniquestion at the end is called a "question tag".
A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example,
the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing instructions
is a tag.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They
mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very
common in English.
The basic structure is:
+
Positive statement,
negative tag?
Snow is white,
isn't it?
Negative
statement,
+
positive tag?
do you?
auxiliar
subject
y
main
verb
auxiliar
y
not
personal
pronoun
(same as
subject)
You
are
coming,
are
n't
you?
We
have
finished
,
have
n't
we?
You
do
like
coffee,
do
n't
you?
like
coffee,
do
n't
you?
You
like...
wo
n't
they?
won't = will
not
You
They
will
help,
notes:
(do)
92
can
come,
can
't
I?
We
must
go,
must
n't
we?
He
should
try
harder, should
n't
he?
You
are
English
are
,
n't
you?
John
was
there,
n't
he?
was
no auxiliary
for
main
verb
be
present &
past
auxiliar
y
personal
pronoun
(same
subject)
is
it?
It
is
n't
raining,
We
have
never
seen
that,
have
we?
You
do
n't
like
coffee,
do
you?
They
will
not
help,
will
they?
They
wo
n't
report
us,
will
they?
can
never
do
it
right,
can
I?
We
must
n't
tell
her,
must
we?
He
should
n't
drive
so
fast,
should
he?
You
are
n't
English
are
,
you?
John
was
not
there,
he?
was
as
93
in
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our
voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real
answer:
intonation
You don't know where my wallet
do you?
is,
/ rising
real question
\ falling
not
a
question
isn't it?
real
94
correct
answer
Snow
is
Yes
white, isn't
is).
it?
(it
Snow isn't
Yes it is!
white, is it?
Snow
is
No
black, isn't
isn't!
it?
Snow isn't No
black, is it? isn't).
it
In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?"
with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in
English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
Men don't have babies, do they? No.
The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
Question tags with imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but
the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer.
We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.
imperative
+ question notes:
95
tag
invitatio
n
order
polite
quite friendly
less polite
96
9) Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.
Structure of the Subjunctive
The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the
past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive
without "to"):
be (past)
be
(present)
I
were
you
were
he,
she,
it
were
we
were
you
were
they were
I
be
I
you
be
you
he, she, it
he,
she,
be
we
we
be
you
you
be
they work
they be
it
work
work
work
work
work
The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).
Use of the Subjunctive
We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain
to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events
that somebody:
wants to happen
hopes will happen
imagines happening
Look at these examples:
The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest + that
the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary,
vital + that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the
weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does
not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
97
Informal
98
99
ver
b
objec
t
>
Cats
eat
fish.
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives
the action of the verb:
subjec
t
passiv
e
verb
object
are eaten
by cats.
<
Fish
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject
verb
object
active
Everybod
y
drinks
water.
passiv
e
Water
is
drunk
by everybody
Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the
"normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we
look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to
conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice
The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
The main verb is always in its past participle form.
100
subject
auxiliary
(to be)
verb
main
verb
participle)
Water
is
drunk
by everyone.
100
people
are
employed
by
company.
am
paid
in euro.
We
are
paid
in dollars.
Are
they
paid
in yen?
not
(past
this
verb
object
was killed
by Lee Harvey
Oswald.
has been
?
stolen.
My wallet
Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten
by cats).
Look at this sentence:
He was killed with a gun.
Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the
active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a
gun.
In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is
the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the
passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle
form and the auxiliary verb is always be.
To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for
example:
present simple: It is made
present continuous: It is being made
101
to be washed
present
It is washed.
past
It was washed.
future
It will be washed.
conditional
It would be washed.
present
It is being washed.
past
future
conditional
present
past
future
conditional
present
past
future
It will
washed.
conditional
It would
washed
simple
continuous
perfect simple
perfect
continuous
have
have
been
been
being
being
102
-ing
form
or
infinitive form (to do, to sing).
(doing,
singing)
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
I dislike working late. (???)
I dislike to work late. (???)
103
It started raining.
I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.
104
105
the
very
distance.
well.
With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action
or activity. Compare "to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive
sound in your ears". There is no real action or activity by you. We use "to
hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear". You
make an effort to hear.
There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple or
continuous tenses.
Verbs with Two Meanings
106
Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must
use a simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple
tense.
For example, the verb to think has two different senses:
1. to
believe,
to
have
an
opinion
I think red is a sexy colour.
2. to
reflect,
to
use
your
brain
to
solve
a
problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In
sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called
"dynamic".
When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the
dynamic sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the
situation.
Look at the examples in the table below:
Stative
sense Dynamic
(no real action)
(a kind of action)
Simple only
I
think
beautiful.
she
is
sense
Continuous
Simple
table
A good carpenter
She is measuring the room
x 6
measures his wood
for a new carpet.
carefully.
Does the wine taste I was tasting the wine when I I always taste wine
good?
dropped the glass.
before I drink it.
Mary
has
children.
If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is
there any real action or activity?"
Be and Continuous Tenses
The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main
verb (Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.
Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example,
we say:
London
is
the
capital
of
the
UK.
(not London is being the capital of the UK.)
107
Is
she
beautiful?
(not Is she being beautiful?)
Were
you
late?
(not Were you being late?)
Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This
is when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course,
the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table below:
108
subjec
t
auxiliar
y
did
no
t
+ I
-
did
Did
you
not
main
verb
use
infiniti
ve
used
to do.
use
to do.
use
to do?
Used or use?
when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)
when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)
Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:
an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past
present
future
the present
109
Now I go swimming.
Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to
Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."
Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do.
They have different meanings.
Structure of Be used to
The structure is:
subject + be + used to + object
main
subjec verb
t
be
+ I
no
t
am
not
used
to
object
used
to
horses.
used
to
horses.
He
is
We
aren't
used
to
horses.
Are
you
used
to
horses
?
am
not
He
is
We
aren't
used to
Are
you
used to cooking?
taking
bus.
the
Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use
-ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition.
110
Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar
to us or easy for us. For example:
I am used to driving on the left.
It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am
Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA
where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA,
but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am
used to it".
Look at these examples.
I am used to hard work.
I am used to working hard.
He is not used to New York.
He isn't used to living in New York.
Are you used to fast food?
Are you used to eating quickly?
Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the
tense that we need. Look at these examples:
When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.
I have been used to snakes for a long time.
You will soon be used to living alone
111
15) Going to
Going to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.
Structure of Going to
The structure is:
subject + be + going + infinitive
The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).
subjec
t
+ I
be
(not
)
am
+ I'm
not
goin
g
infiniti
ve
going
to buy
a new car.
going
to go
swimming.
going
to take
the exam.
He
is
It
isn't
going
to rain.
Are
you
going
to paint
the house?
Use of Going to
Going to - intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we
speak. We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these
examples:
Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche.
We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before speaking.
Going to - prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction
is based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen.
Here are some examples:
The sky is very black. It's going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged
car) gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.
112
113
Going to
Intention
We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do
something before we speak. We have already made a decision before
speaking. Look at these examples:
I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before we spoke.
Prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction
is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are
some examples:
The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car)
gives us a good idea of what is going to happen.
We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain
tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)
We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence:
"It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it
doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)
114
used
for
example
0%
will
no plan
70%
going to
intention
90%
present
continuous
plan
99.999%
present
simple
schedule
115
since
a
(up
x===>|
since
for 20 minutes
since
for three days
since
for
6
months
since
for
4
years
since
for 2 centuries
since
for a long time
since
for
ever
time
etc
etc
all tenses
I
the
to
point
now)
9am
Monday
January
1997
1500
left
school
beginning of
For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:
They study for two hours every day.
They are studying for three hours today.
He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.
He has been living in Paris for three months.
I worked at that bank for five years.
Will the universe continue for ever?
For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc.
I was there all day. (not *for all day)
Since is normally used with perfect tenses:
He has been here since 9am.
He has been working since he arrived.
I had lived in New York since my childhood.
Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...":
It is a year since I saw her.
How long is it since you got married?
116
Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time.
Here are some examples:
This is for you.
Is this the train for London?
Since you ask, I'll say yes.
Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.
Grammar
hot
links
Verbs | Passive voice | Modal verbs | Conditionals | Questions | Irregular
verbs | Going to | Gerunds | Phrasal Verbs | Tenses | Nouns | (Un)Countable
nouns | Adjectives | Articles | Preposition List
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we
include pronouns and noun phrases.)
An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog).
Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after
certain verbs (It is hard).
We can often use two or more adjectives together
(a beautiful young French lady).
Determiners
The determiner is an important noun modifier which contextualizes a noun, often in
terms of quantity and possession. Determiners in English precede a noun phrase and
include demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically
similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we
cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
a, an, the
Possessive Adjectives:
Other determiners:
each, every
117
either, neither
some, any, no
much, many; more, most
little, less, least
few, fewer, fewest
what, whatever; which, whichever
both, half, all
several
enough
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound,
smell, taste)
adj. noun
verb adj.
1 I like big
cars.
My car is
big.
118
3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
noun
nice
colour
candles
When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":
Ram is English.
Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
Is it getting dark?
The examination did not seem difficult.
Your friend looks nice.
This towel feels damp.
That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
Dinner smells good tonight.
This milk tastes sour.
It smells bad.
119
verbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), and
dynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above
examples do not include all stative verbs.
Note also that in the above structure (subject verb adjective), the
adjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if
they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways
and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to
describe the differences.
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not
three or more things).
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective
"big":
A1 A2
A1 is bigger than A2.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives,
and then at how we use them:
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives
old, fast
happy, easy
old older
120
late later
big bigger
happy happier
Long adjectives
modern, pleasant
expensive,
intellectual
modern more
modern
expensive more
expensive
good better
well (healthy) better
bad worse
far farther/further
121
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them
as shown in the table below:
Earth
Mars
Diameter (km)
12,760
6,790
150
228
24
25
A day on Mars is
slightly longer than a day on
Earth.
Moons
Surface temperature
(degrees Celcius)
22
-23
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a
quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of
one thing in a group of things.
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective
"big":
122
AB
A is the biggest.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives,
and then at how we use them:
old, fast
happy, easy
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
expensive,
intellectual
123
most expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':
quiet the quietest/most quiet
clever the cleverest/most clever
narrow the narrowest/most narrow
simple the simplest/most simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use
superlative adjectives as shown in the table below:
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Diameter (km)
12,760
6,790
142,800
150
228
778
Length of day
(hours)
24
25
10
Moons
16
Surface temp.
(degrees Celcius)
22
-23
-150
124
Gradable Adjectives
A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary the
adjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples:
grading adverbs
a little, dreadfully, extremely,
fairly, hugely, immensely,
intensely, rather, reasonably,
slightly, unusually, very
+ gradable adjectives
angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep,
fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot,
important, long, popular, rich,
strong, tall, warm, weak, young
125
He said that Holland was a little cold and Denmark was rather
cold. But Sweden was the coldest.
Non-gradable Adjectives
A non-gradable adjective cannot be used with grading adverbs:
It was rather freezing outside.
The dog was very dead.
He is investing in slightly nuclear energy.
awful
utterly
excellent
completely
terrified
totally
dead
nearly
impossible
extreme
absolute
126
virtually
unique
essentially
chemical
mainly
digital
almost
domestic
classifying
Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to take
the exam again.
Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtually unique.
It starts an essentially chemical reaction.
common
=
gradable
not young
nongradable
former, ex-
gradable
vulgar
gradable
prevalent
nongradable
shared
non-gradable
127
quite =
fairly, rather
Reference
Non-gradable adjectives
Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable
adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself
whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying.
alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic, enormous,
environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge, immediately,
impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect, pregnant, principal,
ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique, unknown, white, whole
Non-grading adverbs
Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are many
more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs with all
non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some don't.
absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly,
nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually
see also:
Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a
word that describes a noun:
adjective noun
clever
teacher
small
office
128
black
horse
teacher
ticket
office
race
horse
Wrong
boat race
boat races
toothbrush
toothbrushes
shoe-lace
shoe-laces
129
Exceptions:
When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs,
accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:
There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in
two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)
shoe shop
boat-race
bathroom
noun
costs
production costs
car production costs
130
England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who
trains the team that plays football for England
noun as noun as noun as noun
adjective adjective adjective
coach
team coach
football
team coach
England football
team coach
Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun
as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns
(foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way
that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as
adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own
dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For
example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other
dictionaries do not.
government road accident research centre: we are talking about a
centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government
noun as
adjective
government
131
Examples of Adjectives
Looking at examples of adjectives can make it easier to understand
how these important parts of speech are used within the English
language.
Popular Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes, identifies or further defines a
noun or a pronoun. There are thousands of adjectives available to
describe how something feels, looks, sounds, tastes and acts. Here
are a few examples:
To Describe Taste
Bitter
Lemon-flavored
Spicy
Bland
Minty
Sweet
Delicious
Pickled
Tangy
Fruity
Salty
Tasty
Gingery
Sour
Yummy
To Describe Touch
Auricular
Fluffy
Sharp
Boiling
Freezing
Silky
Breezy
Fuzzy
Slick
Bumpy
Greasy
Slimy
Chilly
Hard
Slippery
Cold
Hot
Smooth
Cool
Icy
Soft
Cuddly
Loose
Solid
Damaged
Melted
Steady
132
Damp
Painful
Sticky
Dirty
Plastic
Tender
Dry
Prickly
Tight
Dusty
Rough
Uneven
Filthy
Shaggy
Warm
Flaky
Shaky
Wet
To Describe Sound
Blaring
Melodic
Screeching
Deafening
Moaning
Shrill
Faint
Muffled
Silent
Hoarse
Mute
Soft
High-pitched
Noisy
Squealing
Hissing
Purring
Squeaking
Hushed
Quiet
Thundering
Husky
Raspy
Voiceless
Loud
Resonant
Whispering
To Describe Color
Azure
Gray
Pinkish
Black
Green
Purple
Blue
Indigo
Red
Bright
Lavender
Rosy
Brown
Light
Scarlet
Crimson
Magenta
Silver
Dark
Multicolored
Turquoise
Drab
Mustard
Violet
133
Dull
Orange
White
Gold
Pink
Yellow
To Describe Size
Abundant
Jumbo
Puny
Big-boned
Large
Scrawny
Chubby
Little
Short
Fat
Long
Small
Giant
Majestic
Tall
Gigantic
Mammoth
Teeny
Great
Massive
Thin
Huge
Miniature
Tiny
Immense
Petite
Vast
To Describe Shape
Blobby
Distorted
Rotund
Broad
Flat
Round
Chubby
Fluffy
Skinny
Circular
Globular
Square
Crooked
Hollow
Steep
Curved
Low
Straight
Cylindrical
Narrow
Triangular
Deep
Oval
Wide
To Describe Time
Annual
Futuristic
Rapid
Brief
Historical
Regular
Daily
Irregular
Short
134
Early
Late
Slow
Eternal
Long
Speed
Fast
Modern
Speedy
First
Old
Swift
Fleet
Old-fashioned
Waiting
Future
Quick
Young
To Describe an Amount
All
Heavy
One
Ample
Hundreds
Paltry
Astronomical
Large
Plentiful
Bountiful
Light
Profuse
Considerable
Limited
Several
Copious
Little
Sizable
Countless
Many
Some
Each
Measly
Sparse
Enough
Mere
Substantial
Every
Multiple
Teeming
Few
Myriad
Ten
Full
Numerous
Very
To Describe an Emotion
Abrasive
Embarrassed
Grumpy
Abrupt
Energetic
Kind
Afraid
Enraged
Lazy
Agreeable
Enthusiastic
Lively
Aggressive
Envious
Lonely
135
Amiable
Evil
Lucky
Amused
Excited
Mad
Angry
Exhausted
Manic
Annoyed
Exuberant
Mysterious
Ashamed
Fair
Nervous
Bad
Faithful
Obedient
Bitter
Fantastic
Obnoxious
Bewildered
Fierce
Outrageous
Boring
Fine
Panicky
Brave
Foolish
Perfect
Callous
Frantic
Persuasive
Calm
Friendly
Pleasant
Calming
Frightened
Proud
Charming
Funny
Quirky
Cheerful
Furious
Relieved
Combative
Gentle
Repulsive
Comfortable
Glib
Rundown
Defeated
Glorious
Sad
Confused
Good
Scary
Cooperative
Grateful
Selfish
Courageous
Grieving
Silly
Cowardly
Gusty
Splendid
Crabby
Gutless
Successful
Creepy
Happy
Tedious
Cross
Healthy
Tense
136
Cruel
Heinous
Terrible
Dangerous
Helpful
Thankful
Defeated
Helpless
Thoughtful
Defiant
Hilarious
Thoughtless
Delightful
Homeless
Tired
Depressed
Hungry
Troubled
Determined
Hurt
Upset
Disgusted
Immoral
Weak
Disturbed
Indignant
Weary
Eager
Irate
Wicked
Elated
Itchy
Worried
Embarrassed
Jealous
Zany
Enchanting
Jolly
Zealous
Famous
Restless
Agoraphobic
Fearless
Rich
Ambidextrous
Fertile
Righteous
Ambitious
Fragile
Ritzy
Amoral
Frank
Romantic
Angelic
Functional
Rustic
Brainy
Gabby
Ruthless
Breathless
Generous
Sassy
Busy
Gifted
Secretive
Calm
Helpful
Sedate
Capable
Hesitant
Shy
137
Careless
Innocent
Sleepy
Cautious
Inquisitive
Somber
Cheerful
Insane
Stingy
Clever
Jaunty
Stupid
Common
Juicy
Super
Complete
Macho
Swanky
Concerned
Manly
Tame
Crazy
Modern
Tawdry
Curious
Mushy
Terrific
Dead
Naughty
Testy
Deep
Odd
Uninterested
Delightful
Old
Vague
Determined
Open
Verdant
Different
Outstanding
Vivacious
Diligent
Perky
Wacky
Energetic
Poor
Wandering
Erratic
Powerful
Wild
Evil
Puzzled
Womanly
Exuberant
Real
Wrong
To Describe Appearance
Ablaze
Distinct
Quirky
Adorable
Drab
Ruddy
Alluring
Dull
Shiny
Attractive
Elegant
Skinny
Average
Embarrassed
Sloppy
138
Awkward
Fancy
Smiling
Balanced
Fat
Sparkling
Beautiful
Filthy
Spotless
Blonde
Glamorous
Strange
Bloody
Gleaming
Tacky
Blushing
Glossy
Tall
Bright
Graceful
Thin
Clean
Grotesque
Ugly
Clear
Handsome
Unattractive
Cloudy
Homely
Unbecoming
Clumsy
Interior
Uncovered
Colorful
Lovely
Unsightly
Confident
Magnificent
Unusual
Cracked
Murky
Watery
Crooked
Old-fashioned
Weird
Crushed
Plain
Wild
Curly
Poised
Wiry
Cute
Pretty
Wooden
Debonair
Puffy
Worried
Dirty
Quaint
Zaftig
To Describe Situations
Accidental
Doubtful
Main
Achievable
Elementarty
Minor
Advantageous
Finger-printed
Nasty
Alcoholic
Groundless
Nutritious
139
Animated
Hard
Obsolete
Aquatic
Harmful
Optimal
Aromatic
High
Organic
Aspiring
Honest
Premium
Bad
Horrible
Quizzical
Bawdy
Illegal
Rainy
Biographical
Illegible
Redundant
Bizarre
Imperfect
Remarkable
Broken
Impossible
Simple
Careful
Internal
Tangible
Credible
Inventive
Tricky
Creepy
Jazzy
Wholesale
Cumbersome
Juvenile
Worse
Disastrous
Legal
Wry
Dismissive
Logical
X-rated
Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a
pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours,
themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to
repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
140
Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president
is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them
depending on:
person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person
(eg: he)
gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
person
gender
subject
singular
1st
object
male/female
2nd
male/female
3rd
male he
him
female
she
her
neuter
it
it
plural 1st
personal pronouns
you
me
you
male/female
we
us
2nd
male/female
you
you
3rd
male/female/neuter
they them
141
Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the
second an object pronoun):
I like coffee.
He runs fast.
She is clever.
It doesn't work.
We went home.
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.
However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an
animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or
a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some
countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here
are some examples:
The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
142
We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and
distance:
It's raining.
Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
singular
this
that
143
That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use
them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:
Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or
thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and
sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd
person (eg: his)
144
be subject or object
number
person
singular
1st
male/female
2nd
male/female
3rd
male his
female
plural 1st
possessive pronouns
mine
yours
hers
male/female
ours
2nd
male/female
yours
3rd
male/female/neuter
theirs
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't
find yours. (object = your key)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his
essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her
passport)
John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her
clothes)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject =
Our car)
Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
145
I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your
garden)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair.
(subject = Their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object =
their car)
Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's,
your's, their's
Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:
There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.
Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative
pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking
the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative
pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).
subject
person
who
object
whom
thing what
person/thing
person
which
whose
(possessive)
Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of
the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal,
spoken English we rarely usewhom. Most native speakers would say (or
even write): "Who did you see?"
Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun
phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.
146
question
answer
subject
I want coffee.
object
subject
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? John's (car) hasn't
arrived.
subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?
(keys).
object
I found John's
Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from
some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When
we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or
surprise. Look at these examples:
Reflexive Pronouns
reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of
the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "selves" (plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:
reflexive pronoun
singular
myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
147
plural ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Look at these examples:
reflexive pronouns
the underlined words are NOT the same person/thing the underlined
words are the SAME person/thing
John saw me.
We blame you.
We blame ourselves.
Intensive pronouns
Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive
pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:
The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.
148
They recommend this book even though they themselves have
never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have
never read it themselves.
Reciprocal Pronouns
reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual
action
We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting
in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B
is talking to A. So we say:
The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I
give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and
the cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
each other
one another
149
You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above
than one another. That's because in general we use each other more
often than one another, which sounds a little formal. Also, some people
say that we should use one another only for three or more people or
things, but there is no real justification for this.
Indefinite Pronouns
That's Not My Job!
This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody
and Nobody.
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or
amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns
are:
pronoun
meaning
example
singular
150
another
an additional or different person or thing
was good. Can I haveanother?
That ice-cream
enough
Enough is enough.
everybody/everyone
all people
becauseeverybody has arrived.
neither
not one and not the other of two people or things
keep telling Jack and Jill but neitherbelieves me.
nobody/no-one
no person
nobodyanswered.
nothing
no single thing, not anything If you don't know the answer
it's best to say nothing.
one an unidentified person Can one smoke here? | All the students
arrived but now one is missing.
other a different person or thing from one already mentioned
was tall and the other was short.
somebody/someone
an unspecified or unknown person
somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.
something an unspecified or unknown thing
something! What could it be?
One
Clearly
151
you
plural
both two people or things, seen together John likes coffee but not tea. I
thinkboth are good.
few a small number of people or things Few have ever disobeyed him
and lived.
fewer a reduced number of people or things
these days.
several
more than two but not many They all complained and
several left the meeting.
they people in general (informal)
for you.
singular or plural
all
the whole quantity of something or of some things or people All is
forgiven.
All have arrived.
any
Is any left?
152
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is
called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it
modifies. Here is an example:
There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose
is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and
things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that
are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information).
Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no
difference between male and female.
Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative
clauses:
example sentences
S=subject, O=object, P=possessive notes
153
defining
Whom is
154
- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident,
was completely destroyed.
- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was
completely destroyed. Of which is usual for things, butwhose is
sometimes possible
*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.
**Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use
"who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.
Pronoun Case
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their
function in the sentence. Their function can be:
The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on
case.
subjective case
personal pronouns
2nd
you
3rd
he
plural 1st
singular
you
yours
we
us
ours
you
you
yours
objective case
possessive case
1st
mine
me
she
it
him
her
it
his
hers
its
2nd
155
3rd
relative/interrogative pronouns
whoever
who
whomwhose
whomever
which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns
Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
2.
The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)
In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the
subjective case ("I"). In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the
pronoun takes the objective case ("me"). An easy way to check the
correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say "I am
delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say
"The letter was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?
Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, Nobody
That's Not My Job!
This is a story about four people named Everybody,Somebody, Anybody
and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that
Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it.
Somebody got angry about that, because it was Everybody's job.
Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that
Everybody wouldn't do it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what
Anybody could have done.
156
Definition
active voice
adjective
adjective clause
adjunct
157
adverbial clause
affirmative
affix
agreement
(also
known
"concord")
antecedent
appositive
article
aspect
auxiliary
verb verb used with the main verb to help indicate
(also
called something
such
as
tense
or
voice
"helping verb")
eg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.
bare infinitive
158
case
causative verb
clause
comparative,
comparative
adjective
complement
compound noun
compound
sentence
concord
conditional
conjugate
159
conjunction
content word
into
one
countable noun
thing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see
uncountable
noun)
eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees
dangling participle
declarative
sentence
defining
relative relative clause that contains information required for
clause
the understanding of the sentence; not set off with
(also
called commas;
see
also
non-defining
clause
"restrictive relative eg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the
clause")
winner"
demonstrative
pronoun
demonstrative
adjective
dependent clause
determiner
160
noun
phrases
eg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new
shirt?", "Let's buy some eggs"
direct speech
direct object
embedded
question
finite verb
first conditional
fragment
function
future
perfect tense* used to show that something will be ongoing
continuous
until a certain time in the future; formed with WILL
161
HAVE
BEEN
+
VERB-ing
eg: "We will have been living there for three months
by the time the baby is born"
future simple
gerund
gradable adjective
grading adverb
hanging participle
helping verb
imperative
indefinite pronoun
with
VERB-ing
indirect object
indirect question
indirect
speech saying what someone said without using their exact
(also
called words;
see
direct
speech
"reported speech") eg: "Lucy said that she was tired"
infinitive
162
infinitive
eg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be:
that is the question"
inflection
interjection
interrogative
interrogative
pronoun
pronoun
that
eg: who, whom, which
intransitive verb
inversion
asks
question.
verb that has a different ending for past tense and past
irregular
verb
participle forms than the regular "-ed"; see also regular
see irregular verbs
verb
list
eg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done
lexicon, lexis
lexical verb
linking verb
main clause
163
modal
(also
"modal")
modifier
mood
morpheme
multi-word verb
negative
nominative case
non-defining
relative
clause
(also called "nonrestrictive relative
clause")
non-gradable
adjective
non-restrictive
relative clause
noun
noun clause
164
number
object
objective case
part of speech
participle
passive voice
an
object
past perfect
165
tenses,
and
sometimes
as
an
adjective
eg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people",
"boiled eggs"
perfect
person
personal pronoun
pronoun
that
indicates
eg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him"
phrasal verb
phrase
plural
position
positive
possessive
adjective
possessive case
possessive
pronoun
person
possession
166
predicate
prefix
preposition
prepositional verb
present participle
present perfect
pronoun
167
pronouns
and
indefinite
pronouns
eg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything
proper noun
punctuation
quantifier
determiner or pronoun
eg: some, many, all
question tag
question word
reciprocal pronoun
that
indicates
quantity
reflexive pronoun
regular
verb verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and
see regular verbs past participle forms; see also irregular verb
list
eg: work, worked, worked
relative adverb
relative clause
168
relative pronoun
reported speech
restrictive
clause
relative
second conditional
sentence
series
list
of
items
in
a
sentence
eg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips"
singular
split infinitive
Standard
(S.E.)
structure word
subject
169
subject
subjunctive
subordinate clause
suffix
superlative,
superlative
adjective
SVO
syntax
tag question
special construction with statement that ends in a miniquestion; the whole sentence is a tag question; the
mini-question is a question tag; usually used to obtain
confirmation
eg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat,
do you?"
tense
third conditional
transitive verb
170
countable
nouns
usage
V1, V2, V3
verb
voice
WH-question
WH-word
word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words:
(also
called
who, what, where, when, which, why, how
"question word")
word order
yes-no question
zero conditional
* note that technically English does not have a real future tense
** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to" to be the
true infinitive
3. English Grammar Terms Glossary of English Grammar Terms
4. English Grammar Terms (short version) Glossary of English
Grammar Terms
English Grammar Terms
Active Voice: In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action
(eg They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.
171
Adjective: A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a
noun or pronoun.
Adverb: A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a
verb.
Article: The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.
Auxiliary Verb: A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are
auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are modal auxiliary verbs.
Clause: A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It
was late when he arrived).
Conjunction: A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for
example: and, but, if).
Infinitive: The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.
Interjection: An exclamation inserted into an utterance without
grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!, well!).
Modal Verb: An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the
main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal
auxiliary verb".
Noun: A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of
an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can
see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you
cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is
something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An
"uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example:
water, music, money).
Object: In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action
of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the
action of the verb.
Participle: The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the
"present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular
verbs, this is column 3).
Part Of Speech: One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb,
adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Passive Voice: In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb (eg The President was killed). See also Active Voice.
Phrase: A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the
table, the girl in a red dress).
Predicate: Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a
predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.
Preposition: A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come
before a noun and give information about things like time, place and
direction.
Pronoun: A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.
Sentence: A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a
statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or
implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain
a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
Subject: Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a
predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about
which something is said.
Tense: The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens
(past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a
guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for
example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.
172
Verb: A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an
action or state.
accept
add
admire
admit
advise
afford
agree
alert
back
bake
balance
ban
bang
allow
amuse
analyse
announce
annoy
answer
apologise
appear
beg
behave
belong
bleach
bless
applaud
apprecia
te
approve
argue
arrange
arrest
arrive
ask
boil
bolt
bomb
book
bore
attach
attack
attempt
attend
attract
avoid
branch
breathe
bruise
brush
bubble
173
bare
bat
bathe
battle
blind
blink
blot
blush
borrow
bounce
bow
box
beam
boast
brake
calculat
e
call
camp
care
carry
carve
cause
challen
ge
change
charge
chase
cheat
check
cheer
choke
chop
claim
clap
clean
clear
clip
close
coach
coil
collect
colour
comb
command
compare
compete
complai
n
complet
e
concentr
ate
concern
confess
confuse
connect
consider
consist
contain
continue
copy
correct
disappro
ve
disarm
discover
dislike
divide
double
doubt
drag
drain
dream
chew
dam
damag
e
dance
dare
decay
deceive
decide
decorat
e
delay
communi
cate
deliver
depend
describe
desert
deserve
destroy
detect
develop
disagree
disappear
bump
burn
bury
buzz
cough
count
cover
crack
crash
crawl
cross
crush
cry
cure
curl
curve
cycle
dress
drip
drop
drown
drum
dry
dust
174
delight
earn
educate
embarr
ass
employ
empty
end
enjoy
enter
entertain
escape
excite
excuse
exercise
exist
expand
examine
expect
flash
float
flood
flow
flower
fold
follow
encour
age
face
fade
fail
fancy
fasten
fax
fear
fetch
file
fill
film
fire
fit
fix
fence
flap
fool
gather
gaze
glow
grab
grate
grease
grin
grip
groan
glue
greet
guarant
ee
hamme
r
hand
handle
hang
happen
harm
hate
haunt
head
heal
heat
help
hook
hop
hope
heap
hover
increase
influence
inform
intend
interest
interfere
harass
identify
ignore
imagine
explain
explode
extend
force
form
found
frame
frighten
fry
guard
guess
guide
hug
hum
hunt
hurry
invite
irritate
itch
175
impress
improv
e
include
inject
injure
instruct
interrup
t
introduc
e
invent
jail
jog
joke
juggle
jam
join
judge
jump
kick
kiss
knit
knot
kill
kneel
knock
lighten
like
list
listen
learn
level
license
lick
label
land
last
laugh
load
lock
long
look
launch
lie
live
love
man
manag
e
march
mark
marry
match
matter
measure
meddle
melt
memoris
e
mend
move
muddle
mug
multiply
milk
mine
miss
mix
moan
moor
murder
mourn
mate
mess up
nail
need
nod
notice
name
nest
note
number
offer
open
obtain
occur
obey
object
offend
order
observe
overflo
w
owe
own
prevent
pack
permit
pop
176
paddle
paint
park
part
pass
paste
pat
pause
peck
pedal
peel
peep
phone
pick
pinch
pine
place
plan
plant
play
please
plug
point
poke
possess
post
pour
practise
pray
preach
precede
prefer
prepare
present
preserve
press
perfor
m
polish
pretend
questio
n
queue
race
radiate
rain
raise
reach
realise
receive
recogni
se
record
reduce
refuse
regret
reign
reject
rejoice
relax
release
rely
remain
remembe
r
remove
repair
repeat
replace
reply
report
reprodu
ce
request
rescue
retire
reflect
remind
return
sack
sail
satisfy
save
saw
scare
shiver
shock
shop
shrug
sigh
sign
soothe
sound
spare
spark
sparkle
spell
prick
print
produce
progra
m
promise
protect
provide
pull
pump
punch
punctur
e
punish
push
rhyme
rinse
risk
rob
rock
roll
rot
rub
ruin
rule
rush
stop
store
strap
strengt
hen
stretch
177
scatter
scold
scorch
scrape
scratch
scream
screw
scribble
scrub
seal
search
separat
e
serve
settle
shade
share
shave
signal
sin
sip
ski
skip
slap
slip
slow
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snatch
sneeze
sniff
snore
snow
spill
spoil
spot
spray
sprout
squash
squeak
squeal
squeeze
stain
stamp
stare
start
stay
steer
step
stir
soak
stitch
shelter
talk
tame
tap
taste
tease
telepho
ne
tempt
terrify
test
thaw
tick
tickle
tie
time
tip
tire
touch
tour
tow
trace
trade
train
transpor
t
trap
travel
treat
tremble
trick
trip
thank
undress
unite
unpack
unfaste
n
unlock
untidy
strip
stroke
stuff
subtract
succeed
suck
suffer
suggest
suit
supply
support
suppos
e
surprise
surroun
d
suspect
suspen
d
switch
trot
trouble
trust
try
tug
tumble
turn
twist
type
use
178
vanish
visit
waste
watch
water
wave
weigh
welcome
whine
wail
wait
walk
wander
want
warm
warn
whirl
whisper
whistle
wink
wipe
wish
wobble
wash
whip
wonder
x-ray
yawn
yell
zip
zoom
work
worry
wrap
wreck
wrestle
wriggle
V3
Past Participle
awake
awoke
awoken
be
was, were
been
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
179
bet
bet
bet
bid
bid
bid
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
build
built
built
burn
burned/burnt
burned/burnt
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
drive
drove
driven
drink
drank
drunk
180
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
forgive
forgave
forgiven
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
181
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
learn
learned/learnt
learned/learnt
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read
read
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
182
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
show
showed
showed/shown
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
spend
spent
spent
stand
stood
stood
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
understand
understood
understood
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
183
write
wrote
written
184