EEE 415 ELECTRODYNAMICS & INSULATING MATERIALS

Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.

Two main states
1. Physical
2. Chemical
1. Physical state
There are 3 types
i.
ii.
iii.

Solid
Liquid
Gas

i.Solid

Has definite shape

Has definite volume
Has very strong intermolecular forces(compact)
Not compressible
Can change to liquid or gases

Examples: Rubies, all metals except

wood, glass

ii.Liquids

Some have definite shape

Have weak intermolecular forces
Can change to liquid or solids

Example: mercury, paraffin

iii.Gases

Do not have definite shape

Have weak intermolecular forces
Can change to liquid or solid

Example: air, nitrogen, vapor

2.Chemical states
a) Elements

b) Compounds
c) Mixture
a.Element
This is a pure substance with same kind of atoms
Example: Hydrogen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Helium, Neon, Argon, Lithium, Sodium, Potassium,
Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Boron, Aluminium, Carbon, Silicon, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Oxygen, Sulphur
b.Compounds
These are chemical combinations of two or more elements
Example: H20, CaCO3, NaCl
c.Mixture
Physical combination of two or more elements or compounds
Examples: Githeri, Milk, Colgate
Atom
The smallest unit of an element that cant be broken any further and retain its chemical
properties.
Molecule
The smallest particle of a compound that cant be broken down any further and retain its
chemical property.
Atomic theory
Neil Bohr atomic model

Proton
Positively charged particle (1.6*10^-19)

Neutron
Particle without charge
Electron

Negatively charged particle

Revolve around the nucleus in specified orbits
1.6*10^-19 (charge amount)

Nucleus
Innermost part of the atom that has protons and neutrons
Contributes to the weight of the atom
Orbit/quantum energy level
Pathway of electrons
Shell
A section of an atom where electrons can exist
It consists of subshells and electrons
Number of subshells is same as number of shells e.g. shell no. 4= 4ss
Number of electrons in a shell=2n^2, where n=shell number
For shell number 4
=2n^2=2*4^2=32 electrons
Subshell
Also a section of an atom where electrons can exist within a shell.
No of es=2+4(m_1)
Forbidden Band
A section of an atom where electrons cant exist.
Separates two shells
Theories

1st states that electrons will revolve in specified orbits without emitting or absorbing energy
(stable state)
2nd states that if an electron transits from one energy level to the other, it will either emit or
absorb energy.
E=Ef-Ei= hf
h-planks constant
f-frequency
From a higher to lower energy level it will emit energy and absorb vice-versa
3rd states: the momentum of an electron is given by
=n

Centrifugal energy and centripetal energy equal

Materials used in electrical and electronics eng
Historical perspective of use of materials
The earliest materials used by human beings were stones, wood, skin and horns, bones as tools to
make instruments and can be referred to as Stone Age.
It was followed by Bronze Age, then steel finally electronic age.
Electronic age started around 1940 by the invention of the PNj diode
Future trends
-MEMS and Nano technology (NEMS)
-Use of very light materials
-High temps
-Robots
-Smart materials
-adapting
-Mem resistor
-Biomaterials

Selection and classification of materials

Selection of materials
-Selection of materials depends on their properties and applications
-The selection can be done according to the following categories:
-Manufacturing
-Operational
-Functional
-Cost
Manufacturing
Deals with easy with which the material can be transformed into a product (molding)
For instance- Plasticity
-Ductility
-Machinability
-Finishing
Operational
Deals with environmental operating condition
They include:
-Temperature
-Humidity
-Pressure
-Friction
Functional
Deals with functionality of a material(product). Product is able to perform what it was intended
to perform effectively
They include:

-Strength
-Hardness
-Toughness
-Resistance to wear and corrosion
Cost
Deals with the monetary requirements
It includes cost from the time of acquiring raw materials up to the use of the product
-Raw materials
-Transport
-Storage
-Production
-Marketing
-Maintenance
-Taxes
Material properties to consider
There are several categories of material properties which include
-Electrical properties
-Mechanical properties
-Thermal properties
-Optical properties
-Magnetic properties
-Chemical properties
-Structural properties
Electrical properties
These are properties that indicate the ability of a material to allow current to pass through

They include- Conductance ( G)

-Resistance (R)
-Conductivity ()
-Resistivity ( )
Mechanical properties
Properties that indicate the strength of a material
Include- Tensile
-Impact strength
-Wear resistance
-Corrosion resistance
-Density
Optical properties
The behavior/operation of materials when exposed to light energy
They include
-Refraction index
-Reflectivity
-Absorption coefficient
Magnetic materials
Properties that enable materials to respond to magnetic energy
They include- cohesive
-permeability ()
Magnetic materials are classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic,
antiferromagnetic e.g. iron, ferrite, nickel, cobalt
Chemical properties
They are the internal properties of a material which will determine its ability to react with other
materials.

They include:
-Atomic number
-Atomic weight
-Bonding
-Acidity
-Electronic structure
Material structure
It deals with the way a material is built, mostly the internal structure.
The different structures include:
-Macrostructure
-Microstructure
-Substructure
-Electronic structure
-Nuclear structure
Macrostructure deals with larger particles of a material. It requires a few levels of
magnification and use naked eye microscope.
Microstructure deals with the smaller sizes of a material studied using a microscope.
Substructure deals with much smaller sizes of a material studied using more powerful
magnifying equipment- x-ray.
Electronic structure: Deals with the smaller particles of an atom i.e. electrons studied using
electron spectroscope.
Nuclear structure: Deals with the nucleus of an atom studied using nucleus magnetic resonance
(NMR) (MR)
Material classification
Mostly materials are classified according to their properties and applications
Engineering materials are classified as follows:

-metals, semiconductors, ceramic, biomaterials, polymers, biological materials,

composites, advanced materials, smart materials, quantum dots.
Metals
They allow current and heat to pass through
There are 2 main types
-Ferrous
-Non-ferrous
Ferrous
Have Iron or a high % of the same in them. E.g. iron, ferrites
Non-ferrous
Dont have iron in them e.g. copper, aluminium
NB- most metals form alloys; brass
Ceramic
-They are materials that dont allow current to pass through
-They include most oxides for instance SiO2. Also burnt clay is a ceramic material
-They are commonly applied in insulators in high voltage. Can also be used to construct
capacitor
Polymers
-These are organic materials constructed by use of polymerization.
-They have complex structures of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
-They are categorized into 2;
-Thermoplastics
-Thermosetting
-Thermoplastics: when exposed to heat they become soft and vice-versa. Include nylon,
polythene
-Thermosetting: they dont get soft when exposed to heat energy. Include PVC

Electrical properties of materials

Electrical property will deal with ability of a material to allow current to pass through.
The electrical property determine the classification of materials into 3 categories
1 .conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors
These properties include:
-Amount of free electronics
-Atomic number
-Bonding
-Forbidden band
-Energy gap
-Resistance
-Effect of changes in temperature
1) Amount of free electronics
-These are electrons found in the conduction band of a material.
-The more the number of electrons in the CB the better the conductivity of the material
2) Atomic number
This determines the position of a material (element) in the periodic table and therefore the group
it falls in also determines the number of electrons in the outer shell.
3) Bonding
This is the way atoms are combined together
This includes:
-covalent
-ionic

-metallic
4) Forbidden band
This is the section between the valence band and the conduction band

The size of FB determines classification of a material

5) Energy Gap (Eg)
This is the energy required to move an electron from the VB to the CB. Usually given in terms of
electron volts (ev)
6) Resistance (R)
-Opposition to flow of current in a material
-Measured in ohms
-It is given by R=
R-resistance
-resistivity
A-area
Resistance can also be given by ohms law
I=V/R
R=V/I
Another related property is conductance

G=I/R=
Measured in Siemens (s) Mhos ()
-Resistivity - ability of a material to oppose flow of current
Factors affecting resistivity
-Area, length & resistance
-additionally
-Amount of impurities
-Level of deformation- more
-Pressure and temperature
Conductivity (): ability of a material to allow current to flow through.
Measured in s/m, mhos/m
=1/
Conductivity of a semiconductor material is given by
Intrinsic
=nqn+ qp
Extrinsic conduction
N= qnND
N=donor concentration

N
x
p =qpNA
NA-Acceptor concentration
Dielectric-permittivity ()
The ability of a material to affect the electric field

= ro
- relative permittivity
Comparison of permittivity of a material to that of free space
-measured in F/m
-free space permittivity=8.854x10^-12
-C=
C-capacitance
d-distance
A-area (effective)
-D=E, =D/E
D- charge density
E-electric field
D=G/A

-F=
F-force
G1G2-Pt charges
r-radius, distance between point charges
=
-The dielectric material will be affected by:
-Dielectric constant ()
-Dielectric strength
-Dielectric loss
-According to the above electrical properties materials can be classified as conductors, insulators
and semi-conductors

Conductors
These are materials that allow current to pass through
Characteristics
-Have free electrons
-Have 1 to 3 electrons in the outer shell
-Have metallic bonding
-Have overlapping bonds
-Energy gap is very small or none at all Eg 0eV
-Very low resistance and low resistivity
10-4-10-20 m
Thermal properties of insulating materials
-Insulating materials can be solids, liquids & gases
-Temp & heat affects these materials in one way or another
-At high temps solids can change either liquids or gases whole liquids usually change to gases
-If the materials are exposed to various temp, they undergo thermal deterioration
-Like solids are usually affected more by temp variations than liquids & gases.
-Liquids and gases sometimes can be used to cool down equipment i.e. oil in tx
-One of the main properties that makes them suitable in these apps is good heat conductivity
-Since some of the liquids being used are very expensive and have a high affinity to thieves who
want to sell it, theres a new technology which has been developed to allow the use of gas-air to
cool the transformers.
-One of the main disadvantages of these transformers in the technology used is very expensive
-This could be because its a new technology
-Only a few companies can afford them i.e. safaricom which has these transformers in their data
centers
-Change in temps can also affect electrical properties of insulating materials

-One needs to consider this when selecting an insulating material

Chemical properties of insulating materials
-Insulating materials should not react with the environ since this can affect their insulating
properties
-Solids should not undergo corrosion
-Since this can reduce their thickness therefore increasing their chances to electrical breakdown
-Liquids & gases should not conduct electricity
-They should not react with either elements in the environ
-Liquids & gases should not be combustible
Examples:
Solids: PVC, ceramic, glass, silica side, wood, concrete (limestone), micas
Liquids: oil, pure water
Gases: air, inert gases
Maxwells equations
These are equations used to analyze and study electromagnetic waves as they move from source
(transmitter) to the rx.
They were compiled by Maxwell after being developed by different scientists i.e. Gauss,
Amperes, Ohms, Faraday
Electromagnetic waves
These are signals produced by accelerating electrons
They have electrical and magnetic energy which travel in the same direction perpendicular to one
another
The energy changes from electrical to magnetic & vice-versa i.e. the signal moves from one
location to the other.

They can also be said to be transverse

electric

Time
magnetic

These waves are classified into the following categories

Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultra-violet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves
Maxwells equations in integral form
These equations are derived from different other equations like Gauss, Faradays and Amperes
1) Gauss of electricity
. da=q/o
Surface integral of electrical field (enclosed) is equal to the charge
1) The enclosed area.
E-electric field intensity
A-area
Q-charge
o-free space permittivity (8.85x10-12F/M )
2) Gausss law of magnetic

B-magnetic field intensity

Faradays law of induction

E s
S-length
B-magnetic intensity
t-time
Amperes law

oi + +

o-free space
permeability=4x10-n A/M
i=current
C=speed
Differential form of Maxwells equations
Gauss law of electricity

/o

.D=
Gauss law of magnetism
.B= 0
Faradays law of induction
xE=
Amperes law
xH=Jc+JD
xH=Jc+
Where =divergence =

E electric field intensity which is a vector. Has magnitude and direction also given as E
D electric flux density, D=oE free space D is also a vector sometimes represented by D
B this is magnetic flux density. Also a vector B=oH
Where o=4x10-7
H-this is the magnetic field intensity. It is a vector represented by H
x this is a curl. Can also be represented by

= ax(

ax

ay

az

Ex

Ey

Ez

)- y (

) + az (

-represents the charge density

o-free space permittivity=8.85x10-12F/M
JC-Conduction current density
JD-displacement current density both of which are given by JD=
Maxwells expressions in free space are given by:
Gauss law of electricity

Since =0
Gauss law of magnetism

Faradays law of induction


Amperes law

Since in free space JC=0

-The expressions are used to analyze static charge and constant current & moving charge as well
as varying current
-Static charge produces electric field but not magnetic field
E=F/q
E=q/4r2
-Constant current produces magnetic field but not electric field. This will be in surrounding of
a conductor
-Moving charge and varying current produces both electric and magnetic fields
-For Faradays law of induction with existence of E also there exists H
-Not one of them can exist without other
-The same case applies to amperes law where existence of varying H will give rise to E
Examples
Given an electric field of E=Emsin(wt+ Bz)y
Determine D, B and H in free space
D=E
=oy
D= o E
=oEmsin(wt-Bz) y

ii)xE=B/t
=

ax ay az

0
= ax

ay az

Ey 0

= x(
=

Ey 0

x +

)- ay (

Emsin(wt+Bz) ax] +

Emsin(wt-Bz) x]
Emcos(wt-Bz) x

= Emcos(wt-Bz) x
Integrate both sides
=

Emcos(wt-Bz)

-B =

Emsin(wt-Bz) x

B =

Emsin(wt-Bz) x T

iii) B=oH
H=B/o
H=1/o

az

) + az (

Emsin(wt-Bz) x

Emsin(wt+Bz) az]

Plot for E and H

x

H
z

E
y
Further analysis
xH=
ax

ay az

ax ay az
=

Hx

Hy Hz

= ax(0)- ay(
=-

Hx 0

Hx) + az(

Hx)

Hx ay = - ay Hx

= - ay
= 1/o

[ 1/o

Emsin(wt-Bz)]

Emcos(wt-Bz) y =

= (o Emsin(wt-Bz) y
=wo Emcos(wt-Bz) y
1/o

Emcos(wt-Bz) y= wo Emcos(wt-Bz) y

=1/o

= wo

o/o =w2/B2
w/B=1/( oo)=C=3x10m/s
Proves that above is a wave moving in z direction
(Emsin(wt-Bz) y)
B/ow( Emsin(wt-Bz) x)
= ow/B
1/oo= w2/B2
w/B= 1/( oo)
=o x1/( oo)
= o /( oo)
=( 2o /oo)= (o /o) =377 impedance of free space
Example
Given the following
H=Hmej(wt+Bz) y in free space determine B, D and E. prove that this is a wave moving in z
direction in free space.
Boundary conditions

H2

1
H1

These are conditions that describe the relations between fields, transiting from one medium to
another.
Considering both electric fields and magnetic field relations can be summarized as follows
E
Et1=Et2
Dn1= Dn2
(D1-D2)n12= -s
Tan1
Tan2

= r2

r1

= 0 r
D-electric field density
s change surface density
t-tangential
n-normal
H/(1+t2) =Ht2
Bn1= Bn2
H-H2x n12
Tan1
Tan2

= r2

r1

o =4x10-17H/m
Example
Given a field of H=4x +3 y- 6 z A/m
Transiting from a medium of r1=3 and r2=5 for x<) and x>0 respectively. Determine B1, B2,
H2, 1 and 2
B=H

B1= 1H1= 0r1H1

B1 = 30 (4x +3y- 6z)
B1 = 0 (12x +9y- 18z)
Bn1= Bn2
The x value is the same, the rest will change according to the relative permeability
B1 = 0 (12x + r29y- r218z)
r1
r1
= 0 (12x + x9y- x18z)
= 0 (12x +15y- 30z)
H=B/
H2= B2/( 0 r2)
= 0 (12x +15y- 30z)
5x0
=2.4x +3y- 6z A/m
Magnitude of H2
H2= (2.4x +3y- 6z)
=7.125 A/m
Relating this to x value
Tan2 =Hx2/H2
2=tan-1(Hx2/H2)
= tan-1(2.4/7.125)
=18.62
2=90-2=90-18.62=71.38
=Tan1 =
Tan2

r2
r1

Tan1

r2 Tan2
r1

= xtan71.38=
tan-1(4.947)=78.57
Poisson, Laplace and Helmholtz equations
Poissons equation
This is an equation that describes the relation between fields more so electric field. It is derived
from one of Maxwells equations.
.D=
D=E
. E =
. E =/
-.V=E
Gradient of potential difference
. (-.V)= /
2V=- / Poissons equation
=- /o for free space
For regions without charge the above expression becomes Laplace expression given by
2V=0 Laplace equation
Where 2 is the Laplace operator
Helmholtz equation is related to the above where it is given by
2A +K2A=0
Where
2- Laplace operator
K-Wave number

A-Amplitude
Laplace expression solution can be given in terms of Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
Cartesian
2V=
Cylindrical solution
2V=
Spherical solution
2V=

Example
If the potential at r=0.1m is 0 and the potential at r=0.1m is 100v. Determine E and D for the
above conditions.
Taking the spherical co-ordinates solution, the potential does not depend on and . It depends
on r.
The solution will be given by
2V=

Integrating the above solution once

Integrate again
V=

+B

V= r1+B
For v=0 and v=0.1
0=

+B

For v=100 and r=2

100=

+B

0= 10A +B, B=10A

200=A +2B
200=A +20B
19A=200
A=10.53
B=10A=10x10.53=105.3v
V=
V=

+B
+10.53

-V=E
E=-V
E=- (

+10.53)

E=
E=10.53r2.r
D= E
D=0E for free space
D=10.53 0 r2.rC/m2
Plane wave equations
Plane wave- this is an electromagnetic wave as it appears to an onlooker

It is called a plane wave since it comes as a plane i.e. two dimensions to the onlooker
The plane is x and y in most cases the electric field x in the x direction while magnetic field on
the y direction
H
y

E
x
The plane wave obeys Maxwells equations and therefore its equations are derived from
Maxwells equations
This is done as follows
D= E
B=H
J=E
In free space
=0 charge density
Taking these assumptions, Maxwells equations in terms of time varying quantities will be given
as follows
x H=Jc +JD =E+ jE= (+ j)E
xE=

= jH

x H=0
x E=0
Performing a curl of the curl of H will result to
xx H=(+ j)( x E)
(. H) 2H =(+ j)( x E)

=(+ j)( jH)

But (. H)=0
2H = j(+ j)H
2H=jw (+ j)H
Performing the curl of the curl of E, we obtain
xx E= j( x H)
(. E) 2E = j(+ j)E
2E = j(+ j)E
2E = j(+ j)E
2H =r2H
2E =r2E
rpropagation constant of wave
r+j
attenuation constant
wave number
r2= j(+ j)
r= ( j(+ j))
The and are obtained from the above expression using mathematical analysis
= (

( (1+ (

) 2) 1)

= (

( (1+ (

) 2) +1)

The solution to 2E =r2E is given in Cartesian coordinates from following expression

= r2H
Since the wave is travelling in z direction then above results to

= r2H
Which gives a solution of
H(zt)=Hoe+_rz ejwt H
Solutions of different parameters can be determined considering 3 types of materials which
include partially conducting materials dielectrics and good conductors
The parameters will include; , , n, ,
Partially conducting materials
For the materials and need to be considered
= (

( (1+ (

) 2) 1)

= (

( (1+ (

) 2) +1)

=
=
=

=
Impedance
et=Ex/Hy=(
Assuming that
=0
=0
=
Impedance
=

dielectric

 freespace=

=377

Good conductors
Assume that >>

, I is not considered and

=
=

==
=
=

= skin depth
=1/

Impedance
=

< 45

Group velocity
Velocity of several waves moving together as a group is given by VP=
Phase velocity
Velocity of a wave is given by
VP=
Reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering
The electromagnetic waves for H and E obey the laws of reflection, refraction, diffraction and
scattering as is the case with light energy.
Different media are considered with characteristics
i =r
S ells law

r and

S
S

Reflection coefficient
E

= E =

Transmission coefficient
T=

E
E

ANTENNA
It is a device that changes emf energy to electrical energy and vice versa. Used in transmission
and receiving system.
Antenna parameters
These are parameters used to analyze antennas
Also referred to as antenna property
Include: gain, directivity, radiation pattern, impedance matching, efficiency
Gain
This is the ratio of energy transmitted to that of the i/p energy
This parameter is important in determining the best antenna use for a given frequency. The
higher the better.
Directivity
This is the level of power transmitted in a given direction to the average power transmitted in all
directions
Radio transmitter antennas do not require to be directive while satellite antennas require.
Directive

Not directive

Radiation pattern

Given the distribution of electric on magnetic field with respect to a given angle.

Omni direction

Side lobe
Back lobe

Main lobe

Efficiency
Ratio of output to power it can go up to 90%
Impedance matching
Process of making two impedances between two devices look same for max power transfer
Important in compiling different devices to avoid power reflection (loss)
NB: Add more info for instance equations
Examples of antennas: dipole, yagi uda, horn antenna, parabolic, patch antennas