YIELD LINE THEORY AND ANALYSIS

1. In general, the various methods for the design and analysis of slabs apply only to
those that are square or rectangular supported on two parallel sides or on all four
sides. The loads must also be uniformly distributed and there must not be large
openings on the panel. In practice, however, this is not always the case. There are
slabs that are triangular, circular, and trapezoidal; there are rectangular panels
supported on three sides only and sustain concentrated loads in addition to a
uniform load.
Yield line Analysis can be used under these conditions.
2. Yield Line Analysis of slabs is a method based on the formation of heavy cracks along
lines dividing the slab into segments. The slab deforms and folds along these lines
immediately before failure. Each line, called yield line, is actually a series of plastic
hinges in a straight line formed between adjacent slab segments. As such, the yield
line serves as an axis of rotation for the segment.
3. It may be recalled that a plastic hinge along a beam is formed when the external
moment at any section attains a magnitude equal to the flexural strength of that
same section. If the beam is simply supported, deflection in the plastic hinge
increases without any increase in the bending load until the structure collapses.
4. Thinking of a slab as a group of identical wide and shallow beams placed side by side
to each other, the series of plastic hinges formed creates the yield line.
5. Consider for instance a slab with a uniform load and simply supported on two
parallel edges. With the maximum moment occurring at midspan only, the yield line
is expected to occur there inasmuch as that is where moment is significant and
peaks.
6. In indeterminate structures, however, the formation of a single plastic hinge does
not immediately cause collapse as the structure tends to redistribute the moments.
With moment redistribution, plastic hinges also form at different sections until the
structure totally fails.
7. Say a slab is fixed at both ends and carries a uniform load. The maximum negative
moment occurs at the supports so the yield lines are expected to form there but the
slab does not fail because the moment is redistributed. As the load increases, a third
yield line forms at midspan where maximum positive moment occurs. It is only when
this third yield line is formed that the slab will collapse.
8. The foregoing concepts apply to slabs in general. Cracks are initially formed, then
with increasing load, the cracks propagate gradually forming a yield line. Several
1

such yield lines may be formed as the bending moments are redistributed to
adjacent portions. Finally, the slab fails. This development of yield lines relative to
failure is called a mechanism.
9. Analysis by yield lines is an upperbound method. This is because the computed
moment capacity of the slab is greater than the actual strength. Nevertheless, the
method is useful inasmuch as it may be resorted to in slabs that cannot be analyzed
by other methods due to unusual configuration. The use of a strength reduction
factor is therefore advantageous in this case.
10. Yield Line Analysis assumes the following :

The strength of the slab is controlled by flexure;

The slab is ductile (the steel ratio is way below the balanced steel ratio)
enabling it to rotationally deform and redistribute the moments allowing
other yield lines to form and propagate until it finally fails;
The ratio of the span to the slab thickness (L/h) is within 10 to 40. Slabs within
this range are called medium-thick slabs.

Patterns of Yield Lines and Notational Symbols

11. To use yield line analysis, the orientation and location of the yield line must first be
approximated. The mechanism leading to failure must also be visualized.
The following are aids in drawing yield lines:

Lines must be straight;

Lines must extend to the edges of the slab;
Lines may intersect with other yield lines;
Lines terminate at the point of intersection;
Lines must pass through the intersection of the axes of rotation of adjacent slab
segments.
If the axes of rotations are parallel, the yield line must similarly be parallel.
An axis of rotation passes through a column

As shown in the following figures, axes of rotations, in general, are found along lines
of support.

12. To identify supports, yield lines and axes of rotation in a slab, some of the following
symbols are used in these notes:

Simple support

Fixed support

Free or unsupported edge

Axis of rotation

Yield line for positive moment

Yield line for negative moment

Yield Line Analysis Using the Principle of Virtual Work

13. In view of equilibrium, the sum external work done by the loads to cause a small
arbitrary virtual deflection and the internal work done as the slab rotates at the yield
lines to accommodate the deflection, must be zero; the two are equal.
We, external work = Wi, internal work
14. The external work is equal to the product of the constant magnitude of the load and
the distance through which the point of application of the load moves.
15. For instance, if we let the resultant load (or concentrated load as the case maybe) be
R, and the virtual displacement is arbitrarily assigned a unit value, then:
external work, We = (R) (1)
16. If the load is not concentrated but instead distributed over an area or length, the
external work is the product of the resultant and the displacement of the point of
application of its resultant.
17. The internal work, on the other hand, is the sum of the products of the yield
moments per unit length (that is, the moment strength of the slab section normal to
the yield line), the length of the yield line, and the plastic rotation corresponding to
the virtual deflection.
18. The yield moment is the ultimate flexural strength of a section at the yield line. If mu
is the ultimate flexural strength, l the length of the yield line, and the rotation,
then:
internal work, Wi = mu l
19. If the bar spacing or bar size in the slab change along a yield line, the flexural
strength of the slab also varies. In this case the yield line may be divided into a
number of segments such that each segment has a constant slab section.
The internal work becomes:
Wi = (m1 l1 + m2 l2 + m3 l3 ++ mn ln )
Flexural Strength Along Yield lines
20. As noted earlier on, the moment used in calculating the internal work is the flexural
strength of the section normal to the yield line. Frequently, however, yield lines
formed in a slab are not normal to the reinforcement. Furthermore, in a number of

slabs such as two way slabs, the steel bars run in two directions perpendicular to
each other (the slab is said to be orthotropic) with different effective depths. With
the yield lines skewed and reinforcements running in two directions, there will be
moment capacities in the orthogonal directions. In such as case, the flexural strength
along the yield line must be the moment with contributions from the two directions.
The moment is given by:
Mu = mux cos2 + muy sin2
where:
= angle with of the yield line with respect the x-axis
mu = flexural strength of the slab section normal to the yield line
mux = flexural strength of the slab section normal to the x-axis
muy = flexural strength of the slab section normal to the y-axis

21. If reinforcement is the same in both directions, slab reinforcement is said to be

isotropic, so that

mux = muy . When this is the case, mu = mux = muy

Rotation of Yield Lines

22. The rotation of the yield line from its original horizontal position is evaluated by
drawing a line from its initial position to the rotated position as viewed in a vertical
plane. Rotation is relative to the segments on both sides of the yield line.

Yield Line Patterns in Rectangular Slabs Supported on All Edges

23. The simplified yield line pattern in rectangular slabs supported on all edges is as
shown. In reality however, the yield line forks as it nears the edge, forming corner
levers. The presence of the corners levers is generally neglected because
computations will be more tedious if this were considered. Besides, the difference in
calculations may not really be significant.

Yield Line in Triangular Slabs Supported on Two Edges

24. As shown, the yield line, inclined at an unknown angle, passes through the
intersection of the axes of rotation and intercepts the free edge.

For instance, in the following figure, the yield line intercepting the free edge is
inclined with respect the horizontal at an angle . There exist a specific angle of
that yield line corresponding to the largest load the slab can safely sustain (the
smallest load at which the slab can fail) can be computed.

Recall that, depending on the kind of support, there may or may not be yield lines
parallel to the supports.

At very small slopes, assume = 1 at point O.

First note that the yield line intersects the free edge at an unknown point O at an
unknown angle. Then the green line drawn is perpendicular to the yield line at point
O and intersects the axes of rotation in order to determine the segment rotation .

The internal and external work can then be expressed in an equation having
unknown dimensions and/or angles expressed in terms of another as parameters.
One of the variables in the equation, say x, can be gradually increased so as to
determine the corresponding changes relative to the yield line and the load.
Yield Lines in Rectangular Slabs Supported on Three Edges
25. With three sides supported and the fourth edge unsupported, the free edge is
intercepted by yield lines emanating from the corners. The lines are inclined at an
unknown angle as illustrated below.

As before, to determine rotations, a straight line is drawn perpendicular to the yield line
at the point where a virtual displacement of = 1 (point O in the figure) is imposed.

10

Yield Line Patterns Due To Concentrated Loads

26. When a slab fails due to the action of a concentrated load away from the corner or
edge of the slab, negative yield lines form a nearly circular pattern while positive
yield lines radiate from the point of application of the concentrated load.

The collapse load is:

Pu = 2 ( mp + mn)
Where:
Pu = Concentrated load at which the slab will fail
mp = positive resisting moment per unit length
mn = negative resisting moment per unit length

11

Illustrative Problems
Problem 1
The slab shown is considered to be simply supported on its two edges. Find the
maximum load Wu, the slab can carry using virtual work method.
fc=20 MPa
fy =415 MPa

Solution:
Being simply supported, only a positive yield line is formed located at midspan.
Note that there are two axes of rotation, one at each parallel support.
Also, since the axes of rotations are parallel, the yield line is parallel them.

12

As shown, the yield line divides the slab into two equal segment or plates of equal area.
Under its failure load, each side of the slab rotates about its end supports as a rigid
body.
Assume a unit value of deflection corresponding with very small slopes.

=1

1.8
1
radian
A = B =
1.8

A = B =

= total rotation

= A + B
1 1
radian
=
1.8 0.9

= 2

Determine the internal work

Wi = ml

Since the yield line is perpendicular to the slab reinforcement, consider a unit strip of
slab also perpendicular to the yield line.

13

b = 1000mm
d = 200 30 = 170mm

As = n

db 2

b 2
db
s 4
1000
(16) 2
As =
275 4
As = 731.13mm 2
As =

As
bd

731
= 0.0043
(1000)(170)
fy
M n = bd 2 fy (1 0.59 )
fc

(415)
2

M n = ( 0.0043)(1000 )(170 ) ( 415 ) 1 0.59(0.0043)

20

14

M n = 48857155.46 N .mm / meter

M n = 48.86 KN .m / meter

= 0.90
m = M n = 43.97 KN .m / m
Notice that the reduced nominal strength is the flexural strength per meter of slab along
the yield line.

Thus,
Wi = ml
Where: l = 2.4m
KN .m

Wi = 43.97
radian
(2.4m)
m

0.9

Wi = 117.25KN .m

Compute the external work

We= sum of the products of the resultant loads on each segment and the displacement
of the point of action of the resultant

15

Using a unit displacement at the yield line, = 1

At point where the resultant acts, displacement is

1
=
2 2

Work done by the two segments,

1
1
We = (1.8)(2.4)Wu ( ) + (1.8)(2.4 )Wu ( )
2
2
We = 4.32Wu

Internal work = external work

Wi = We
117.25 = 4.32Wu
117.25
4.32
KN
Wu = 27.14 2
m
Wu = 27.14 KPa
Wu =

16

Problem 2
Let the slab in problem 1 be fixed on one side and on a simply supported on the other
side. Negative bars are also provided on the fixed edge, as shown. Calculate the failure
load Wu.

Solution
Two parallel yield lines are formed- a negative yield line at the fixed support and a
positive yield line between supports.
Let the yield line between supports be located at an unknown distance x from the fixed
edge.
Assume a virtual deflection of 1 unit at the yield line with corresponding rotations of A
and B

17

A =

1
x

B =

1
(3.6 x )

The total rotation @ C is:

c = A + B
c =

1
1
+
x (3.6 x )

Find the internal work, Wi

Wi = mA Al A + mCC l C
Consider a meter strip of slab, so that b=1 m =1000 mm

18

Unit strip with bars perpendicular to the negative yield line at the fixed support

mA = bd 2 fy (1 0.59

fy
)
fc

1000
2
(16 )
200 4
= 1005.31mm 2
As =

1005.31
= 0.006
(1000 )(170 )

415

mA = 0.90(0.006)(1000)(170) 2 (415) 1 0.59(0.006)

20

mA = 60007594.28 N .mm
mA = 60.01KN .m / m

Determine mC
Unit strip with bars perpendicular to the positive yield line between supports

19

mC = bd 2 fy (1 0.59

fy
)
fc

1000
2
(16 )
275 4
As = 731.13mm 2
As =

731.13
= 0.0043
(1000 )(170 )

415
2

mC = 0.90 ( 0.0043)(1000 )(170 ) ( 415 ) 1 0.59 ( 0.0043)

20

mC = 4.3971439.91N .mm
mC = 43.97 KN .m / m

1
1
1
Wi = (60.01)( )(2.4) + (43.97 )( +
)(2.4)
x
x 3.6 x
144.024 105.528 10.5.528
Wi =
+
+
x
x
(3.6 x )
249.55 105.528
Wi =
+
x
3.6 x
Compute external work

20

1
1
We = Wu ( x )(2.4 ) + Wu (3.6 x )(2.4 )
2
2
We = 1.2Wu X + 1.2Wu (3.6 x )

We = 4.32Wu
Wi = We
277.296 117.264
= 4.32Wu
x
3.6 x
249.55 105.528
+
x
(3.6 x ) = W
u
4.32
57.766 24.428
+
=W
x
(3.6 x ) u
57.766 24.428
Wu =
+
(1)
x
(3.6 x )
To obtain the critical value of Wu, find the value of x that minimizes Wu.
Find the first derivative of Wu with respect to x then set to zero.

dWu x(0 ) 57.766(1) (3.6 x )(0 ) 24.428(0 1)

=
+
dx
( x )2
(3.6 x )2
dWu 57.766
24.428
=
+
2
dx
x
(3.6 x )2
O=

24.428
57.766
+
2
x
(3.6 x )2

( )

O = 57.766(3.6 x ) + 24.428 x 2 + 24.428 x 2

2

O = 748.65 + 415.92 x 57.766 x 2 + 24.428 x 2

O = 748.65 + 415.92 x 33.338 x 2
33.338 x 2 415.92 x + 748.65 = 0
x=
x=
x(+ )

( 415.92 )+

(415.92)2 4(33.338)(748.65)
2(33.338)

415.92+ 270.473
66.676
= 10.294, discard

x( ) = 2.181

21


x = 2.181m

Substitute in equation 1

57.766
24.428
+
2.181 (3.6 2.181)
KN
WU = 43.70 2
M
WU = 43.70 KPa
WU =

Note:
In this problem, it so happened that the resulting equation is easy to solve.
For other situations, successive approximations may be done to obtain the solution.
Problem 3
A simply supported two-way slab is reinforced in the short direction with in 12mm bars
spaced @ 125 mm o.c., and 12mm bars @ 150mm o.c. in the long direction.
Determine the magnitude of the uniformly distributed failure load producing the yield
line pattern shown.
fc = 20MPa fy = 275MPa

22

NOTE: This given pattern may not be the critical pattern at failure.
Solution:
Find the flexural strengths in the X and Y directions
Consider a unit strip of slab in both directions

23

SHORT DIRECTION (4 m span; bars parallel to the y-axis)

1000
(12)2 = 904.78mm 2
125 4
904.78
=
= 0.007
(1000)(124)
As =

NOTE: Bars in the y-direction resist bending with respect the x-axis and therefore
provide a moment resistance mx per unit length

fy
mX = bd S 2 fy 1 0.59

fc

( 275)
2
mx = ( 0.007 )(1000 )(124 ) ( 275 ) 1 0.59 ( 0.007 )

20

mX = 25126162.34 N .mm
mX = 25.13KN .m / m

LONG DIRECTION (6 m span; bars parallel to the x-axis)

24

1000
(12)2 = 753.98mm 2
150 4
753.98
=
= 0.0067
(1000)(112)
As =

NOTE: Bars in the x-direction resist bending with respect the y-axis and therefore
provide a moment resistance my per unit length

( 275)
2
my = 0.90 ( 0.0067 )(1000 )(112 ) ( 275 ) 1 0.59 ( 0.0067 )

20

my = 19670470.87 N .mm
my = 19.67 KN .m / m

Considering the inclined yield line, the moment normal to the line is:
m = mX cos 2 + my sin 2

( )

( )

m = 25.13cos 2 450 + 19.67 sin 2 450

m = 22.40 KN .m

Determine yield line rotations

25

As before, assume a virtual deflection of = 1 at the center of the slab at point f and
along c as shown. Obviously, in this case, a = b = d. Moreover, note that d is drawn
simply as an extension of a in order to determine the rotation.

Rotation of inclined yield line b (due to symmetry, the rotation is the same for all
inclined yield lines)

Where: a = d = 2 2
1
1
af = =
a 2 2
1
1
df = =
d 2 2

ad = total rotation of inclined yield line

26

 ad =
ad =

1
2 2
1+1

ad =
ad =

2
1

+
=

1
2 2
2
2 2

2
1
2

2
2

2
2
= 0.707radian

ad =
ad

Since all inclined lines have the same rotations,

let;
i = 0.707 radian for each inclined line
Rotation of horizontal yield line, h

h = L + R
1
2
h = 1

h = +

1
2

Compute internal work done

Wi = ml
Wi = mi l ii + mX l h h

27

Where:
l i = Total length of inclined yield lines
l h = Length of horizontal yield lines
mi = m
li = 8
l h = 2m

( )

Wi = 4 ( 22.40 ) 8 ( 0.707 ) + ( 25.13)( 2 )(1)

Wi = 229.374 KN .m

Find external work done

Let:
Wu= magnitude uniform load over the slab in each segment. The resultant of Wu, passes
through the centroid of the corresponding segment, as shown in the following
figure identified as points 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8. The corresponding
deviations/deflections of those points are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, with
resultants R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8, respectively.

Resultant = (WU ) (area)

28

R1 = WU (2 )(2 ) = 2WU
2

1
1
1
1 = = (1) =
3
3
3
1

R2 = WU (4)(2) = 4WU
2

1
1
2 = =
3
3
1

R3 = WU (2 )(2 ) = 4WU
2

1
3 =
3
R4 = WU [(2)(2)] = 4WU
1
(1) = 0.5
2
R5 = 4WU

4 =

5 = 0.5

R6 = 2WU
1
3
R7 = 4WU

6 =

1
3
R8 = 2WU

7 =

1
3
We = R1 1 + R2 2 + R3 3 + R4 4 + R5 5 + R6 6 + R7 7 + R8 8
8 =

1
1
1
1
We = 2WU + 4WU + 2WU + 4WU (0.5) + 4WU (0.5) + 2WU
3
3
3
3
1
1
+ 4WU + 2WU
3
3
We = 9.33WU

29

Wi = We
229.374 = 9.33WU
KN
m2
WU = 24.56 KPa
WU = 24.56

30