4.4.

1 Forced Vibrations From Harmonic Excitation

As discussed earlier, forced vibrations are one very important practical mechanism for the
occurrence of vibrations.

F(t)
m
x
k

Fig. 4.10: Sdof Oscillator with Viscous Damping and External Force
The equation of motion of the damped linear sdof oscillator with an external force is:
m&x& + cx& + kx = F (t )

(4.4.1)

The general solution of this differential equation is:

x(t ) =

(t ) +
x
1hom
23

free vibrations

(t )
x
1part
23

(4.4.2)

results from external force

which consists of the homogeneous part resulting from the free vibration and the particular
part resulting from the external disturbance F(t). The homogeneous solution has already been
treated in the last chapter.

3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Fig 4.11: Homogeneous and particular part of the solution and superposition
99

While the homogeneous part of the solution will decay to zero with time we are especially
interested in the stationary solution.
4.4.2

Excitation with Constant Force Amplitude

4.4.1.1 Real Approach

The excitation function is harmonic, is the frequency of excitation

F (t ) = F cos t

(4.4.3)

Eqn. 4.4.1 becomes

m&x& + cx& + kx = F cos t

(4.4.4)

Dividing by the mass m

&x& +

c
k
F
x& + x = cos t
m
m
m

(4.4.5)

Introducing again the dimension less damping and the natural circular frequency
2D =

c
m 0

and

02 =

k
m

and the amplitude

F
f =
m
This yields:

(4.4.6)

&x& + 2 D 0 x& + 02 x = f cos t

(4.4.7)

To solve this differential equation, we make an approach with harmonic functions

x(t ) = A cos t + B sin t

(4.4.8)

This covers also a possible phase lag due to the damping in the system. Differentiating (4.4.8)
to get the velocity and the acceleration and putting this into eqn. 4.4.7 leads to
2 A cos t 2 B sin t + 2 D 0 (A sin t + B cos t ) + 02 ( A cos t + B sin t )
= f cos t

(4.4.9)
After separating the coefficients of the sin- and cos-functions and comparing the coefficients
we get:
2 A + 2 D 0 B + 02 A = f

(4.4.10a)

100

 2 B 2 D 0 A + 02 B = 0

(4.4.10b)

From the second equation we see that

2 B + 02 B = 2 D 0 A

which leads to
B=

2 D 0

A
2
and we put this result into eqn.(4.4.10a):
2
0

2 A + 2 D 0

2 D 0
( 02

A + 02 A = f

2
4 D 2 02 2
2
A = f
( 0 ) + 2
2
( 0 )

[(

2
0

2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 02 2 A = f ( 02 2 )

This yields the solution for A and B:

A =

[(

f ( 02 2 )
2
0

2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 02 2

(4.4.11a)

(4.4.11b)

and
B =

[(

f (2 D 0 )
2
0

2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 02 2

Introducing the dimensionless ratio of frequencies

Excitation frequency

=
0
Natural frequency

A =

(4.4.12)

( f / 02 )(1 2 )

(4.4.13a)

(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2

and
B =

( f / 02 )( 2 D )

(4.4.13b)

(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2

With A and B we have found the solution for x(t ) = A cos t + B sin t .

101

Another possibility is to present the solution with amplitude and phase angle:
x(t ) = C cos(t )

(4.4.14)

The amplitude is
C=

A2 + B 2 =

1
2 2

2 2

(1 ) + 4 D

02

(4.4.15)

Considering that f = F / m and 02 = k / m we get

C=

1
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2

F
k

(4.4.16)

Introducing the dimensionless magnification factor V1 which only depends on the frequency
ratio and the damping D :
V1 ( , D) =

1
2 2

(4.4.17)

2 2

(1 ) + 4 D

we get the amplitude as

F
C = V1
k

(4.4.18)

and the phase angle (using trigonometric functions similar as in chap.4.2.2) :

B
2 D
tan = ( ) =
A 1 2

(4.4.19)

We can see that as approaches 1 the amplitude grows rapidly, and its value near or at the
resonance is very sensitive to changes of the damping D.
The maximum of the magnification curve for a given D can be found at

res = 1 2 D 2 =

res

(4.4.20)

If D is very small then res 1 . The maximum amplitude for this D then is
C max =

F
F
1
V1 ( res , D) =
k
k 2D 1 D 2

(4.4.21)

For 0: V11: the system behaves quasi-statically, for very large values of : V1 0: the
vibrations are very small.

102

10
9

D=0,05

V1 =

1
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2

V1

D=0,1
D=0,2

4
3

D=0,3
D=0,5
D=0,7071

2
1
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

=
0

D=0,05

D=0,1

D=0,2

D=0,5

D=0,7071

180

D=0

150

120

90

= arctan

60

2D
1 2

30

0.

1.

2.

3.

4.

=
0

Fig.4.12: Magnification factor V1 and phase angle to describe the vibration behavior of the
damped oscillator under constant force amplitude excitation

103

4.4.1.2 Complex Approach

Let us first recall that we can represent a real harmonic functions by a complex exponential
function using
e it = cos t + i sin t
From this we can derive that
cos t =

e it + e it
2

(4.4.22)

sin t =

e it e it
2i

(4.4.23)

and

The harmonic force is

F
F
F
F (t ) = F cos t = (e it + e it ) = e it + e it
2
2
2

(4.4.24)

This means that we have to solve the equation of motion twice, for the exp(it) and the
exp(-it) term. For the first step we make the approach
x1 (t ) = x1e + it
x 2 (t ) = x 2 e

(4.4.25a)

it

(4.4.25b)

Putting both approaches into the equation of motion yields

( 2 m + ic + k ) x1e it =
( 2 m ic + k ) x 2 e it

F it
e
2
F
= e it
2

(4.4.26a)
(4.4.26b)

Dividing by k and introducing the frequency ratio (eqn.(4.4.12))

F
F
and
(1 2 ) + 2 D i x1 =
(1 2 ) 2 D i x 2 =
2k
2k

(4.4.27)

The solution for x1 and x2 are

x1

F
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2 2k

(4.4.28a)

x 2

F
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2 2k

(4.4.28b)

(1 2 ) 2 D i

(1 2 ) + 2 D i

104

As we can see, the solution of one part is the conjugate complex of the other:
x1 = x 2

(4.4.29)

The solution for x(t) is combined from the two partial solutions, which we just have found:
x(t ) = x1e it + x 2 e it

(4.4.30)

This can be resolved:

x(t ) = x1 cos t + ix1 sin t + x 2 cos t + ix 2 sin t

and using the fact that x1 = x 2 , we finally get

x(t ) = 2 Re{x1 }cos t 2 Im{x1 }sin t

(4.4.31)

The factor of 2 compensates the factor associated with the force amplitude. All the
information can be extracted from x1 only so that only this part of the solution has to be
solved.
x(t ) =

2 D
F
F
sin t
cos

t
+
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2 k
(1 2 ) 2 + 4 D 2 2 k
(1 2 )

(4.4.32)

which is the same result as eqn. (4.4.8) with (4.4.13).

Also the magnitude ( x1 ) and phase can be obtained in the same way and yield the previous
results:
x =

Magnitude:

1
1
F = V1 ( , D ) F
k
(1 ) + 4 D 3 k
14442444

(4.4.33)

magnificat ion factor V1

tan =

Phase:

Im{x1 } 2 D
=
Re{x1 } 1

(4.4.34)

4.4.1.3 Complex Approach, Alternative

Instead of eqn. (4.4.24), we can write
F

F
F (t ) = F cos t = (e it + e it ) = 2 Re e it
2
2

or

F (t ) = F cos t = Re Fe it

(4.4.35)
105

According to this approach, we formulate the steady state response as

x(t ) = Re Xe it

(4.4.36)

The complex amplitude X is determined from the equation of motion, solving

{(

} {

Re 2 m + ic + k Xe it = Re Fe it

(4.4.37)

The real parts are equal if the complex expression is equal:

( 2 m + ic + k )Xe it = Fe it

(4.4.38)

Elimination of the time function yields:

( 2 m + ic + k )X = F

(4.4.39)

The expression in brackets is also called the dynamic stiffness

k dyn () = k 2 m + ic

(4.4.40)

Now we solve (4.4.39) to get the complex amplitude:

X =

(k 2 m + ic)

(4.4.41)

The expression
H () =

(k 2 m + ic)

X Output
=
Input
F

(4.4.42)

is the complex Frequency Response Function (FRF). Introducing the dimensionless frequency
as before yields:
X =

F
1 2 + i 2 D k

Because

(4.4.43)

} {

} {

x cos(t ) = x Re e i (t ) = Re xe i e it = Re Xe it

(4.4.44)

we take the magnitude x and phase lag of this complex result

X () = xe i

(4.4.45)

which leads to the same result as before, see (4.4.33) and (4.4.34):
106

x =

1
1
F = V1 ( , D ) F
k
(1 ) + 4 D 3 k
14442444

(4.4.33)

magnificat ion factor V1

tan =

4.4.2

{}
{}

2 D
Im X
=

Re X

(4.4.34)

Harmonic Force from Imbalance Excitation

mk
2

mk
2

mM
c

k
2

k
2

Fig. 4.13: Sdof oscillator with unbalance excitation

The total mass of the system consists of the mass mM and the two rotating unbalance masses
mu :
m
(4.4.46)
m = mM + 2 U
2
The disturbance force from the unbalance is depending on the angular speed , is the
excentricity:
FUnbalance (t ) = mU cos t

(4.4.47)

Now, following the same way as before (real or complex) leads to the solution:
x(t ) = C cos(t )
where
Amplitude:

x = C =

(1 ) + 4 D

mU
m
= V3 ( , D ) U
m
m

(4.4.48)
107

tan =

Phase:

2 D
1

Magnification factor V3 ( , D ) =

(4.4.49)

(4.4.50)

(1 ) + 4 D

The phase is the same expression as in the previous case, however, the magnification factor is
different, because the force amplitude is increasing with increasing angular speed.
10
9

D=0,05

V3 =

2 2

(1 ) + 4 D 22

7
6

V3

D=0,1
D=0,2
D=0,3
D=0,5
D=0,7071

5
4
3
2
1
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

=
0

Fig. 4.14: Magnification factor V3 for the case of imbalance excitation

As can be seen: for 0: V10: there is no force if the system is not rotating or rotates only
slowly, for very large values of : V1 1: that means that the mass m is vibrating with an
amplitude ( mu/m), but the common center of gravity of total system m and mu does not
move.

108

4.4.3

Support Motion / Ground Motion

4.4.3.1 Case 1

u(t)
k
m

Fig. 4.15: Excitation of the sdof oscillator by harmonic motion of one spring end

The equation of motion for this system is

m&x& + cx& + kx = ku (t )

(4.4.51)

Under harmonic excitation:

u (t ) = u cos t

(4.4.52)

The mathematical treatment is nearly identical to the first case, only the excitation function is
different: the excitation F / k is replaced by u here. This leads to the result for the amplitude
of vibration
Amplitude:

x =

(1 ) + 4 D 3
14442444

u = V1 ( , D ) u

(4.4.53)

mag . functionV1

The magnification factor again is V1. Also, the phase relation is identical as before:
Phase:

tan =

2 D
1

(4.4.54)

109

4.4.3.2 Case 2

x
c

u(t)
Fig. 4.16: Excitation of the sdof oscillator by harmonic motion of the spring/damper
combination

The equation of motion now also contains the velocity u& :

m&x& + cx& + kx = cu& + ku

(4.4.55)

Amplitude of vibration and phase shift becomes

Amplitude:

x =

1 + 4 D

(1 ) + 4 D 3
14442444

u = V2 ( , D ) u

(4.4.56)

Magn. function V2

Phase:

tan =

2 D
(1 ) + 4 D

(4.4.57)

As can be seen the phase now is different due to the fact that the damper force depending on
the relative velocity between ground motion and motion of the mass plays a role. The
amplitude behaviour is described by the magnification factor V2.

110

D=0,05

V2 =

V2

(12 ) 2 + 4 D 22

D=0,1
D=0,2

D=0,3
D=0,5
D=0,7071

1+ 4 D 22

=
0

Fig. 4.17: Magnification factor V2 for the case of ground excitation via spring and
damper
Notice that all curves have an intersection point at = 2 which means that for > 2
higher damping does not lead to smaller amplitudes but increases the amplitudes. This is due
to the fact that larger relative velocities (due to higher frequencies ) make the damper stiffer
and hence the damping forces.
Further cases of ground motion excitation are possible.

111

4.4 Excitation by Impacts

4.5.1 Impact of finite duration
F(t)

F(t)

m
x

F
c

t
Ti

Fig. 4.18: Sdof Oscillator under impact loading

We consider an impact of finite length Ti and constant force level during the impact The
impact duration Ti is much smaller than the period of vibration T:
Ti << T =

With the initial condition that there is no initial displacement x0 = 0 we can calculate the
velocity by means of the impulse of the force
Ti

p = mv0 = F dt =F Ti
0

This leads to the initial velocity :

v0 =

FTi
m

(4.5.1)

Using the results of the viscously damped free oscillator for D < 1,
x(t ) = e

A cos 1 D 0 t + B sin 1 D 0 t
1
4
2
4
3
1
4
2
4
3

D
D

D 0t

we can immediately find the result with the initial conditions x0 and v0:

112

(4.5.2)

x0 = 0 A = 0

v0 =

and

F Ti
v0
v
B=
= 0
m
0 1 D D

(4.5.3)

so that the system response to the impact is a decaying oscillation where we have assumed
that the damping D < 1:
x(t ) =

v0

e D0t sin ( D t )

(4.5.4)

4.5.2 DIRAC-Impact

t
Fig. 4.19: DIRAC-Impact

The DIRAC-Impact is defined by

0
F (t ) = F (t ) (t ) =

t0
t=0

, but (t )dt = 1

(4.5.5)

is the Kronecker symbol. The duration of this impact is infinitely short but the impact is
infinitely large. However, the integral is equal to 1 or F , respectively. For the initial
displacement x0 = 0 and calculation of the initial velocity following the previous chapter, we
get
x(t ) =

F
e D0t sin ( D t )
m D

(4.5.6)

For F = 1 , the response x(t) is equal to the impulse response function (IRF) h(t)

113

h(t ) =

1
e D0t sin ( D t )
m D

(4.5.7)

The IRF is an important characteristic of a dynamic system in control theory.

4.5 Excitation by Forces with Arbitrary Time Functions

F
F()

Fig. 4.20: Interpretation of an arbitrary time function as series of DIRAC-impulses

Using the results of the previous chapters we can solve the problem of an arbitrary time
function F(t) as subsequent series of Dirac-impacts, where the initial conditions follow from
the time history of the system.
The solution is given by the Duhamel-Integral or convolution integral:
t

x(t ) =

1
m D

D 0 (t )

sin( D (t )) F ( ) d = h(t ) F ( ) d

(4.6.1)

As can be seen, the integral contains the response of the sdof oscillator with respect to a
DIRAC-impact multiplied with the actual force F(), which is integrated from time 0 to t.

114

4.7 Periodic Excitations

4.7.1 Fourier Series Representation of Signals

Periodic signals can be decomposed into an infinite series of trigonometric functions, called
Fourier series.

Fig. 4.21: Scheme of signal decomposition by trigonometric functions

t
T
Fig. 4.22: Example of a periodic signal: periodic impacts

The period of the signal is T and the corresponding fundamental frequency is

=

2
T

(4.7.1)
115

Now, the periodic signal x(t) can be represented as follows

a
x(t ) = 0 + ak cos(kt ) + bk sin(kt )
2 k =1

(4.7.2)

The Fourier-coefficients a0, ak and bk must be determined. They describe how strong the
corresponding trigonometric function is present in the signal x(t). The coefficient a0 is the
double mean value of the signal in the interval 0T:
a0 =

2T
x(t )dt
T0

(4.7.3)

and represents the off-set of the signal. The other coefficients can be determined from
ak =

2T
x(t ) cos(kt )dt
T 0

(4.7.4)

bk =

2T
x(t ) sin (kt )dt
T0

(4.7.5)

The individual frequencies of this terms are

k = k =

2k
T

(4.7.6)

for k = 1 we call the frequency 1 fundamental frequency or basic harmonic and the
frequencies for k = 2,3, the second, third, harmonic (or generally higher harmonics).
4.7.1.1 Alternative real Representation
We can write the Fourier series as a sum of cosine functions with amplitude ck and a phase
shift k
x(t ) = c0 +

ck cos(kt + k )

(4.7.7)

k =1

ck = ak2 + bk2

and

k = arctan(

bk
)
ak

(4.7.8)

4.7.1.2 Alternative complex Representation

The real trigonometric functions can also be transformed into complex exponential
expression:

116

x(t ) =

X k eik t

(4.7.9)

k =

The Xk are the complex Fourier coefficients which can be determined by solving the integral:
Xk =

1T
ikt
dt
x(t )e
T0

(4.7.10a)

Xk =

1T
x(t )[cos kt i sin kt ]dt
T 0

(4.7.10b)

or

which clearly shows the relation to the real Fourier coefficients series given by eqns.(4.7.4)
and (4.7.5):
a
b
Re{X k } = k ; Im{X k } = k
2
2

The connection to the other real representation (chap. 4.7.11) is

X k = ck

tan k = (

Im{X k }
)
Re{X k }

(4.7.11)

The coefficients with negative index are the conjugate complex values of the corresponding
positive ones:
X k = X k*

(4.7.12)

4.7.2 Forced Vibration Under General Periodic Excitation

F(t)
m
x
k

Fig. 4.23: Sdof oscillator under periodic excitation

117

Let us use once more the single dof oscillator but now the force is a periodic function which
can be represented by a Fourier series

F (t ) =

F0
+ Fck cos(kt ) + Fsk sin(kt )
2 k =1

(4.7.13)

The Fck and Fsk are the Fourier coefficients which can be determined according to the last
chapter (eqns. 4.7.3.-4.7.5). The response due to such an excitation is

x(t ) =

F0
F
F
+ V1 ( k , D) ck cos(kt k ) + V1 ( k , D) sk sin( kt k )
2k k =1
k
k

(4.7.14)

with the frequency ratio

k =

k = 1,2,...

(4.7.15)

Each individual frequency is considered with its special amplification factor V and individual
phase shift, which in the present case can be calculated from

V1 ( k , D) =

tan k =

1
(1 k2 ) 2

(4.7.16)

+ 4 D 2 k2

2 D k

(4.7.17)

1 k2

For the other cases of mass unbalance excitation or ground excitation the procedure works
analogously. The appropriate V-functions have to be used and the correct pre-factors (which is
in the present case 1/k) have to be used.

118