CHAPTER 8:DYNAMIC

ECOSYSTEM

NAME: MUHAMMAD HAFIZUDDIN BIN HAJA NAZYMUDEEN

CLASS: 4 SCIENCE 4
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
TEACHER NAME: PN.NORMA BT. SELIMIN
SCHOOL NAME: SEK. MEN. KEB. PUCHONG UTAMA (1)

2.0 LIST OF CONTENTS

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NO.

ARTICLE

PAGE
LETTER

1.

1.0 TITLE

2.

2.0 TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.

3.0 APPRECIATION

4.

8.0 DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM(Chapter 8)

8.1.The Abiotic and Biotic Components of the Environment
8.2.The Colonisation and Sucession in an Ecosystem
8.3.Population Ecology
8.4.Biodiversity
8.5.Impact of Microorganisms on Life

5.

9.0. ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM(Chapter 9)

9.1. Human Activities that Endanger an Ecosystem
9.2. The Greenhouse Effect and the Thining of the Ozone Layer
9.3. The Importance of Proper Management of Devolopment Activities and the
Ecosystem

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3.0 APPRECIATION
First of all, thanks to my Biology teacher, Miss Norma Bt. Selimin for being
such good guider for us while we were doing this task. She had given us
appropriate example and knowledge in order to make us understand more
about this ecological study. We take some idea from the past years
students work. She spends her time to carry out each and every
experiment related to this ecological study. She also makes sure that we
understand everything she told and gives some explanation before we
begin to work on these practical assessments.
I also appreciate the school authority for giving us permission to carry out
experiment in school laboratory and going our quadrates and transect
sampling technique in school ground. School also provided all the
apparatus and materials that we used in the ecological study task.
I also want to thank to my classmates who are willing to share their
information about this ecological study. They give me a lot of ideas about
the tasks and I use all their information especially in transect sampling
technique which required us to work together in order to complete the
ecological study folio.
Also, a great thanks to my parents Haja Nazymudeen and Rabiyathul
Basirya who tried their best to give their support either by giving me a lot of
encouragement for keep us with this task or by supporting the financial for
use to pay all the cost required to complete this ecological study.

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8.0 Biotic and Abiotic Components (CHAPTER 8)

An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of living

organisms with one another and with their environment.
Examples of ecosystems are forest, grassland, pond, field, river, lake
and sea.
An ecosystem consists of two components:
a) Abiotic components (physical factors)
b) Biotic components (biological factors)
Abiotic components are the non-living components in the ecosystem
such as air, water, soil, temperature and light intensity.
Biotic components are the living components in the ecosystem such
as plants and animals.

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8.1 The Abiotic Components

In any ecosystem, abiotic components such as pH, temperature, light

intensity, humidity, topography and microclimate determine the
population size and distribution of the biotic components.
The pH value of the soil and water affects the distribution of
organisms.
a) Most organisms live in a neutral or nearly neutral environment
(pH6-7.5)
b) Some plants, like the maize, grows well in an acidic condition
while coconuts grow well in an alkaline condition.
Temperature affects the biochemical reactions in the organisms.
a) Organisms can live within a certain range of temperature.
b) Poikilotherms are animals that cannot control their body
temperature as their body temperature varies with the
environmental temperature.
c) Homoiotherms are animals that can maintain their body
temperature.
d) Plants and animals have specific characteristics to help them
adapt to areas of extreme temperature.

Light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis.

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a) The distribution of green plants will be more extensive in areas

with higher light intensity.
b) All organisms that live in soil prefer a dark environment.
Topography refers to the shape of the Earths surface.
a) Topography of a place determines the temperature, light
intensity and humidity in an area.
b) Three tomography factors that affect the distribution of
organisms are altitude, slope(gradient) and aspects.
Microclimate refers to the climate in a small habitat such a the
climate in the soil and the climate below a tree trunk or a large rock.
a) Microclimate has specific temperature, humidity and light
intensity within its small habitat.
b) Each type of organisms finds a habitat that has a microclimate
that is suitable for it.

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The biotic Component.

The abiotic components are classified into three groups:
a) Producers
b) Consumers
c) Decomposers
The green plants are the producers because they can synthesise
food through photosynthesis.
Consumers are organisms that feed on plants or other organisms.
a) Primary consumers are herbivores that feed on plants
directly.
b) Secondary consumers are carnivores that feed on primary
consumers directly while tertiary consumers are carnivores
or omnivores that feed on secondary consumers.
Decomposers are the bacteria and
fungi that break down dead plants and dead animals into simple
substances.

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Food Chain, Food Web and Trophic Levels

A food chain shows a sequence of organisms through which energy
is transferred.
Each stage in a food chain is known as a trophic level.
Through the food chain, organisms obtain energy.
In an ecosystem, several food chains interact to form a network
called a food web.
In a food chain, energy is transferred from one trophic level to
another trophic level.
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to another trophic
level as much as 90% of the chemical energy in the food consumed
is used for its metabolic activities and lost as heat, excretory products
and undigested matter.
Only 10% of the energy in an organism is passed on to the organism
at the next trophic level.

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Pyramid Of Number
A

pyramid of numbers represents the number and size of organisms

in food chain
A food web consists of few food chains which were interconnected
and depend on each other.It can represent a more precise food
relationship in the ecosystem

Organisms need food to sustain the of living. Some organisms obtain

food on their own while other organisms depend on other organisms
to obtain food.

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Interactions between biotic components

Based on the feeding relationship, the interaction between biotic
components is divided into three main types which are symbiosis,
saprophytism and prey-predator interaction.

Interaction between Biotic Components

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Symbiosis
symbiosis is an interaction between two organisms of different
species that live together.
in symbiosis, one organism will live in or with another organism called
the host.
The organism that interacts with the host will benefit from the
interaction.
Symbiosis is further classified into three types:
a) Commensalisms
b) Paratism
c) Mutualism

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i.

Commensalism
Commensalisms is an interaction between two organisms where only
one organism benefits from the relationship. The other is neither
benefit nor harmed.
The organism that benefits is called the commensal while the other
organism is called the host.
Examples of commensal are epiphytes and epizoites.
Epiphytes are green plants which grow on other plants to obtain more
sunlight and for support.
Examples of epiphytes are:
a) Pigeon orchid
b) Staghorn fern
c) Birds nest fern
Epizoites are animals that live in external surface of another animal.

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 The benefits that epizoites get from their hosts are transport,
protection and leftover foods from the mouth of the hosts.
Examples of epizoites are
a) remora fish which attaches itself to the shark
b) protozoa which attaches itself to Cyclops sp.(water flea)
c) barnacles which attach themselves to shells of crabs or snails.
ii.

Parasitism
Parasitism is an interaction between two different
organisms where one organism called the parasite benefits and the
other organism called the host is harmed.

Two types of parasites:

a) Ectoparasites which live on the external body surface of the
host
b) Endoparasites which live in the body of their host.

Ectoparasites depend on their hosts for food, protection and

transportation.
Examples of ectoparasites that live on the bodies of animals are the
various types of flea and lice that feed on the blood of the host.

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 Endoparasites that live in animals are the various types of worms

that live in the alimentary canals of their host and absorb nutrients
from the intestines of their hosts.

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 Examples of mutualism:
a) Algae and fungi in lichen(both plants)
b) Hermit crabs and sea anemone(both animals)
c) Rhizobium bacteria and legume plants(one animal and one
plant)
In the interaction between sea anemones and hermit crabs, the sea
anemones attach themselves to the shells of hermit crabs.
a) Sea anemone obtains transport and leftover food from the
hermit crab
b) The hermit crab obtains protection from its predators because
of the poisonous tentacles of the sea anemone.
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Interaction between biotic components (DIET) Saprophytism

Saprophytism is an interaction whereby an organism lives and feeds
on decaying organic matter.
Saprophytes refer to plants which obtain food from decayed organis
matter.
Examples of saprophtes are the various types of fungi such as
mushrooms, bread mould and bracket fungus.
Saprozoites are microscopic animals that feed on decayed organic
matter.
Some examples are paramecium sp. And amoeba sp. Which feed on
organic matter from dead organisms.

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Interaction between biotic components (DIET) Prey Predator

This is an interaction between two population of organisms in which
one organism, called the predator, hunts, captures and kills the other
organisms, called the prey, for food.
This interaction is a natural method to regulate the population size of
the prey.
The size of the prey is usually smaller than the predator but the
number of prey is always more than the predator.
However, the population sizes of both predator and prey fluctuate
together
a) When the population of a predator is high, the population of its
prey decreases because the prey are eaten by the predator.
b) When the population of the prey falls, there is insufficient food,
which results in a decline in the population of the predator.
c) When the population of the predator is low, the prey recovers
and its population increases. This will result in an increase in
the population of the predator.
The population sizes of both predator and prey are maintained in
dynamic equilibrium even as they fluctuate together. However, the
fluctuations in the predator population usually lag slightly behind
those of the prey.
The prey-predator relationship helps to control the population of
organisms in an ecosystem and maintain balance in nature.

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Interaction between biotic components (Competition)

Competition is the interaction between two organisms or
two populations to obtain common basic needs of life that
are limited.
The common basic need are space, water, minerals,
sunlight, food and mates for plants and animals.
In a competition, organisms which are strong will obtain
their common basic needs to survive and hence win in the
competition. The organisms which are weak will migrate to
other areas or die.
There are two types of competition:
a) Intraspecific competion
b) Interspecific competition
i.

Intraspecific competition
Occurs between members of the same species of plants
and animals to obtain their common basic needs.

ii.

Interspecific competition
Competition between individuals from different species.

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8.2.The Colonisation and Sucession in Ecosystem

Colonisation is a process of taking over of a new habitat by plants.

The first plant species to inhabit a new place is called a pioneer
species.
They have special adaptations that enable them to survive on dry
and nutrient-poor soil.
Pioneer plants are hardy plants which usually have dense root
systems to bind the sand particles and hold water and humus.
The pioneer species change the new habitat gradually to make the
habitat more suitable for another species to live.
As a result, the new habitat which is not suitable for the pioneer
species is then gradually replaced by another new species and
succession begins.
The process of succession is a process in which a certain
dominant plant species in a habitat is gradually replaced by another
plant species(successor species.)
These plants then become the new dominant species that can
grow faster and so they out-compete the pioneers which grow at a
slower rate.
Succession is a very slow and continuous process which occurs in
stages until a stable and matured community which is equilibrium
with the environment is formed.
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 The stable and matured community is called the

climax

community. An example tropical rain forest in Malaysia.

The Colonisation and Sucession in Mangrove Swamp

Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical regions
where freshwater meets salt water.
The environmental conditions in the mangrove swamp which make
it unsuitable for habitation are:
a) Soft muddy soil
b) Waterlogged soil which lacks oxygen
c) Seawater with high salinity(high salt content)
d) Strong sunlight and extreme heat.
There are three types of mangrove trees which are involved in the
process of colonisation and succession in a mangrove swamp:
a) Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. (pioneer species)
b) Rhizophora sp. (successor)
c) Bruguiera sp. (successor)
Mangrove trees have adaptive characteristics to overcome the
problems it faces in the environment.
a) A root system that spreads out widely to provide support for
the mangrove trees in the soft muddy soil.
b) Breathing roots that protrude out of the soil and which are
called pneumatophores. In waterlogged soil, which lacks
oxygen the pneumatophores enable gaseous exchange occur
at the roots.

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c) The leaves of mangrove trees have thick cuticle and sunken

stomata to reduce transpiration in a hot environment due to
the strong sunlight. The leaves are also thick and succulent to
store water.
d) Many mangrove trees have viviparity seed that begin to
germinate while still attached to the parent tree. This ensures
that the seeds will get sufficient oxygen from the atmosphere
during germination and will not be suffocated for lack of air in
a waterlogged environment. It also prevents the seed from
dehydration in the highly saline sea water.
The profile of a beach in a mangrove swamp can be divided into
three zones according to the dominant flora.
a) Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. (pioneer species)
b) Rhizophora sp. (successor)
c) Bruguiera sp. (successor)
i.

Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. zone

The pioneer species in a mangrove swamp are the Avicennia sp.

and Sonneratia sp.
The Avicennia sp. grows in the part of the mangrove swamp that
faces the sea while Sonneratia sp. grows at the mouth of the river
which is sheltered.
The adaptations of the pioneer species to the soft muddy soil and
waterlogged area are as follows:
a) A root system that spreads out widely to give support to the
trees in the soft muddy soil.

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b) The Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. have asparagus-shaped

pneumatophores that grows vertically upwards from the main
roots through the mud into the air. The pneumatophores are
very spongy and take in air for respiration of the root system.
i.

Rhizophora sp. zone

This zone is higher and less waterlogged.

The adaptations of Rhizophora sp. for this zone are as follows:
a) The Rhizophora sp. has prop roots to support and anchor the
tree in the soft muddy soil.
b) The Rhizophora sp. has viviparity seed to ensure that the
seedlings can grow and are not carried away by the seawater.
iii.

Bruguiera sp. zone

Trees of Bruguiera sp. grow well in hard clay soil that subjects to
flooding during the high tide.
Trees of Bruguiera sp. have buttress roots for support and kneeshaped pneumatophores for gaseous exchange.
As more sedimentation of decayed substances occur, new mud
banks are being built up seawards while the old banks move further
inland, away from the sea. The soil become harder and dry land is
formed.

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The Colonisation and Sucession in Pond

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[25]

8.3.Population Ecology
Quadrat Sampling Technique: A sampling technique is used to estimate the number and
distribution of plants in a habitat.
A quadrat is a rectangular frame that is made from wood or
metal and placed randomly to represent the plants in a habitat.
The estimated number and distribution will be more accurate if
more quadrats are used.
Information from the quadrats can be used to determine the
following.

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Capture, Mark , Release and Recapture Technique

This sampling technique is used to estimate the population of animals
that move freely in a habitat.
The animals involved will be captured randomly and then marked and
released into habitat.
The material used to mark the animals must not be poisonous, must
be waterproof (so that it will last), must not restrict the movement and
must not attract predators
The assumption made in this technique is that the animals will mingle
in the habitat randomly until the second capture.They will not die or
move out of the habitat. The estimated size of the population of
animals can calculated by using this formula

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8.4 Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the wide variety of plant and animal species on Earth.
Organisms are classified based on their common characteristics into five
Kingdoms as shown.

Kingdom and examples

Characteristics

Monera

Example: bacteria, cyanobacteria

Prokaryotes- cells without true

nucleus, no nuclear membrane
and membrane-bound
organelles
Unicellular
Maybe autotrophs or
heterotrophs

Protista
Example: algae, protozoa

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Eukaryotes- cells with nucleus

and organelles surrounded by
membrane
Autotrophic (plant- like protists,
algae) or heterotrophic

Fungi
Example: yeast, mould,
mushroom

Plantae
Example: ferns, mosses,
flowering plants

Animalia
Example: Fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, birds, mammals

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Mostly unicellular but some are

multicellular
No specialization of tissues

Eukaryotes
Mostly multicellullar and some
unicellular (yeast)
Plants without chlorophyll
Cell wall contains chitin
Either saprophytes or parasites
Main body is made up of a
network of hyphae called
mycelium
Multicellular
Contains chlorophyll
Autotrophs
Cell wall made up of cellulose
Have specialized tissues- xylem
and phloem
Immobile

Multicellular organisms
Cell without cell wall and
chloroplasts
Heterotrophs
Mobile
Digest their food internally

The Hierarachy in the Classification of

Organisms
The classification of millions of organisms on Earth into only five
kingdom means each kingdoms is made up of a large number of
organisms. Therefore, it is necessary to divided each kingdom into
smaller groups.
The kingdom is the largest unit of classification and contains the largest
number of organisms.
A kingdom can be divided into a number of phyla (singular: phylum).
Organisms in the same phylum have some characteristics in common
which is different from organisms in other phyla. For example, all
animals in the phylum Arthropoda have jointed legs and a chitinuos
exoskeleton. These characteristics differentiate them from organisms in
other phyla.
A phylum can be subdivided into a number of classes, each class can be
subdivided into orders, each order into families, each family into genera

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(singular: genus), and each genus into species. Species is the smallest
group in the system of classification.
They are classified into 7 levels, namely kingdoms (alam), phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species. (Aphycofags)
The hierarachy of classification is the stages of groupings in the system
of classification from kingdom to species.
Hierarachy in the classification of humans and the hibiscus plant:

Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Human being
Animalia
Choradata
Mammalia
Primates
Hominidae
Homo
sapiens

Hibiscus
Plantae
Tracheohyta
Angiosperma
Malvales
Malvaceae
Hibiscus
Rosa-sinensis

8.5 Impact of Microorganisms on Life

Microorganisms are tiny organisms that can only be seen clearly
under a microscope. Most microbes are harmless and useful to
humans while others can cause diseases in plants and animals,
including humans.
Microorganisms are divided into five types, namely viruses,
bacteria, algae, protozoa and fungi.

Types of organisms
Bacteria

Characteristics
The majority of bacteria
range in size from 0.5m
t0 5.0m.
Bacteria are unicellular
organisms which have a
basic cell structure that
includes a cell wall, plasma
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Algae

Fungi

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membrane and DNA that is

not enclosed in a
membrane.
Bacteria cell walls are
made of a unique polymer
called peptidoglycan which
is made up of protein and a
complex polysaccharide.
They form spores under
unfavourable conditions.
Bacteria can be spherical
(coccus), rod-like (bacillus),
spiral (spirillium) or
comma-shaped (vibrio).
Certain bacteria have a
slimy capsule outside their
cell wall for extra
protection.
Examples of bacteria are
Lactobacillus sp. and
Staphylococcus sp.
Algae are photosynthetic,
plant-like organisms.
They are very simple
organisms which contain
chlorophyll.
Their cell walls are made
up of cellulose.
They have no leaves,
stems or roots.
Examples of algae are
phytoplankton and
Spirogyra sp.

Microscopic fungi are

heterotrophic
microorganisms whichdo
not have chlorophyll,
stems, roots or leaves.

Protozoa

Viruses

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Fungal cell walls are made

of chitin.
Fungi feed by secreting
enzymes that break down
the surrounding organic
material into simple
molecules before
absorbing them.
Examples of fungi are
yeast and Mucor sp.
Protozoa are unicellular
organisms.
Protozoa have a nucleus,
cytoplasm and a plasma
membrane.
They can carry out life
processes such as
respiration, reproduction
and excretion.
They move by using
flagella, cilia or
microtubules.
Examples of protozoa are
Euglena sp., Paramecium
sp ,Trypanosoma sp.
A virus is the smallest
microorganism and can
only be seen under an
electron microscope.
A virus is non-living cell
because it cannot survive
or reproduce on its own
outside the cells of its host.
All viruses are infectious.
They must infect living
cells to reproduce. Since a
virus does not have its own
cellular machinery, it must
utilise the cellular

machinery of the host to

make copies of itself.
Each type of virus has two
basic parts: an inner core
which is composed of
nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA, and an outer capsid
of protein sub-units.
Viruses can be purified and
crystallised. Examples of
viruses are
T4bacteriophage and
tobacco mosaic virus.
Bacteriophages are viruses
that are parasitic on
bacteria while the tobacco
mosaic virus causes the
tobacco mosaic diseases.

Factors that Affect the Activities of Microorganisms

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The activity of microorganisms is affected by abiotic components

such as the:
(a) Concentration of nutrients
(b) pH
(c) Temperature
(d) Light intensity

Nutrients and water

Microorganisms need nutrients and water for reproduction and growth. Without
nutrients or water, microorganisms will die or form spores.

pH
Each species of microorganisms has an optimum pH. Most bacteria prefer
slightly alkaline conditions (pH around 7.4) while moulds, yeast and protozoa
prefer acidic conditions (pH around 4.5-5.0). Extreme pH can kill the
microorganisms.

Temperature
Microorganisms are inactive at low temperatures. The optimum temperature of
most microorganisms is between 355C-4 05C. Beyond 6 05
C, the growth of
microorganisms is inhabited. Microorganisms and their spores can only be
destroyed when they are sterilised at a temperature of about 12 15C.

Light Intensity
Microorganisms prefer dark or low light densities. High intensities of
sunlight or ultraviolet rays can kill algae and bacteria are more active
under high light intensities because they need light to carry out
photosynthesis.

Role of Useful Microorganisms

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[36]

Harmful microorganisms
Pathogens are a microorganisms that can cause diseases.
Vectors refers to organisms that transfer pathogen.
A methods of transfer of diseases and how these diseases can be
prevented.

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Methods of Controlling Pathogens

There are many methods that can be used to control pathogens.
Some of the methods used to control pathegons.

The Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology

Biotechnology refers to the field that uses microorganisms.
Some of the uses of microorganisms
a) To produce antibiotics and vaccines
b) To clean up oil spills in the sea by using certain types of
bacteria
To decompose the oil to carbon dioxide and water
(biorecovery)
c) To treat toxicated waste convert waste into non harmful
subtances which are released into the environment
d) To process food yeast is used up in fermentation to produce
wine, beer and bread
e) To create energy from biomass waste organic matter is
treated by anaerobic bacteria to produce biogas such as
methane. Biogas is used as a domestic fuel.

9.0. ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM(Chapter 9)

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9.1.Human Activities that Endanger an Ecosystem

Human Activities
Rapid development in the field of medicine, modern agricultural technology
and infrastructure increase the world population.
Because of rapid development, human activities continue to increase.
Without careful planning, these activities will threaten the ecosystem.
Human activities that can threaten other living things and the environment.

Air Pollution
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1. Air pollution occurs when pollutants (such as gas and particles) are released
into the atmosphere.
2. The accumulation of these pollutants can have bad effect on living
organisms and the environment
3. Some of the human activities which contribute to air pollution.

Water Pollution
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1. The release of solid or liquid waste into source of water such as rivers, lakes
and seas can destroy aquatic organisms.
2. Some of the human activities that contribute to water pollution.

Thermal Pollution
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1. Thermal pollution occurs due to excessive loss of heat to environment.

2. Pollution is harmful to living organisms and the environment.
3. Examples of human activities that contribute to thermal pollution.

Noise Pollution
1. Noise pollution is caused by motor vehicles, agricultural machinery,
industrial machinery and work at construction sites.
2. Continously exposure to loud sounds and more than 80 decibels (dB) in the
long term can cause deafness.
3. Extreme noise can also cause stress related problems such as high blood
pressure, heart attacks, depression and headaches.

9.2. The Greenhouse Effect and the Thining of the Ozone Layer
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The Greenhouse Effect

1. Sunlight reaching the Earth will warm up the Earth.
2. The heat produced will be reflected back to space as infrared radiation.
3. The presece of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, nitrogen oxides and ozone in the
atmosphere will trap and reflect heat back to Earth`s surface.
4. Extensive human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and deforestation
increase the amount of carbon dioxide and cause Earth`s temperature to
increase.
5. The effect of the accumulation of greenhouse gases results in the melting
ince and glaciers at the Poles thus increasing the sea levels. As a result,
lowland areas will be flooded.

Thinning of the Ozone Layer

1. The ozone (O3) layer is a protective layer to humans and all living things
from ultraviolet rays (UV) of the sun.
2. Thinnning of the ozone layer occurs as a result of the releaseof CFCs,
chemical compounds containing chlorine (Cl), carbon (C) and fluorine (F).
3. CFCs are used widely in refrigeration system (such as refrigerators and air
conditioners) and aerosol sprays (such as insecticide sprays and fire
extinguishers).

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9.3. The Importance of Proper Management of

Devolopment Activities and the Ecosystem
Effect of Increasing Population
1. Rapid population growth requires additional of food, housing, education,
medicine, energy, transport and other developments of infrastructure
2. Forests are cut down to provide areas for rapid development such as road
construction, plantation, dams and residential areas to meet the demands of
the population.

Managements of Development and the Balance of Nature

1. Planning for land or industrial development should be done carefully and
long term effect on the environment should be considered,
2. The development of a country can be managed in the following ways:
a) Implementation of laws to protect the natural resources
b) The development of technology such as the use of lead free fuels,
biomass fuels and sewage treatment to reduce and overcome the
problem of environmental pollution
c) Education on the management of resource such as the 3R campaign
(reduce,reuse and recycle) to manage the materials used
d) Preservation and conservation of the natural resources such as soil,
water, flora and fauna of forest and mangrove
e) The efficient use of energy by using renewable energy such as solar
energy
f) Practising biological control to reduce the release of harmful
chemicals in controlling pests
3. Protection of the ecosystem through beneficial activities to educate and
enlighten the public to protect the environment by conducting campaigns.

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The end of this chapter

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