CARIBBEAN STUDIES

The Impact of Geographical Phenomenon

PLATE TECTONICS
Mrs. Murphy

Plate tectonics theorists:

1912 - German geologist, Alfred Wegener observed that
the shapes of the continents, fit together like a jigsaw
puzzle. He developed the theory of continental drift the continents were once joined in one large landmass (
supercontinent), over a long period of time they broke up
and drifted apart.

Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, stated that the

earths crust is a dynamic assembly of moving plates
whose interactions explain most geological phenomena,
including volcanoes and earthquakes.
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What is plate tectonics?

The theory that the earths crust is
made up of a series of rigid plates which
float on a soft layer of the mantle and are
moved by convection currents in the
earths interior.
The study of the movement of the plates
on the earths surface and the resultant
landforms.
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 A plate is part of the earths surface that

behaves as a single rigid unit. Plates are
about 100-150 km. thick. They may be made
up of continental crust or oceanic crust or both,
on top of a layer of the upper mantle. Plates
move in relation to the earths axis and to
each other.

 Plate margin is the edge of the plate. It is at

the plate margins that most seismic, volcanic
and tectonic activity is found.
Plate boundary is the line between two plates
that touches each other (where they meet).
Plate boundaries are marked by seismic
activity and volcanic activity.

 The theory of plate tectonics advances the idea

that the earths outer crust is divided up into a
number of rigid, shifting plates of varying size
six major ones which are of continental
proportions and a number of others which are
quite small and that as these plates slide pat
one another, converge or move apart, continental
drift, mountains are formed, and new crust
comes into being.
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 The theory of plate tectonics just outlined

suggests that the earths surface is divided up
into a number of segments of varying size which
are all slowly moving. There are some segments
usually of large size, that are relatively free from
earthquakes disturbances, and such segments or
plates are termed aseismic plates

Why plate tectonics is useful

Plate tectonics helps to explain many
geological events, such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions as well as mountain building
and the formation of the oceans and
continents.

World tectonic plate boundaries

Size of plates
Largest plates: the Pacific plate, the North
American/Atlantic plate, the Eurasian plate, the
Antarctic plate, and the African plate.
Smaller plates: the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate,
the Caribbean plate, and the Gorda plate.
Plate sizes vary: The Cocos plate is 2000 km (1400
mi) wide; the Pacific plate is almost 14,000 km
(nearly 9000 mi) wide.
The Pacific plate is the largest approx. 100,000,000
km2
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Rate of plate movement

Tectonic plates move at an average
speed of 2 3 inches (4 7 cm) per
year.
Movement is slow and continuous and
has been taking place for thousands of
years

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Internal structure of the earth

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Components of the layers

The inner core is made up of dense iron; the outer
core is made up of liquid iron.
The lower mantle is made up of molten rock
surrounded by partially molten rock in the
asthenosphere.
Part of the upper mantle and crust (lithosphere) is
made up of solid rock. It is a rigid layer.

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Why do plates move?

The upper mantle and crust (lithosphere) lie on
the lower mantle which is fluid. The rocks in
the lower mantle (asthenosphere) move in a
fluid manner because of the high temperatures
and pressures in it.
Currents in the lower mantle form convection
cells which cause the plates to float.

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Types of plate boundaries/movements

1. Divergent plate boundaries (Zone of Divergence)
Occur where two plates are moving apart from
each other. In the oceanic crust, this process is
called seafloor spreading. Magma, or molten rock
material, rises to the sea floor surface along the
rupture and forms new oceanic crust.
On land, divergent plate boundaries create rift
valleysdeep valley depressions formed as the
land slowly splits apart.
Eg. the Mid Atlantic Ridge
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Divergent plate boundary (sea floor

spreading) rift valley

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2. Transform plate boundary.

(Zone of shearing)

The plates slide past or slip alongside

each other.
A transform boundary is located where
the Caribbean plate and South
American plates meet

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Transform and divergent plate boundaries.

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3. Convergent boundary
(Also known as destructive boundary or
subduction zone)
Plates move towards one another; the plates
are consumed, or recycled back into the
earths mantle.
Earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic ridges, deep
sea trenches, island arcs, (e.g the West Indies,
the Japanese islands), and fold mountains
occur at convergent boundaries

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Different type of plate margins

1. Constructive or Ocean Ridge Margins.
These are the plate margins adjacent to the
great Mid Ocean Floor ridges with their
extensive rifts of fissures through which
basalt magma is poured out. As the plates
move apart and as the magma solidifies
along their margins they become enlarged.
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2. Destructive margins:
Just as new ocean floor is being created in some
places, in others, it is being destroyed. When two
plates are converging it is believed that the leading
edge of one plunges or subducts beneath the other.
Such destructive boundaries between converging
plates can be divided into three types:

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A. Ocean plate Continental Plate Boundaries:

Here it is believed that the oceanic plate which is
of higher density is forced beneath the
continental plate. The line of descent is thus
marked by the occurrence of earthquakes and
the generation of volcanic action.
B. Continental Plate Continental Plate Boundaries
In some cases two fragments of continental crust
may drift towards one another as the ocean floor
between them is consumed at the subduction
zone.
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C. Oceanic Plate Oceanic Plate Boundaries.

Here there is convergence between two oceanic
plates and one is subducted beneath the other. Such
a boundary is marked at the surface by the formation
of ocean trenches and associated chain of volcanic
islands (island arcs).

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3. Neutral Margins
These are the margins where plates slide past each
other and where there is, as it were, neutral activity:
the plates neither gain nor lose material.

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Formation of the Caribbean

The eastern Caribbean islands lie on a convergent
plate boundary.
As the Atlantic/America plate sinks beneath the
Caribbean plate, magma rises to the surface, it may
erupt to form a volcano, resulting in the formation of
the islands of the eastern Caribbean, (about 140
million years ago).

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The Caribbean & Atlantic Plate Boundaries

---

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A convergent boundary
Molten material comes to the surface and
forms islands

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A convergent boundary
Formation of volcanoes or fold mountains

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Effects of plate tectonics on the Caribbean

1) Volcanoes.
A volcano is a vent or opening in the earths crust
through which hot molten rock (magma) and gases
from the interior of the earth are released.
Volcanoes occur as the oceanic crust sinks under
the continental crust. Magma escapes and rises to
the surface and forms volcanoes.
Eighty percent of the worlds active volcanoes occur
at convergent zones.
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Live volcanoes in the Eastern Caribbean

There are 19 live volcanoes in the Eastern Caribbean

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Major volcanic eruptions in the Eastern

Caribbean
Year

Volcano

Effects

1718

Mt. Soufriere,
St. Vincent

Unknown number of
casualties among Caribs

1812

Mt. Soufriere,
St. Vincent

80 killed; major damage to

sugar industry

1902

Mt Pele`,
Martinique

30 000 killed; St Pierre

destroyed; economic cost US$1
000 000 000
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Major volcanic eruptions in the Eastern

Caribbean
Year

Volcano

Effects

1902

Mt. Soufriere,
St. Vincent

1600 killed; major damage to the

sugar industry; economic cost:
US$200 000 000

1976 77

Soufriere,
Guadeloupe

No casualties. Economic cost:

US$100 000 000

1979

Mt. Soufriere,
St. Vincent

No casualties. Massive ash fall.

Economic cost: US$100 000 000

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Pyroclastic flow and surge

0

A pyroclastic flow : a hot (100 600 C), fast

moving mixture of ash, rock fragments and gas. It
usually travels down valleys and cause total
destruction of the area over which it flows. This has
been the main cause of destruction and loss of life in
Montserrat
A pyroclastic surge is a dilute turbulent cloud of
gases and rock debris that moves over the ground
at great speeds. It is formed in a similar way to a
pyroclastic flow, but the effect is more widespread.
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Major volcanic eruptions in the region

Year

Volcano

1995 - Souffriere
1997 Hills,
Montserrat

Effects
19 deaths; destruction of
capital, Plymouth; southern
portion of island evacuated;
relocation of population; mass
migration; population reduction
from 12, 771 (1996) to about
4000; economy devastated;
economic cost: US$500 000 000
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Positive effects of volcanoes

Feature

Location

Benefits

Volcanic (igneous)
rocks

Antigua,
(Greencastle) St.
Lucia etc

Road and building

construction

Crater Lakes Hot

springs, sulphur
springs, fumeroles

Grenada,
Dominica, Nevis,
St Lucia

Tourist attractions

High mountains and

fertile soil

Windward Islands,
Bendals, Old Road
etc.

Relief rainfall agriculture food

production.
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Effects of plate tectonics on the Caribbean

2) Earthquakes
An earthquake results from slow build up of
pressure within the crust at convergent
boundaries. If pressure is suddenly released,
then the plates jerk past each other resulting in
vibrations in the crust.
Over 600 earthquakes occur in the Caribbean
annually.
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Earthquake terminology
A violent shaking of the Earths crust that may cause
destruction to buildings and installations and results from the
sudden release of tectonic stress.
Focus or hypocenter: the point within the earth where an
earthquake originates
Epicenter: the point on the earths surface directly above the
focus
Earthquakes also contain surface waves that travel out from
the epicenter along the surface of the earth. Two types of
these surface waves occur: Rayleigh waves, named after
British physicist Lord Rayleigh, and Love waves, named after
British geophysicist A. E. H. Love. Surface waves also cause
damage to structures, as they shake the ground underneath
the foundations of buildings and other structures.
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Earthquakes for October 17th 24th 2005

Red 30 km deep; purple 30 70 km deep; blue 70 -100 km
deep; black > 100 km deep

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The Richter Scale

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General effects of earthquakes

loss of life
loss of property
fires from broken gas, or power lines
disruption of transport and other services
exposure due to lack of shelter
shortage of food
shortage of clean water
disease from polluted water supplies.
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Selected Caribbean earthquakes

Year

Island

Effects

1692

Port Royal,
Jamaica

2000 killed, a part of the city was

submerged, buildings destroyed.

1842

Haiti

1843

Antigua,
Nevis,
Montserrat

More than 700 killed. In addition

200 killed in tsunami in Port-dePaix.
Major structural damage; St
Johns Cathedral damaged.
A tsunami also affected Antigua
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Selected Caribbean earthquakes

Year
1867

1907
1946

Island
Virgin
Islands
Kingston,
Jamaica
Dominican
Republic

Effects
20 killed

Major destruction by fire and

tidal wave
100 killed by a tsunami in the
town of Mantanzas

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Selected Caribbean earthquakes

Year

Island

Effects

1974

Antigua

Structural damage

2004

North of
Dominica
(6.3
magnitude)

Structural damage to churches

in Portsmouth and Vielle Case.
One death in Guadeloupe. Also
felt in Antigua, St Maarten,
Nevis, Montserrat and St.
Vincent
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Some earthquakes in 2005

Date
Feb 7th
Feb 14th
March 22nd
March 23rd
1st May
June 23rd
Aug 4th
Aug 30th
Oct 24th

Location
North east of Dominica
North of Dominica
Near Trinidad
Northwest of Trinidad
Northeast of St. Lucia
9 quakes N. of Dominica
Northwest of Trinidad
Northeast of Martinique
Northwest of Trinidad

Magnitude

4.8
4.6
3.9
3.7
3.6 4.5
4.5
5.1
4.9 44

Implications for construction & disaster

preparedness

What disaster mitigation methods are in place?

Construction of earthquake resistant buildings?
Restrictions on the height of buildings?
Emergency exits in buildings?
Adequate medical facilities to handle disasters?
Regular public education/awareness?
Earthquake drills in schools?
ARE WE PREPARED TO HANDLE MAJOR
DISASTERS?
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Some landforms formed by plate tectonics

Landforms: a natural physical feature of
the earths surface, for example, a valley,
mountain, or plain, beaches, marshes,
caves, waterfalls.

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Landforms and their use

Landform

Territory

Waterfall

Benefits

Dominica,
Jamaica, Guyana
Boiling Lake, Dominica

Recreation, tourist
attraction
Tourist attraction,

Sulphur
springs

Dominica, Nevis

Therapeutic

Mountains

Windward Islands,
Jamaica

Rainfall,
agriculture,
forestry,
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Landforms and their use

Landform

Territory

Benefits

Marshes
Mangroves

All islands

Lagoons

Barbuda

Prevents coastal erosion; a

spawning area for fish;
protection for young marine
life
Fishing, coastal protection

Plains

Trinidad
etc
Leeward
Islands

Beaches

Agriculture, settlement
Recreation, fishing, tourism,
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sand mining

Location of Kick em Jenny

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Kick `em Jenny

A shallow submarine volcano

Located 8km ( 5 miles ) north of Grenada
The summit is 180m (590 ft) below sea level
The only live submarine volcano in the Caribbean
Erupted twelve times since 1939
It is actively degassing
Most closely monitored volcano in the Caribbean
It is not growing towards the surface
It is a serious threat to shipping and there is a 1.5 km
(approx 1 mile) exclusion zone around it.
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Trenches and Troughs

Trenches/Troughs: Bartlett Trough, between
Cuba and Jamaica, over 20 000 feet deep.
Brownson Trough, north of Puerto Rico and
the Virgin Islands, 30, 000 feet deep
Anegada Trough, between the Caribbean Sea
and the Atlantic Ocean?

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Tsunamis in the Caribbean

An ocean wave caused by large scale disturbance of the ocean floor or

surface that displaces a large mass of water.

Waves can reach 15m high (50 ft) and travel 600 kph (372 mph)

Caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides into the sea.

Ten earthquake generated tsunamis in the past 500 years, only 450
people have been killed by tsunamis
Volcanoes, earthquakes and hurricanes have killed 30 000, 15 000,
and 15000 people respectively
In 2003 a major dome collapse of Soufriere Hills Volcano, caused a
tsunami 4m high in Montserrat and 1 m high in Guadeloupe.
Scientists believe that there is a low probability of a major tsunami in the
region
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