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20rulesofformulatingknowledgeinlearning

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Contents:Articles

Effectivelearning:Twentyrulesofformulatingknowledge

DrPiotrWozniak,
February,1999
(updated)

Thisarticlewillhelpyouovercomeoneofthegreatestdifficultiesyouwillfacewhentryingtoaccelerate
learning:formulatingknowledge

German
Portuguese
Serbian

Thespeedoflearningwilldependonthewayyouformulatethematerial.Thesamematerialcanbelearnedmanytimesfasterif
wellformulated!Thedifferenceinspeedcanbestunning!
Therulesarelistedintheorderofimportance.Thoselistedfirstaremostoftenviolatedorbringmostbenefitifcompliedwith!
Thereisanunderlyingassumptionthatyouwillproceedwithlearningusingspacedrepetition,i.e.youwillnotjustlearnoncebut
youwillrepeatthematerialoptimally(asinSuperMemo).

The20rulesofformulatingknowledgeinlearning
1. Donotlearnifyoudonotunderstand
Tryingtolearnthingsyoudonotunderstandmayseemlikeanutmostnonsense.Still,anamazingproportionofstudents
committheoffenceoflearningwithoutcomprehension.Veryoftentheyhavenootherchoice!Thequalityofmanytextbooks
orlecturescriptsisdeplorablewhileexaminationdeadlinesareunmovable.
IfyouarenotaspeakerofGerman,itisstillpossibletolearnahistorytextbookinGerman.Thebookcanbecrammedword
forword.However,thetimeneededforsuch"blindlearning"isastronomical.Evenmoreimportant:Thevalueofsuch
knowledgeisnegligible.IfyoucramaGermanbookonhistory,youwillstillknownothingofhistory.
TheGermanhistorybookexampleisanextreme.However,thematerialsyoulearnmayoftenseemwellstructuredandyou
maytendtoblameyourselfforlackofcomprehension.Soonyoumaypolluteyourlearningprocesswithagreatdealof
uselessmaterialthattreacherouslymakesyoubelieve"itwillbeusefulsomeday".
2. Learnbeforeyoumemorize
Beforeyouproceedwithmemorizingindividualfactsandrules,youneedtobuildanoverallpictureofthelearned
knowledge.Onlywhenindividualpiecesfittobuildasinglecoherentstructure,willyoubeabletodramaticallyreducethe
learningtime.ThisiscloselyrelatedtotheproblemcomprehensionmentionedinRule1:Donotlearnifyoudonot
understand.AsingleseparatedpieceofyourpictureislikeasingleGermanwordinthetextbookofhistory.
Donotstartfrommemorizinglooselyrelatedfacts!Firstreadachapterinyourbookthatputsthemtogether(e.g.the
principlesoftheinternalcombustionengine).Onlythenproceedwithlearningusingindividualquestionsandanswers(e.g.
Whatmovesthepistonsintheinternalcombustionengine?),etc.
3. Builduponthebasics
Thepictureofthelearnedwhole(asdiscussedinRule2:Learnbeforeyoumemorize)doesnothavetobecompletetothe
lastdetail.Justtheopposite,thesimplerthepicturethebetter.Theshortertheinitialchapterofyourbookthebetter.Simple
modelsareeasiertocomprehendandencompass.Youcanalwaysbuilduponthemlateron.
Donotneglectthebasics.Memorizingseeminglyobviousthingsisnotawasteoftime!Basicsmayalsoappearvolatileand
thecostofmemorizingeasythingsislittle.Bettererronthesafeside.Rememberthatusuallyyouspend50%ofyourtime
repeatingjust35%ofthelearnedmaterial[source]!Basicsareusuallyeasytoretainandtakeamicroscopicproportionof
yourtime.However,eachmemorylapseonbasicscancostyoudearly!
4. Sticktotheminimuminformationprinciple
Thematerialyoulearnmustbeformulatedinassimplewayasitisonlypossible.Simplicitydoesnothavetoimplylosing
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informationandskippingthedifficultpart.Simplicityisimperativeduetothewaythebrainworks.Therearetwomain
reasonsforwhichknowledgemustbesimple:
Simpleiseasy
Bydefinition,simplematerialiseasytoremember.Thiscomesfromthefactthatitssimplicitymakesis
easyforthebraintoprocessitalwaysinthesameway.Imaginealabyrinth.Whenmakingarepetitionofa
pieceofmaterial,yourbrainisrunningthroughalabyrinth(youcanviewaneuralnetworkasatangleof
paths).Whilerunningthroughthelabyrinth,thebrainleavesatrackonthewalls.Ifitcanruninonlyone
uniqueway,thepathiscontinuousandeasytofollow.Iftherearemanycombinations,eachrunmayleave
adifferenttracethatwillinterferewithothertracesmakingitdifficulttofindtheexit.Thesamehappens
onthecellularlevelwithdifferentsynapticconnectionsbeingactivatedateachrepetitionofcomplex
material
Repetitionsofsimpleitemsareeasiertoschedule
Iassumeyouwillmakerepetitionsofthelearnedmaterialusingoptimuminterrepetitionintervals(asin
SuperMemo).Ifyouconsideranitemthatiscomposedoftwosubitems,youwillneedtomakerepetitions
thatarefrequentenoughtokeepthemoredifficultiteminmemory.Ifyousplitthecomplexitemintosub
items,eachcanberepeatedatitsownpacesavingyourtime.Veryoften,inexperiencedstudentscreate
itemsthatcouldeasilybesplitintotenormoresimplersubitems!Althoughthenumberofitems
increases,thenumberofrepetitionsofeachitemwillusuallybesmallenoughtogreatlyoutweighthecost
of(1)forgettingthecomplexitemagainandagain,(2)repeatingitinexcessivelyshortintervalsor(3)
actuallyrememberingitonlyinpart!
Hereisastrikingexample:
IllformulatedknowledgeComplexandwordy
Q:WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheDeadSea?
A:SaltlakelocatedontheborderbetweenIsraelandJordan.ItsshorelineisthelowestpointontheEarth'ssurface,
averaging396mbelowsealevel.Itis74kmlong.Itisseventimesassalty(30%byvolume)astheocean.Itsdensity
keepsswimmersafloat.Onlysimpleorganismscanliveinitssalinewaters
WellformulatedknowledgeSimpleandspecific
Q:WhereistheDeadSealocated?
A:ontheborderbetweenIsraelandJordan
Q:WhatisthelowestpointontheEarth'ssurface?
A:TheDeadSeashoreline
Q:WhatistheaveragelevelonwhichtheDeadSeaislocated?
A:400meters(belowsealevel)
Q:HowlongistheDeadSea?
A:70km
Q:HowmuchsaltieristheDeadSeaascomparedwiththeoceans?
A:7times
Q:WhatisthevolumecontentofsaltintheDeadSea?
A:30%
Q:WhycantheDeadSeakeepswimmersafloat?
A:duetohighsaltcontent
Q:WhyistheDeadSeacalledDead?
A:becauseonlysimpleorganismscanliveinit
Q:WhyonlysimpleorganismscanliveintheDeadSea?
A:becauseofhighsaltcontent
Youmightwanttoexperimentandtrytolearntwosubjectsusingthetwoaboveapproachesandseeforyourselfwhat
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advantageisbroughtbyminimuminformationprinciple.Thisisparticularlyvisibleinthelongperspective,i.e.thelonger
thetimeyouneedtorememberknowledge,themoreyoubenefitfromsimplifyingyouritems!
Noteintheexampleabovehowshortthequestionsare.Notealsothattheanswersareevenshorter!Wewantaminimum
amountofinformationtoberetrievedfrommemoryinasinglerepetition!Wewantanswertobeasshortasimaginably
possible!
Youwillnoticethattheknowledgelearnedintheillstructuredexampleisnotentirelyequivalenttothewellstructured
formulation.Forexample,althoughyouwillrememberwhytheDeadSeacankeepswimmersafloat,youmayforgetthatitat
allhassuchacharacteristicinthefirstplace!Additionally,rounding396to400and74to70producessomelossof
information.Thesecanberemediedbyaddingmorequestionsormakingthepresentonesmoreprecise.
YouwillalsolosetheabilitytofluentlyrecitethedescriptionoftheDeadSeawhencalleduptotheblackboardbyyour
teachers.Ibet,however,thatshininginfrontoftheclassisnotyourultimategoalinlearning.Toseehowtocopewith
recitationsandpoems,readfurther(sectiondevotedtoenumerations)
5. Clozedeletioniseasyandeffective
Clozedeletionisasentencewithitspartsmissingandreplacedbythreedots.Clozedeletionexerciseisanexercisethatuses
clozedeletiontoaskthestudenttofillinthegapsmarkedwiththethreedots.Forexample,Bill...[name]wasthesecondUS
presidenttogothroughimpeachment.
Ifyouareabeginnerandifyoufinditdifficulttosticktotheminimuminformationprinciple,useclozedeletion!Ifyouare
anadvanceduser,youwillalsolikeclozedeletion.Itisaquickandeffectivemethodofconvertingtextbookknowledgeinto
knowledgethatcanbesubjecttolearningbasedonspacedrepetition.Clozedeletionmakesthecoreofthefastreadingand
learningtechniquecalledincrementalreading.
IllformulatedknowledgeComplexandwordy
Q:WhatwasthehistoryoftheKaleidacompany?
A:Kaleida,fundedtothetuneof$40millionbyAppleComputerandIBMin1991.Hypedasaredhotstartup,
Kaleida'smissionwastocreateamultimediaprogramminglanguageItfinallyproducedone,calledScriptX.Butittook
threeyears.Meanwhile,companiessuchasMacromediaandAsymetrixhadsnappedupallthebusiness.Kaleidaclosed
in1995
WellformulatedknowledgeSimpleclozedeletion
Q:Kaleidawasfundedtothetuneof...(amount)byAppleComputerandIBMin1991
A:$40million
Q:Kaleidawasfundedtothetuneof$40millionby...(companies)in1991
A:AppleandIBM
Q:Kaleidawasfundedtothetuneof$40millionbyAppleComputerandIBMin...(year)
A:1991
Q:...(company)missionwastocreateamultimediaprogramminglanguage.Itfinallyproducedone,calledScriptX.But
ittookthreeyears
A:Kaleida's
Q:Kaleida'smissionwastocreatea...Itfinallyproducedone,calledScriptX.Butittookthreeyears
A:multimediaprogramminglanguage
Q:Kaleida'smissionwastocreateamultimediaprogramminglanguage.Itfinallyproducedone,called...Butittook
threeyears
A:ScriptX
Q:Kaleida'smissionwastocreateamultimediaprogramminglanguage.Itfinallyproducedone,calledScriptX.Butit
took...(time)
A:threeyears
Q:Kaleida'smissionwastocreateamultimediaprogramminglanguage:ScriptX.Butittookthreeyears.Meanwhile,
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companiessuchas...hadsnappedupallthebusiness
A:Macromedia/Asymetrix
Q:Kaleida'smissionwastocreateScriptX.Butittookthreeyears.Meanwhile,companiessuchasMacromediaand
Asymetrixhadsnappedupallthebusiness.Kaleidaclosedin...(year)
A:1995

Optional:SuperMemoRecipe:

SuperMemo2002

SuperMemo2000

SuperMemo98/99
ClozedeletionsinSuperMemo
98/99:

Generatingaclozedeletionsfromtextsplacedinthe
clipboardinSuperMemo2000:
1. PressCtrl+Alt+Ntopastethetextto
SuperMemo

Creatingclozedeletions
innewSuperMemos:

2. Selectthepartthatistobereplacedwiththree
dots

selectthekeywordthatis
tobereplacedwithtree
dotsandpressAlt+Z

3. Rightclicktoopenthecomponentmenuand
selectReading:Remembercloze(orclick
oneofclozeiconsonthereadingtoolbar)

1. PressCtrl+Atoadda
standardquestionand
answeritem
2. Pastethetextintothe
questionfield.Thiswill
createtheoutlineofyour
items
3. PressCtrl+Alt+Uto
Duplicatetheelement
4. Selectthepartthatistobe
replacedwiththreedots
5. Cuttheselectiontothe
clipboard(e.g.with
Shift+Del)
6. Typeinthreedots
(optionally,addthe
explanationinparentheses
asinaboveexamples)
7. PressCtrl+Ttosavethe
questionfieldandmoveto
theanswerfield
8. PastethetextcutinStep5
(e.g.withShift+Insor
Ctrl+V).Yourfirstitemis
ready
9. PressPgUptogobacktothe
outlineitemcreatedinStep
2
10. GotoStep3andcontinue
addingnewitems

6. Useimagery
Visualcortexisthatpartofthebraininwhichvisualstimuliareinterpreted.Ithasbeenverywelldevelopedinthecourseof
evolutionandthatiswhywesayonepictureisworthathousandwords.Indeedifyoulookatthenumberofdetailskeptina
pictureandtheeasinesswithwhichyourmemorycanretainthem,youwillnoticethatourverbalprocessingpowerisgreatly
inferiorascomparedwiththevisualprocessingpower.Thesamereferstomemory.Agraphicrepresentationofinformation
isusuallyfarlessvolatile.
Usuallyittakesmuchlesstimetoformulateasimplequestionandanswerpairthantofindorproduceaneatgraphicimage.
Thisiswhyyouwillprobablyalwayshavetoweighupcostandprofitsinusinggraphicsinyourlearningmaterial.Well
employedimageswillgreatlyreduceyourlearningtimeinareassuchasanatomy,geography,geometry,chemistry,history,
andmanymore.
ThepowerofimageryexplainswhytheconceptofTonyBuzan'smindmapsissopopular.Amindmapisanabstractpicture
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inwhichconnectionsbetweenitscomponentsreflectthelogicalconnectionsbetweenindividualconcepts.
Lessbeneficialformulation
Q:WhatAfricancountryislocatedbetweenKenya,ZambiaandMozambique?
A:Tanzania
Moreeffectiveformulation
Q:WhatAfricancountryismarkedwhiteonthemap?

A:Tanzania
7. Usemnemonictechniques
Mnemonictechniquesarevarioustechniquesthatmakerememberingeasier.Theyareoftenamazinglyeffective.Formost
students,apictureofa10yearoldmemorizingasequenceof50playingcardsvergesondiscoveringayounggenius.Itis
verysurprisingthentofindouthoweasyitistolearnthetechniquesthatmakeitpossiblewithadoseoftraining.These
techniquesareavailabletoeveryoneanddonotrequireanyspecialskills!
Beforeyoustartbelievingthatmasteringsuchtechniqueswillprovideyouwithaneternalsolutiontotheproblemof
forgetting,bewarnedthatthetruebottlenecktowardslonglastingandusefulmemoriesisnotinquicklymemorizing
knowledge!Thisisindeedtheeasierpart.Thebottleneckliesinretainingmemoriesformonths,yearsorforlifetime!To
accomplishthelatteryouwillneedSuperMemoandthecompliancewiththe20rulespresentedherein.
Therehavebeendozensofbookswrittenaboutmnemonictechniques.ProbablythosewrittenbyTonyBuzanaremost
popularandrespected.Youcansearchthewebforkeywordssuchas:mindmaps,peglists,mnemonictechniques,etc.
Experienceshowsthatwithadoseoftrainingyouwillneedtoconsciouslyapplymnemonictechniquesinonly15%ofyour
items.Withtime,usingmnemonictechniqueswillbecomeautomatic!
Exemplarymindmap:

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(SixStepsmindmapgeneratedinMindManager3.5,importedtoSuperMemo2004,courtesyofJohnEngland,TeamLinkAustralia)

8. Graphicdeletionisasgoodasclozedeletion
Graphicdeletionworkslikeclozedeletionbutinsteadofamissingphraseitusesamissingimagecomponent.Forexample,
whenlearninganatomy,youmightpresentacomplexillustration.Onlyasmallpartofitwouldbemissing.Thestudent'sjob
istonamethemissingarea.Thesameillustrationcanbeusedtoformulate1020items!Eachitemcanaskaboutaspecific
subcomponentoftheimage.Graphicdeletionworksgreatinlearninggeography!
Exemplarygraphicdeletion:

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SuperMemo2000/2002
Thisishowyoucanquickly
generategraphicdeletionusinga
picturefromtheclipboard:
1. PressShift+Instopaste
thepicturetoSuperMemo
2. PressCtrl+Shift+Mand
chooseOcclusiontemplate
toapplygraphicdeletion
template
3. SuperMemo2000only:Choose
Ctrl+Shift+F2toimposeanddetachthe
Occlusiontemplate

4. Filloutthefieldsand
placetheocclusion
rectangletocoverthe
appropriatepartofthe
picture(useAlt+click
twicetosettherectangle
inthedraggingmode)

SuperMemo99
InSuperMemo99youwillneedafewmoresteps:
1. Createanitemcontainingthefollowingcomponents:
questiontext:Whatisthenameoftheareacoveredwiththered
rectangle?
emptyanswertext(clickAnsweronthecomponentmenu)
yourillustration(useImportfileontheimagecomponentmenu)
redrectanglecomponent(chooseredcolorwithColorontherectangle
componentmenu)
2. ChooseDuplicateontheelementmenu(e.g.bypressingCtrl+Alt+U)
3. Ctrl+clicktherectanglecomponenttwicetoplaceitinthedraggingmode
4. Dragandsizetheredrectangletocovertheareainquestion
5. Typeintheanswerintheanswerfield
6. PressPgUptogobacktotheoriginalelementcreatedinStep1
7. GotoStep2toaddgeneratemoregraphicdeletions
Notethatyoucouldalsopaintcoveringrectanglesorcirclesontheoriginalimage
butthiswouldgreatlyincreasethesizeofyourcollection.Theabovemethodmakes
surethatyoureusethesameimagemanytimesinallitemsofthesametemplate.
Forexample,thecollectionBrainAnatomyavailablefromSuperMemoLibraryand
onSuperMemoMegaMixCDROMusestheabovetechnique

Amoredetailedrecipeforcreatingocclusiontestsispresentedin:Flowofknowledge
9. Avoidsets
Asetisacollectionofobjects.Forexample,asetoffruitsmightbeanapple,apearandapeach.Aclassicexampleofan
itemthatisdifficulttolearnisanitemthatasksforthelistofthemembersofaset.Forexample:Whatcountriesbelongto
theEuropeanUnion?Youshouldavoidsuchitemswheneverpossibleduetothehighcostofretainingmemoriesbasedon
sets.Ifsetsareabsolutelynecessary,youshouldalwaystrytoconvertthemintoenumerations.Enumerationsareorderedlists
ofmembers(forexample,thealphabeticallistofthemembersoftheEU).Enumerationsarealsohardtorememberand
shouldbeavoided.However,thegreatadvantageofenumerationsoversetsisthattheyareorderedandtheyforcethebrainto
listthemalwaysinthesameorder.Anorderedlistofcountriescontainsmoreinformationthanthesetofcountriesthatcanbe
listedinanyorder.Paradoxically,despitecontainingmoreinformation,enumerationsareeasiertoremember.Thereasonfor
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thishasbeendiscussedearlierinthecontextoftheminimuminformationprinciple:youshouldalwaystrytomakesure
yourbrainworksintheexactlysamewayateachrepetition.Inthecaseofsets,listingmembersinvaryingorderateach
repetitionhasadisastrouseffectonmemory.Itisnearlyimpossibletomemorizesetscontainingmorethanfivemembers
withouttheuseofmnemonictechniques,enumeration,grouping,etc.Despitethisclaim,youwilloftensucceeddueto
subconsciouslymasteredtechniquesthathelpyougoaroundthisproblem.Thosetechniques,however,willfailyoualltoo
often.Forthatreason:Avoidsets!Ifyouneedthembadly,convertthemintoenumerationsandusetechniquesfordealing
withenumerations
IllformulatedknowledgeSetsareunacceptable!
Q:WhatcountriesbelongtotheEuropeanUnion(2002)?
A:Austria,Belgium,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Ireland,Italy,Luxembourg,theNetherlands,
Portugal,Spain,Sweden,andtheUnitedKingdom
WellformulatedknowledgeConvertingasetintoameaningfullisting
Q:WhichcountryhostedameetingtoconsiderthecreationofaEuropeanCommunityofDefencein1951?
A:France
Q:WhichcountriesapartfromFrancejoinedtheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunityin1952?
A:Germany,ItalyandtheBenelux
Q:WhatcountriesmakeuptheBenelux?
A:Belgium,Luxembourg,andtheNetherlands
Q:WhosemembershipdidCharlesdeGaulleopposeinthe1960s?
A:thatofUK
Q:WhichcountriesjoinedtheEECalongtheUKin1973?
A:IrelandandDenmark
Q:WhichcountryjoinedtheEECin1981?
A:Greece
Q:WhichcountriesjoinedtheEECin1986?
A:SpainandPortugal
Q:WhichcountriesjoinedtheEUin1995?
A:Austria,SwedenandFinland
Q:WhatwasthehistoriccourseofexpansionoftheEuropeanUnionmembership?
A:(1)Franceand(2)Germany,ItalyandtheBenelux,(3)UKand(4)IrelandandDenmark,(5)Greece,(6)Spainand
Portugaland(7)Austria,SwedenandFinland
Notethatintheexampleabove,weconverteda15membersetinto9items,fiveofwhichare23membersets,andoneisa
sixmemberenumeration.PutittoyourSuperMemo,andseehoweasyitistogeneratethelistoftheEuropeanUnion
membersusingthehistorictimeline!NotethetricksusedwithFranceandtheUK.Theyjoinedtheunioninthecompanyof
othersbuthavebeenlistedasseparateitemstosimplifythelearningprocess.Notealsothatthesumofinformationincluded
inthiswellformulatedapproachisfargreaterthanthatoftheoriginalset.Thusalongsimplicity,wegainedsomeuseful
knowledge.Allindividualitemseffectivelycomplywiththeminimuminformationprinciple!Youcouldgofurtherbytrying
tosplittheGermanyItalyBeneluxsetorusingmnemonictechniquestomemorizethefinalsevenmemberenumeration(i.e.
thelastofthequestionsabove).However,youshouldtakethosestepsonlyifyouhaveanyproblemswithretainingthe
proposedsetinmemory.
10. Avoidenumerations
Enumerationsarealsoanexampleofclassicitemsthatarehardtolearn.Theyarestillfarmoreacceptablethansets.Avoid
enumerationswhereveryoucan.Ifyoucannotavoidthem,dealwiththemusingclozedeletions(overlappingclozedeletions
ifpossible).Learningthealphabetcanbeagoodexampleofanoverlappingclozedeletion:

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Hardtolearnitem
Q:Whatisthesequenceoflettersinthealphabet?
A:abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Easytolearnitems
Q:Whatthreelettersdoesthealphabetbeginwith?
A:ABC
Q:FilloutthemissinglettersofthealphabetA.........E
A:B,C,D
Q:FilloutthemissinglettersofthealphabetB.........F
A:C,D,E
Q:FilloutthemissinglettersofthealphabetC.........G
A:D,E,F
Theaboveitemswillmakelearningthealphabetmuchfaster.Thegreatestadvantageoftheaboveapproachisthatisiteasier
forpsychologicalreasons:thestudentdoesnothavetostoprepetitionstorecitethewholesequenceandcanonlyfocusona
smallpartofthelearnedmaterial.Stillitisrecommendedthatherecitethewholealphabetaftermakingtherepetition.
However,onceallindividualpiecesarewellremembered,recitingthewholeshouldbeapleasantandspeedyactionthat
produceslittlefrustration.
Theclozedeletionusedaboveisanoverlappingclozedeletion,i.e.thesamepartsoftheenumerationarestrengthenedin
memoryusingdifferentitems(forexample,thesequenceCDwillbeneededtorecallthesecondandthethirditem).This
redundancydoesnotcontradicttheminimuminformationprinciplebecausetheextrainformationisaddedinextraitems.
Youcanalsodealwithenumerationsbyusinggroupinglikeinthecaseofsets(seetheEuropeanUnionexample)butcloze
deletionsshouldbesimplerandshouldsufficeinmostcases.
Learningpoemsisanexampleoflearningenumerations(allwordsandsentenceshavetobeutteredinapredefined
sequence)however,duetostrongsemanticconnections,therhymeandtherhythm,itmayoftenbepossibletoeffectively
rememberpoemswithoutusingclozedeletionandwithoutthefrustrationofforgettingsmallsubcomponentsagainandagain.
However,onceyounoticeyoustumblewithyourpoem,youshoulddismemberitusingclozedeletionandthusmakesure
thatthelearningisfast,easy,effectiveandpleasurable
Apoemthatishardtoremember
Q:Thecreditbelongs...(TeddyRoosevelt)
A:Thecreditbelongstothemanwho'sactuallyinthearena,whosefaceismarredbydustandsweatamanwhoknows
thegreatenthusiasmandthegreatdevotions,whospendshimselfinaworthycause,whointheendknowsthetriumph
ofhighachievement,sothathisplaceshallneverbewiththosecoldandtimidsoulswhoknowneithervictorynor
defeat
Apoemsplitintoeasyitems
Q:Thecreditbelongs...(TeddyRoosevelt)
A:tothemanwho'sactuallyinthearena
Q:Thecreditbelongstothemanwho'sactuallyinthearena...
A:whosefaceismarredbydustandsweat(amanwhoknowsthegreatenthusiasm)
Q:whosefaceismarredbydustandsweat...(Thecreditbelongs)
A:amanwhoknowsthegreatenthusiasmandthegreatdevotions(whospendshimselfinaworthycause)
Q:amanwhoknowsthegreatenthusiasmandthegreatdevotions...(Thecreditbelongs)
A:whospendshimselfinaworthycause(whointheendknowsthetriumphofhighachievement)
Q:whospendshimselfinaworthycause...(Thecreditbelongs)
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A:whointheendknowsthetriumphofhighachievement(sothathisplaceshallneverbe),etc.etc.
Doesitallsoundartificial?Itdoes!Butyouwillneverknowhoweffectivethisapproachisuntilyoutryitbyyourself!
11. Combatinterference
Whenyoulearnaboutsimilarthingsyouoftenconfusethem.Forexample,youmayhaveproblemsdistinguishingbetween
themeaningsofthewordshistoricandhistorical.Thiswillevenbemorevisibleifyoumemorizelotsofnumbers,e.g.
optimumdosagesofdrugsinpharmacotherapy.Ifknowledgeofoneitemmakesithardertorememberanotheritem,wehave
acaseofmemoryinterference.Youcanoftenrememberanitemforyearswithstraightexcellentgradesuntil...you
memorizeanotheritemthatmakesitnearlyimpossibletoremembereither!Forexample,ifyoulearngeographyandyou
memorizethatthecountrylocatedbetweenVenezuela,SurinameandBrazilisGuyana,youarelikelytoeasilyrecallthisfact
foryearswithjustacoupleofrepetitions.However,onceyouaddsimilaritemsaskingaboutthelocationofallthese
countries,andFrenchGuyana,andColombiaandmore,youwillsuddenlynoticestrongmemoryinterferenceandyoumay
experienceunexpectedforgetting.Insimpleterms:youwillgetconfusedaboutwhatiswhat.
InterferenceisprobablythesinglegreatestcauseofforgettingincollectionsofanexperienceduserofSuperMemo.Youcan
neverbesurewhenitstrikes,andtheonlyhermeticprocedureagainstitistodetectandeliminate.Inotherwords,inmany
casesitmaybeimpossibletopredictinterferenceatthemomentofformulatingknowledge.Interferencecanalsooccur
betweenremotelyrelateditemslikeGuyana,GuyardandGuyenne,aswellasGuyana,kaymanand...aspirin.Itmaywork
differentlyforyouandforyourcolleague.Itveryhardtopredict.
Stillyoushoulddoyourbesttopreventinterferencebeforeittakesitstoll.Thiswillmakeyourlearningprocesslessstressful
andmentallybearable.Herearesometips:
makeitemsasunambiguousaspossible
sticktotheminimuminformationprinciple(manyoftheremainingrulesinthistextarebasedonavoiding
interference!)
eliminateinterferenceassoonasyouspotit,i.e.beforeitbecomesyourobsession(e.g.assoonasyousee
thewordineptyouthink"IknowthemeaningsofineptandinaptbutIwillneverknowwhichiswhich!")
inSuperMemouseView:Otherbrowsers:Leeches(Shift+F3)toregularlyreviewandeliminate
mostdifficultitems
readmore:Memoryinterference
12. Optimizewording
Thewordingofyouritemsmustbeoptimizedtomakesurethatinminimumtimetherightbulbinyourbrainlightsup.This
willreduceerrorrates,increasespecificity,reduceresponsetime,andhelpyourconcentration.
Lessoptimumitem:clozedeletionthatistoowordy
Q:Aldusinventeddesktoppublishingin1985withPageMaker.Aldushadlittlecompetitionforyears,andsofailedto
improve.ThenDenverbased...blewpast.PageMaker,nowownedbyAdobe,remainsNo.2
A:Quark
Betteritem:fewerwordswillspeeduplearning
Q:Aldusinventeddesktoppublishingin1985withPageMakerbutfailedtoimprove.Then...blewpast(PageMaker
remainsNo.2)
A:Quark
Orbetter:
Q:AldusinventeddesktoppublishingwithPageMakerbutfailedtoimprove.Itwassoonoutdistancedby...
A:Quark
Orbetter:
Q:PageMakerfailedtoimproveandwasoutdistancedby...
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A:Quark
Orbetter:
Q:PageMakerlostgroundto...
A:Quark
Notethatthelossofinformationcontentinthisitemisinconsequential.Duringrepetitionyouareonlysupposedtolearnthe
name:Quark.YoushouldnothopethatthetrailingmessagesontheownershipofPageMakerandtheyearofitsdevelopment
willsomehowtrickletoyourmemoryasasideeffect.Youshoulddecideiftheotherpiecesofinformationareimportantto
youandifso,storetheminseparateitems(perhapsreusingtheabovetext,employingclozedeletionagainandoptimizingthe
wordinginanewway).Otherwisetheredundantinformationwillonlyslowdownyourlearningprocess!
13. Refertoothermemories
Referringtoothermemoriescanplaceyouriteminabettercontext,simplifywording,andreduceinterference.Inthe
examplebelow,usingthewordshumbleandsupplicanthelpsthestudentfocusonthewordshamelesslyandthusstrengthen
thecorrectsemantics.Betterfocushelpseliminatinginterference.Secondly,theuseofthewordshumbleandsupplicant
makesitpossibletoavoidinterferenceofcringingwiththesewordsthemselves.Finally,theproposedwordingisshorterand
morespecific.Naturally,therulesbasicstodetailsanddonotlearnwhatyoudonotunderstandrequirethatthewords
humbleandsupplicantbelearnedbeforehand(oratleastatthesametime)
Itemsubjecttostronginterference
Q:derog:adj:shamelesslyconsciousofone'sfailingsandaskinginabeggingway
A:cringing
Itemthatusesinterferingmemoriestoamplifythecorrectmeaning
Q:derog:adj:shamelesslyhumbleandsupplicant
A:cringing
14. Personalizeandprovideexamples
Oneofthemosteffectivewaysofenhancingmemoriesistoprovidethemwithalinktoyourpersonallife.Intheexample
belowyouwillsavetimeifyouuseapersonalreferenceratherthantryingtopaintapicturethatwouldaptlyillustratethe
question
Harderitem
Q:Whatisthenameofasoftbedwithoutarmsorback?
A:divan
Easieritem
Q:Whatisthenameofasoftbedwithoutarmsorback?(liketheoneatRobert'sparents)
A:divan
IfyourememberexactlywhatkindofsoftbedcanbefoundinRobert'sparents'apartmentyouwillsavetimebynothaving
todigexactlyintothesemanticsofthedefinitionand/orlookingforanappropriategraphicillustrationforthepieceof
furnitureinquestion.Personalizedexamplesareveryresistanttointerferenceandcangreatlyreduceyourlearningtime
15. Relyonemotionalstates
Ifyoucanillustrateyouritemswithexamplesthatarevividorevenshocking,youarelikelytoenhanceretrieval(aslongas
youdonotoverusesametoolsandfallvictimofinterference!).Youritemsmayassumebizarreformhowever,aslongas
theyareproducedforyourprivateconsumption,theendjustifiesthemeans.Useobjectsthatevokeveryspecificandstrong
emotions:love,sex,war,yourlaterelative,objectofyourinfatuation,LindaTripp,NelsonMandela,etc.Itiswellknown
thatemotionalstatescanfacilitaterecallhowever,youshouldmakesurethatyouarenotdeprivedofthesaidemotional
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cluesatthemomentwhenyouneedtoretrieveagivenmemoryinareallifesituation
Harderitem
Q:alightandjokingconversation
A:banter
Easieritem
Q:alightandjokingconversation(e.g.MandelaanddeKlerkin1992)
A:banter
IfyouhavevividandpositivememoriesrelatedtothemeetingsbetweenNelsonMandelaandF.W.deKlerk,youarelikely
toquicklygraspthemeaningofthedefinitionofbanter.Withouttheexampleyoumightstrugglewithinterferencefrom
wordssuchasbadinageorevenchat.Thereisnoriskofirrelevantemotionalstateinthisexampleasthestatehelpstodefine
thesemanticsofthelearnedconcept!Awellthoughtexamplecanoftenreduceyourlearningtimeseveraltimes!Ihave
recordedexamplesinwhichanitemwithoutanexamplewasforgotten20timeswithinoneyear,whilethesameitemwitha
subtleinterferencebustingexamplewasnotforgottenevenonceintenrepetitionsspreadoverfiveyears.Thisisroughly
equivalentto25foldsavingintimeintheperiodof20years!Suchexamplesarenotrare!Theyaremosteffectively
handledwiththealltheprecedingrulestargetedonsimplicityandagainsttheinterference
16. Contextcuessimplifywording
YoucanusecategoriesinSuperMemo2000/2002,providedifferentbranchesofknowledgewithadifferentlook(different
template),usereferencelabels(Title,Author,Date,etc.)andclearlylabelsubcategories(e.g.withstringssuchaschemfor
chemistry,mathformathematics,etc.).Thiswillhelpyousimplifythewordingofyouritemsasyouwillberelievedfromthe
needtospecifythecontextofyourquestion.Intheexamplebelow,thewelldefinedprefixbioch:savesyoualotoftyping
andalotofreadingwhilestillmakingsureyoudonotconfusetheabbreviationGREwithGraduateRecordExamination.
Notethatintherecommendedcase,youprocesstheitemstartingfromthelabelbiochwhichputsyourbrainimmediatelyin
therightcontext.Whileprocessingthelesseroptimumcase,youwillwastepreciousmillisecondsonflashingthestandard
meaningofGREand...whatisworse...youwilllightupthewrongareasofyourbrainthatwillnowperhapsbeproneto
interference!
Wordyitemcancauseaccidentallapsesthroughinterference
Q:WhatdoesGREstandforinbiochemistry?
A:glucocorticoidresponseelement
Contextlabeleditemsincreasesuccessrate
Q:bioch:GRE
A:glucocorticoidresponseelement
17. Redundancydoesnotcontradictminimuminformationprinciple
Redundancyinsimpletermsismoreinformationthanneededorduplicateinformation,etc.Redundancydoesnothaveto
contradicttheminimuminformationprincipleandmayevenbewelcome.Theproblemofredundancyistoowideforthis
shorttext.Herearesomeexamplesthatareonlytoillustratethatminimuminformationprinciplecannotbeunderstoodas
minimumnumberofcharactersorbitsinyourcollectionsorevenitems:
passiveandactiveapproach:ifyoulearnaforeignlanguage,e.g.Esperanto,youwilloftenbuildwordpairssuchas
phonetelefono,languagelingvo,hopeesperanto,etc.Thesepairsrequireactiverecalloftheforeignword.Active
recalldoesnot,however,guaranteepassiverecognitionandyoumayfailwithtelefonophone,lingvolanguage,or
esperantohope.Addingnewelementswithswappedquestionsandanswersmayinsomecasesberedundantbutit
doesnotcontradicttheminimuminformationprinciple!Youritemsarestillassimpleaspossible.Youjustgetmoreof
them
InSuperMemo2000/2002,youcanquicklygenerateswappedwordpairitemswithDuplicate(Ctrl+Alt+D)and
Swap(Ctrl+Shift+S)
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reasoningcues:youwilloftenwanttoboostyourreasoningabilitybyaskingaboutasolutiontotheproblem.Instead
ofjustmemorizingtheansweryouwouldliketoquicklyfollowthereasoningsteps(e.g.solveasimplemathematical
equation)andgeneratetheanswer.Insuchacase,providingthehintonthereasoningstepsintheanswerwillonly
servehelpingyoualwaysfollowtherightpathatrepetitions
derivationsteps:inmorecomplexproblemstosolve,memorizingindividualderivationstepsisalwayshighly
recommended(e.g.solvingcomplexmathematicalproblems).Itisnotcramming!Itismakingsurethatthebraincan
alwaysfollowthefastestpathwhilesolvingtheproblem.Formoreonboostingcreativityandintelligenceread:Roots
ofgeniusandcreativity,aswellasmorespecific:Derivation,reasoningandintelligence
multiplesemanticrepresentation:veryoftenthesameknowledgecanberepresentedandviewedfromdifferent
angles.Memorizingdifferentrepresentationsofthesamefactorruleisrecommendedincaseswhereagivenmemory
isofhighvalue.Thiswillincreasetheexpectedrecallrate(beyondthatspecifiedwiththeforgettingindex)!
flexiblerepetition:iftherearemanyvalidresponsestothesamequestionmakesurethatyourrepresentationmakesit
possibletoidentifytheequivalenceandrewardyouwithgoodgradesbyprovidingjustoneoftheequivalentchoices.
Forexample,ifyoulearnalanguage,itrarelymakesensetolearnallsynonymsthatmeetadefinitionofaconcept.Itis
moreadequatetoconsiderasinglesynonymasthesufficientanswer(e.g.amarkmadebyinkspiltonsth=
blot/blob/blotch)
more
18. Providesources
Exceptforwelltestedandprovenknowledge(suchas2+2=4),itishighlyrecommendedthatyouincludesourcesfrom
whichyouhavegatheredyourknowledge.Inreallifesituationyouwilloftenbeconfrontedwithchallengestoyour
knowledge.Sourcescancometoyourrescue.Youwillalsofindthatfactsandfiguresdifferdependingonthesource.You
canreallybesurprisedhowfrivolouslyreputableinformationagenciespublishfiguresthataredrasticallydifferentfromother
equallyreputablesources.WithoutSuperMemo,thosediscrepanciesareoftendifficulttonotice:beforeyouencounterthe
newfact,theoldoneisoftenlongforgotten.Withsourcesprovided,youwillbeabletomakemoreeducatedchoiceson
whichpiecesofinformationaremorereliable.Addingreliabilitylabelsmayalsobehelpful(e.g.Watchout!,Othersources
differ!,etc.).Sourcesshouldaccompanyyouritemsbutshouldnotbepartofthelearnedknowledge(unlessitiscriticalfor
youtobeabletorecallthesourcewheneverasked).
19. Providedatestamping
Knowledgecanberelativelystable(basicmath,anatomy,taxonomy,physicalgeography,etc.)andhighlyvolatile(economic
indicators,hightechknowledge,personalstatistics,etc.).Itisimportantthatyouprovideyouritemswithtimestampingor
othertagsindicatingthedegreeofobsolescence.Incaseofstatisticalfigures,youmightstampthemwiththeyeartheyhave
beencollected.Whenlearningsoftwareapplications,itisenoughyoustamptheitemwiththesoftwareversion.Onceyou
havenewerfiguresyoucanupdateyouritems.Unfortunately,inmostcasesyouwillhavetorememorizeknowledgethat
becameoutdated.Datestampingisusefulineditingandverifyingyourknowledgehowever,youwillrarelywantto
memorizestampingitself.Ifyouwouldliketorememberthechangesofagivenfigureintime(e.g.GNPfiguresovera
numberofyears),thedatestampingbecomesthelearnedknowledgeitself.
20. Prioritize
Youwillalwaysfacefarmoreknowledgethatyouwillbeabletomaster.Thatiswhyprioritizingiscriticalforbuilding
qualityknowledgeinthelongterm.Thewayyouprioritizewillaffectthewayyourknowledgeslotsin.Thiswillalsoaffect
thespeedoflearning(e.g.see:learnbasicsfirst).Therearemanystagesatwhichprioritizingwilltakeplaceonlyfeware
relevanttoknowledgerepresentation,butallareimportant:
1. Prioritizingsourcestherewillalwaysbeanumberofsourcesofyourknowledge.Ifyouarestillat
studentyears:thesewillmostlikelybebooksandnotespertainingtodifferentsubjects.Otherwiseyouwill
probablyrelymoreonjournals,Internet,TV,newspapers,encyclopedias,dictionaries,etc.Itisalways
worthbeingawarewhatistheoptimumproportionoftimedevotedtothosevariedsources.Asyou
progresswithlearning,youwillquicklydevelopagoodsenseofwhichlearningslotsbringbetterresults
andwhichmightbeextendedatthecostofothers
2. Extractingknowledgeunlessyouareabouttopassanimportantexam,itnearlynevermakessenseto
memorizewholebooksorwholearticles.Youwillneedtoextractthosepartsthataremostlikelytoimpact
thequalityofyourknowledge.Youcandoitby(1)markingparagraphsinabookorjournal,(2)pasting
relevantwebpagestoSuperMemo,(3)pastingrelevantpassagestoSuperMemo,(4)typingfactsand
figuresdirectlytoSuperMemonotes,etc.Youwillneedsomeexperiencebeforeyoucanaccurately
measurehowmuchknowledgeyoucanindeedtransfertoyourbrainandwhatdegreeofdetailyoucan
feasiblymaster.Yourbestwaytoprioritizetheflowofknowledgeintoyourmemoryistouseincremental
readingtools
3. TransferringknowledgetoSuperMemoyoumaytrytostickwiththe20rulesofformulating
knowledgeatthemomentofintroducingyourmaterialtoSuperMemo.However,youcanalsoliterally
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transferyournotesorimportwholefilesandlaterusethemechanismsprovidedbySuperMemoto
determinetheorderofprocessingtheimportedmaterial.Probablythebestcriterionforchoosingbetween
formulatingorjustimportingisthetimeneededforaccuratelyformulatingtheitemoritems.If
formulationrequiresmoreknowledge,moretime,comparingwithothersources,etc.youcanjustimport.
Otherwise,ifyoubelievethatformulatinganaccurateitemisamatterofseconds,formulateit
4. Formulatingitemsmakesurethatexplanatoryoroptionalcomponentsoftheanswerareplacedinthe
parenthesessothatyourattentionisfocusedonthemostimportantpartoftheitem.Thepartsinthe
parenthesescanbereadaftertherepetitiontostrengthenthememoryinitscontext
5. Usingforgettingindexyoucanusetheforgettingindextoprioritizependingitems.Thesequenceof
repetitionswillnaturallybedeterminedbySuperMemohowever,youcanrequesthigherretentionlevel
foritemsthataremoreimportantandlowerretentionlevelforitemsoflowerpriority
6. Learningtheprocessofprioritizingdoesnotendwiththeonsetofrepetitions.Herearethetoolsyoucan
usetocontinuesettingyourprioritieswhilethelearningprocessisunderway:
1. Remember(Ctrl+M)rememorizeitemsofhighprioritythathavechangedorwhichareextremely
importanttoyourknowledgeatagivenmoment.IfyouchooseCtrl+Myouwillbeableto
determinethenextintervalforthecurrentlyrevieweditem(itsrepetitioncounterwillberesetto
zero).Itisrecommendedthatyoualwaysrememorizeitemswhosecontenthaschanged
significantly
2. Reschedule(Ctrl+J)manuallyschedulethedateofthenextrepetition
3. Executerepetition(Ctrl+Shift+R)manuallyexecutearepetitionevenbeforetherepetition'sdue
date(e.g.whenreviewingparticularlyimportantmaterial)
4. Forget(Ctrl+R)removethecurrentitemfromthelearningprocessandplaceitattheendofthe
pendingqueue
5. Dismiss(Ctrl+D)ignorethecurrentiteminthelearningprocessaltogether
6. Delete(Ctrl+Shift+Del)removethecurrentitemfromyourcollection
7. Changetheforgettingindexofmemorizeditemsorchangetheordinalofpendingitems
(Ctrl+Shift+P)

Summary
Hereagainarethetwentyrulesofformulatingknowledge.Youwillnoticethatthefirst16rulesrevolvearoundmakingmemories
simple!Someoftherulesstronglyoverlap.Forexample:donotlearnifyoudonotunderstandisaformofapplyingthe
minimuminformationprinciplewhichagainisawayofmakingthingssimple:
1. Donotlearnifyoudonotunderstand
2. LearnbeforeyoumemorizebuildthepictureofthewholebeforeyoudismemberitintosimpleitemsinSuperMemo.If
thewholeshowsholes,reviewitagain!
3. Builduponthebasicsneverjumpbothfeetintoacomplexmanualbecauseyoumayneverseetheend.Wellremembered
basicswillhelptheremainingknowledgeeasilyfitin
4. Sticktotheminimuminformationprincipleifyoucontinueforgettinganitem,trytomakeitassimpleaspossible.Ifit
doesnothelp,seetheremainingrules(clozedeletion,graphics,mnemonictechniques,convertingsetsintoenumerations,
etc.)
5. Clozedeletioniseasyandeffectivecompletingadeletedwordorphraseisnotonlyaneffectivewayoflearning.Mostof
all,itgreatlyspeedsupformulatingknowledgeandishighlyrecommendedforbeginners
6. Useimageryapictureisworthathousandwords
7. Usemnemonictechniquesreadaboutpeglistsandmindmaps.StudythebooksbyTonyBuzan.Learnhowtoconvert
memoriesintofunnypictures.Youwon'thaveproblemswithphonenumbersandcomplexfigures
8. Graphicdeletionisasgoodasclozedeletionobstructingpartsofapictureisgreatforlearninganatomy,geographyand
more
9. Avoidsetslargersetsarevirtuallyunmemorizableunlessyouconvertthemintoenumerations!
10. Avoidenumerationsenumerationsarealsohardtorememberbutcanbedealtwithusingclozedeletion
11. Combatinterferenceeventhesimplestitemscanbecompletelyintractableiftheyaresimilartootheritems.Use
examples,contextcues,vividillustrations,refertoemotions,andtoyourpersonallife
12. Optimizewordinglikeyoureducemathematicalequations,youcanreducecomplexsentencesintosmart,compactand
enjoyablemaxims
13. Refertoothermemoriesbuildingmemoriesonothermemoriesgeneratesacoherentandhermeticstructurethatforgetting
islesslikelytoaffect.Builduponthebasicsanduseplannedredundancytofillinthegaps
14. Personalizeandprovideexamplespersonalizationmightbethemosteffectivewayofbuildinguponothermemories.
Yourpersonallifeisagoldmineoffactsandeventstoreferto.Aslongasyoubuildacollectionforyourself,use
personalizationrichlytobuilduponwellestablishedmemories
15. Relyonemotionalstatesemotionsarerelatedtomemories.Ifyoulearnafactinthesateofsadness,youaremorelikelyto
recallitifwhenyouaresad.Somememoriescaninduceemotionsandhelpyouemploythispropertyofthebrainin
remembering
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16. Contextcuessimplifywordingprovidingcontextisawayofsimplifyingmemories,buildinguponearlierknowledgeand
avoidinginterference
17. Redundancydoesnotcontradictminimuminformationprinciplesomeformsofredundancyarewelcome.Thereislittle
harminmemorizingthesamefactasviewedfromdifferentangles.Passiveandactiveapproachisparticularlypracticablein
learningwordpairs.Memorizingderivationstepsinproblemsolvingisawaytowardsboostingyourintellectualpowers!
18. Providesourcessourceshelpyoumanagethelearningprocess,updatingyourknowledge,judgingitsreliability,or
importance
19. Providedatestampingtimestampingisusefulforvolatileknowledgethatchangesintime
20. Prioritizeeffectivelearningisallaboutprioritizing.Inincrementalreadingyoucanstartfrombadlyformulatedknowledge
andimproveitsshapeasyouproceedwithlearning(inproportiontothecostofinappropriateformulation).Ifneedbe,you
canreviewpiecesofknowledgeagain,splititintoparts,reformulate,reprioritize,ordelete.Seealso:Incrementalreading,
Devouringknowledge,Flowofknowledge,Usingtasklists
Seealso:
FAQ:Knowledgestructuring
theaboveruleshavebeengroupedandprioritizedforyoutoeasilygetagraspoftheproblemsyouwillencounterwhen
formulatingknowledgeinlearning.Foramoreindepthanalysisinamoresystematicmanner,youcanread:Knowledge
structuringandrepresentationinlearningbasedonactiverecall(thistextisrathertheoreticalandmorehermetic)
seeGeniusandcreativity,whichincludesasectionontheroleofknowledgerepresentationinproblemsolvingandcreativity

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