Conceptual frameworks for thinking about country and region

environmental: geographic and climatic

political: military and diplomatic relations
cultural: spheres of linguistic, religious, or other cultural connection
economic
race
ethnic
migration
historic
other

Han Chinese (around 1/3rd of the land but 93% of the population)
Chinese empires changed size, shape, ethnic composition religious and cultural
focus, economic interest etc.
Start to eat rice in 1000 A.D. picks up in 1200
Rainfall had a huge effect on land distribution between north and south China
Chinese and Japanese used the same word structure but had different sounds
Chinese dynasties' methods of codifying relationships with other states changed
1) Over time
2) Depending on the relative powers of the parties involved
3) Depending on the dynasty's cultural and ethnic background

The Tributary System: Major mechanism for official state-to-state relations for
Chinese dynasties
Main elements during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE)
Foreigners:
1. Ruler or emissary must go to China to pay homage through ritual (kowtow)
2. Send a hostage to stay at the Chinese court
3. Bestow gifts of "native" good
Han Dynasty (What they do back)
1. Recognize and grant protection and support to ruler of foreign realm
2. Bestow lavish gifts and honorary titles
3. Allow small regular trade missions in connection with tribute mission

Tributary system: Reality or myth?

A basic tenet of this exchange is that China is the center, morally and culturally
superior
A lot of foreign countries played this "game" in order to promote trade
The tribute system had many exceptions and varied over time
The Qing dynasty decided to open Chinese ports on the Southern side in the late
1600s, so the European trade from the 1690s to mid 1700s were not through the
tribute system at all
Many Chinese empires tried to project the ideal that trade was below them and that
honor and tribute were what are actually key
Trade and exchange
Main export goods: Silk, ceramics, tea
OTHER: the compass, fireworks, Confucianism, Chinese writing
Main import goods: Horses, precious gems, wood, spices etc.
Later: Silver, new world crops (maize, sweet potato) cannon
Other: Buddism, forms of music, math
Chinese's population prior to corn and sweet potatoes was never over 150 million,
with them, the population grew to 400 million
During the Tang Dynasty, foreign things were in, near the end, people tried to get
rid of Buddhism and get Confucianism back in
The Song dynasty trade tends to concentrate on overseas routes, and they
dominated the seas with larger ships and new or improved maritime technology like
compass, lighthouse, tide charts
They promoted trade as a key source of revenue
The Mongol Yuan Dynasty: Islam takes root in NW China; Chinese printing tech
moves West
Ming dynasty: 1368-1644
Zhenghe's voyages, 1405-1433, for most of the dynasty, trade was not promoted
due to troubles with Mongols on land and piracy at sea

There are plenty of historical examples of China being "open" to foreigners and
foreign ideas; and just as many of Chinese rejecting them
Chinese dynasties were often the pre-eminent power in the region, and
Confucianism had enormous prestige among governing elites in many neighboring
(mainly agrarian) polities. Chinese empires were also huge compared to most
neighbors.
Dynastic rulers had diverse ethnic backgrounds w/diverse religious and cultural
inclinations. In some ways the most enduring tension in dynastic geo-politics was
not native vs. foreign but agrarian vs. nomadic
Both overland and oversea trade were vital, and the demand for Chinese goods
abroad was almost always very strong
China trade and diplomatic exchange with Europe 1600s-1700s
Silver began flowing into China
European demand shifting from porcelains to tea as main good by late 1700s
European trade primarily through joint stock monopolies like Dutch and British East
India companies
Competing against Chinese goods (porcelains and silks) was a major catalyst for
commercial development and "R&D" in Europe
Silver was the best for trade, but silver coinage did not really exist.
Paper currency could not account for inflation, but once you had enough silver, it
made trade a lot easier
The Ming dynasty decided to start collecting taxes in silver
After the Ming -> Qing
The Qing 1644-1911
3 Great Qing Emperors
Kangxi r. 1661-1722: Wealth and stability
Yongzheng r. 1722-1735 Centralization
Qianlong r. 1735-1795 Conquest of Xinjiang: 1758 (Becomes a province 1884)
Macartney Embassy, 1793

Manchus: A group of Jurchen peoples from area currently called NE China, and they
speak their own language while they are unrelated to Chinese; Hunting and archery
are important to livelihood
Manchu 8 banners become the Qing's hereditary military and Manchuria remains a
Manchu preserve off-limits to Han with the high offices being retained for the
Manchus even when the population ratio to Han was only 1/250
Ethnic Tibetans are scattered over a larger area than the geographic region called
Tibet. Kham and Amdo were also largely Tibetan
Han China: Central provinces make up 90% of Qing population and they are
governed by offices granted by civil service exam based on orthodox Zhu Xi NeoConfucianism
The Manchu civil service exam was a lot easier than the exam for the Han Chinese.
The empire was ruled on a policy of segregation, and there was a ban on migration
and intermarriage.
Qing relations w/TIbet
In order to win over loyalty of Mongols it was important to have good relations with
Tibetan religious leaders, Dalai Lama was the most influential
Relation w/Dalai Lama develops from one of mutual respect to one of limited Qing
military and admin intervention
1720 Tibet becomes Qing protectorate
1792 Qing repel Nepalese invasion, Golden urn lottery "instituted" (the
reincarnation of the Dalai Lama is chosen)
1850s-1900s: Tibet clearly not under Qing control in practice (though still are in
diplomatic form)
British invade Tibet 1902; Dalai lama
The Qing lose a lot of land by 1860
Tibet in 20th century
1904: British invade Tibet, Dalai lama flees
1904-1911: British and Russians agree China is sovereign in Tibet. Brutal Qing
military actions in Kham
1911: Qing fall, Republic of China is born and claims Tibet as its territory

1914: Simla Convention: Tibet is autonomous but not independent

1914-1949 Republic of China never had enough power to be strongly involved in
Tibet
1949: PRC founded. Tibet ask British and US for help, none given A few attacks on
Tibet border yields negotiation of 17 Point agreement: Tibet formally recognized PRC
sovereignty