The Romans and The Gauls

Part I: Introduction
by Tom Crotty
Introduction
The Celts were one of the great peoples of ancient Europe. 1 Their lands
extended from Ireland to Hungary and as far south as Spain and Galatia in
Asia Minor. They shared a common culture in terms of language, customs,
and art. The archaeological record reveals "that many of their lands were
populous and well-farmed, dotted with settlements and gathering places, and
often forts and shrines."2
The Greeks and Romans feared the Celts and considered them a barbaric
people. And for good reason. The Celts had sacked Rome in 390 B. C. and a
good portion of Greece, including Delphi, in 279 B. C. However, within a
relatively brief period of time after Caesar conquered the Celts in Gaul in
the middle of the first century B. C., they appear to have adapted thoroughly
to Roman civilization.
The ancient Celts were not a literate people. The only textual accounts that
we have of the them are Classical sources, and these probably contain some
truth. But these accounts, which are very limited in scope, are also colored
by cultural prejudice, misunderstanding, and the need to propagandize. 3 This
paper will examine some of the Classical sources that describe Celtic or
Gallic appearance and behavior, and sources that describe the Druids.

Methodology
I will discuss several primary sources that describe the, primarily preconquest, Gauls from a Roman point-of-view. The earliest sources that I will
use are the Bibliotheke of Diodorus Siculus, Caesar's de Bello Gallico, and
Cicero's Pro Fonteio. These sources are roughly contemporaneous, dating
from the late to middle first century B.C. For the early Empire, I will use
the Geography of Strabo, which dates from the late first century B. C. and
early first century A.D.
To flesh out the traditional image of the Gauls that we get from Classical
sources, and to illustrate Gallic sentiments and traits that are not part of the
stereotypical descriptions, I have included sources written by a Roman

who may have been a Gaul, the historian Tacitus, and a Roman who was
most surely a Gaul, Ausonius. Excerpts from Tacitus' Agricola, written in
the mid-first century A.D., will be used to illustrate the Celtic love of liberty
and hatred of oppression. I will use the poem, The Moselle, and various
pieces from Ausonius to show the survival of Gallic sentiment and character
in the fourth century A. D.
Please note that I will use the terms "Celts" and "Gauls" somewhat
interchangeably unless discussing the Celts who lived in Gaul. Then I will
use the term "Gauls."

Sources
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek from Sicily who settled and wrote in Rome
probably around 56 B. C.4 His information on the Celts is contained in his
major work, the Bibliotheke, "a universal history from mythological times to
60 B. C."5 The Oxford Classical Dictionary (OCD) says that Diodorus
closely follows Polybius, a second-century B. C. Greek historian, and
Posidonius, a Syrian-Greek philosopher who lived in Rome and was a
teacher of Cicero.6 Because Diodorus was an admirer of Julius Caesar, the
conqueror of the Gauls, and because his work placed an emphasis on "the
civilizing power of individual benefactors,"7 it is likely that his descriptions
of the Gauls and their culture are somewhat simplistic and biased.
Two sources of the late Republican period, Caesar's de Bello Gallico and
Cicero's Pro Fonteio, were overtly biased against the Gauls, though for
different reasons. Caesar conquered Gaul from 58 B. C. to 51 B. C. His
descriptions of the Gauls and their culture were colored with "deep-seated
cultural prejudices"8 and the desire to build his reputation as a war leader for
political purposes. Cicero, in Pro Fonteio, defends a Roman administrator of
Gaul against charges of malfeasance brought against him by Gauls.
Although Cicero probably had an appreciation of certain aspects of Gallic
culture -- he describes the druid Divitiacus as a "gentlemanly student of the
physical universe"9 -- he plays on several negative stereotypes of the Gauls
in order to discredit the prosecutors' witnesses, who were Gauls, and win his
case. Still, both Caesar's and Cicero's accounts are valuable in that they
present stark Roman stereotypes of the Gauls, and as with most cultural
stereotypes, there is probably some truth to them.
Strabo was an "Asiatic Greek geographer and historian who was personally
acquainted with Posidonius."10 Posidonius apparently had first-hand
knowledge of the Celts.11 Strabo was also a Roman citizen who wrote under
the patronage of a Roman prefect of Egypt 12 and the emperor Tiberius.
According to the OCD, "Strabo emphasizes the usefulness of geography for
statesmen and generals, those who bring together cities and peoples into a

single empire and political management."13 It is likely that Strabo's accounts

of the Gauls are based to a large degree on Posidonius's observations, and
colored by his own dedication to Empire and "Greco-Roman ways of
life."14 (Rankin 133) Strabo gives us brief glimpses of post-conquest,
Romanized Gauls.
Tacitus was probably born in Narbonese or Cisalpine Gaul and he may have
been a Gaul himself.15 There is no definitive evidence to prove that Tacitus
was a Gaul, but there are indications in his writings. First, "all but one of the
speakers in Tacitus' Dialogus de Oratoribus is a Gaul,"16 and Tacitus states
at the beginning of the work that he is "reporting a conversation he heard as
a young man."17 Second, as described in a letter written to Pliny,18 when
asked by an eques at the Circus if he is a provincial or an Italian, Tacitus
evades answering and says "Your knowledge of Roman oratory should tell
you who I am." The eques answers, "Are you Tacitus or Pliny?" Tacitus'
answer sounds defensive. One would think that had he been an Italian, he
would have stated so without hesitation. Furthermore, H. D. Rankin infers
from this passage that Tacitus had an accent like Pliny, who was from
Cisalpine Gaul, a "Romanised Celtic accent." 19
Tacitus was a son-in-law of Agricola and a Roman magistrate, eventually
serving as proconsul of Asia.20 Yet some of his opinions on the Roman
relationship to the Britons (a Celtic people) as expressed in the Agricola and
certain speeches that he placed into the mouths of rebellious British leaders
show an appreciation for liberty, and disdain for oppression and, possibly,
even for assimilation.21 These speeches may also exhibit a Gallic pride
hidden for the purposes of survival and advancement. 22
Finally, I will use some of the writings of Ausonius, a 4 th-century Gaul from
Bordeaux, to illustrate that certain aspects of Gallic character and culture
survived Romanization. Ausonius taught grammar and rhetoric at the
University of Bordeaux for 30 years before being called to Rome to tutor the
future emperor Gratian, which he did for 10 years. 23 He went on to serve as
prefect of Gaul, and eventually as consul in A. D. 379.

Pre-Romanization Roman Attitudes

The traditional Roman view of the Gauls can be expressed easily in one
word: excessive. To the Romans the Gauls were excessive in their personal
appearance and behavior, in their manner of making war, in their religion.
The reported Gallic appearance and modes of behavior violated the
traditional Roman virtues of industria, gravitas,
constantia, and severitas. One could hardly imagine a people whose
countenance and customs would more offend Roman sensibilities.
Undoubtedly, the Roman view of Gauls was informed to a large degree by

fear, given that the Gauls were the only enemy of Rome that had sacked the
Eternal City prior to its fall.
Diodorus Siculus writes that in appearance the "Gauls are tall of body, with
rippling muscles, and white of skin, and their hair is blond (Book V. 28. 1)."
Further, the Gauls accentuated this foreign lightness by washing their hair
with lime and pulling it back from the forehead "so that their appearance is
like Satyrs and Pans (Book V. 28. 2)." They, men and women, wear
bracelets, heavy necklaces (torcs), rings, and even corselets, of gold. Their
clothing is "striking -- shirts which have been dyed and embroidered in
varied colors, and breeches; and they wear striped coats...in which are set
checks, close together and of varied hues (Book V. 30. 1-2)." Diodorus'
description of multicolored checked clothing sounds a lot like tartan plaid.
Strabo describes how this excess in appearance extends into Gallic behavior.
They exhibit "simplicity and high-spiritedness...[and] witlessness and
boastfulness (Geography 4.4.5)." This "levity of character" makes them look
"not only insufferable when victorious, but also scared out of their wits
when worsted."
Both Diodorus and Cicero describe Gallic speech as being harsh. Diodorus
(Book V. 31. 1) says that "when they meet together they converse with few
words and in riddles, hinting darkly at things for the most part and using one
word when they mean another...." All of the sources describe them as
boasters. But Diodorus also says that they have sharp wits and "are not
without cleverness at learning (Book V. 31. 1)."
Finally, the Gauls drink to excess. Besides drinking their own beer and mead
(fermented honey), the Gauls, according to Diodorus "are exceedingly
addicted to the use of wine (Book V. 26. 2-3)." They drink the wine without
mixing it with water, and they drink until "they fall into a stupor or a state of
madness (Diodorus V. 26. 3)." A fragment of Cicero's Pro Fonteio expresses
the wishful admonishment that "the Gauls would hereafter drink in more
sober proportions (IV. 9)."
These descriptions of Gauls from Classical sources remind one of the
stereotypical 19th-century English attitude toward the sly, primitive Irish and
the wild Scots, best expressed in Punch cartoons. Strabo's phrase "levity of
character" is interesting, though, because it reflects on a very real Celtic
trait, which springs from a sort of dreamy optimism that during their long
history has led Celts into great adventure and unmitigated disaster. Yeats
recognized this trait in his countrymen and disapproved of it. The epitaph on
his tombstone warns, "Cast a cold eye on life, on death...."

Druids comprise another well-known stereotypical aspect of Gallic or Celtic

culture related by Classical sources. Several sources describe acts of human
sacrifice conducted by the Druids, and archaeological finds such as Lindow
man (a probable sacrificial victim found well-preserved in a bog in England)
tend to lend substantive evidence to these descriptions. 24 Cicero describes
the custom as "monstrous and barbarous," (Pro Fonteio XIV. 31) which it
certainly is. But it is no more barbarous than watching people kill each other
or animals for entertainment, committing criminals ad bestia, or crucifying
people.
Not all of the Classical descriptions of Druidic practices and beliefs related
to human sacrifice. Diodorus informs us that the Druids were natural
philosophers and moral philosophers "unusually honored" among the Gauls
(Book V. 31. 3). Caesar describes how many young men volunteer or are
sent by relatives for Druidic training (de Bello Gallico VI. 14). He says that
this Druidic knowledge is memorized, even though in "public and private
accounts" they use Greek letters, and that some people remain in training for
20 years.
Caesar tells us that the primary Druidic teaching involved reincarnation (de
Bello Gallico VI. 14). Diodorus says that "the belief of Pythagoras prevails
among them, that the souls of men are immortal and that after a prescribed
number of years they commence upon a new life, the soul entering another
body." (Book V. 28. 5 -- 6) Caesar, in a rather knowing way, also says that
the Druids "have many discussions as touching the stars and their
movement, the size of the universe and of the earth, the order of nature,
[and] the strength and the powers of the immortal gods (de Bello Gallico VI.
14).
One understands that it was not Caesar's purpose to discuss the tenets of
ancient religions in depth, but one can't help but wish that he (or one of the
other ancient writers) had described the Druids' beliefs more fully. A body of
knowledge developed most likely from neolithic times, and requiring 20
years to commit to memory, would be very interesting to know about.

Post-Romanization Roman Attitudes

For all of their reputed barbarism, it seems that the Gauls were Romanized
or civilized very quickly. Strabo, who wrote in the Augustan Age, only a few
years after the conquest, says that the Gauls "are no longer barbarians
(Geography 4. 1. 11-12)." They have been "transformed to the type of the
Romans." "The people are tilling the country diligently (Geography 4. 1. 1314)." They provide Rome and Italy with woolen cloaks (sagi) and salt meat.
Instead of paying liege to a warrior aristocracy, "they give heed, for the most
part, to the commands of the Romans (Geography 4. 4. 3)." Even though

Strabo mentions the customs of Druids and bards in present tense, he says
that the Romans have put a stop to the practice of human sacrifice and the
taking and collecting of heads (Geography 4. 4. 5).
[Continue to the second part of Tom Crotty's article in the Lnasa edition]

Notes
1. S. James, The World of the Celts, (London 1993) 7.
2. James, 7.
3. S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, The Oxford Classical Dictionary,
(Oxford 1996), 623,
4. S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, 472-473.
5. Hornblower and Spawforth, 472.
6. Hornblower and Spawforth, 473.
7. Hornblower and Spawforth, 473.
8. Hornblower and Spawforth, 623.
9. H.D. Rankin, Celts and the Classical World, (London 1987) 122.
10. James, 13.
11. James, 12.
12. Hornblower and Spawforth, 1,447.
13. Hornblower and Spawforth, 1,447.
14. Rankin, 133.
15. G. Woolf, Becoming Roman, (Cambridge 1988), 73.
16. Woolf, 73.
17. W M. Hadas, in Tacitus, Complete Works, (New York 1942), x.
18. Rankin, 139.
19. Rankin, 139.

20. Hornblower and Spawforth, 1469.

21. Rankin, 147.
22. Rankin, 147.
23. H.G.E. White, in Ausonius, Volume I, (London 1951) x.
24. A. Ross and D. Robins, The Life and Death of a Druid Prince, New York
1989) 27.