Surface hydrology

Surface runoff

Prof. W. Bauwens
Dpt. of Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering
wbauwens@vub.ac.be

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITIONS & SYMBOLS

HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS

THE GENERAL HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM

4.1

The general hydrologic system model

4.2

Linear, time invariant systems

RESPONSE FUNCTIONS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

5.1

The impulse response function

5.2

The step response function

5.3

The pulse response function

5.4

Comments

THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

6.1

Introduction

6.2

Convolution

6.3

De-convolution

11

6.4

Standard unit hydrographs

11

6.4.1 Introduction

11

6.4.2 The standard unit hydrograph of Harms and Verworn

12

6.5
7

The time-area method

14

LINEAR RESERVOIR MODELS

16

7.1

Introduction

16

7.2

The single linear reservoir

16

7.3

Reservoirs in series

17

7.4

The linear channel

19

REFERENCES

19

Surface Hydrology - Surface Runoff

INTRODUCTION

The net rainfall over a river basin will produce the storm runoff hydrograph. As
the storm runoff is generated from different locations within the basin, a time
distribution of the storm runoff with time will be observed. To calculate the storm
hydrograph in a location along the river, it is necessary to account for the
transport of the water from within the river basin towards this location.
Although the transport mechanisms may be complex and consist of flow over the
surface, flow within ditches and rivers and subsurface storm flow, this transport
is here referred to as surface runoff.
This section provides an overview of different methods that can be used to this
purpose:
Hydraulic methods
Linear models such as the unit hydrograph and linear reservoir models
Non- linear hydrologic methods
2

DEFINITIONS & SYMBOLS

Symbol
H
i
I
n
N
p(t)
q
Q
s(t)
S
Smax
So
Sf
Sw
t
tc
T
u(t)
x
y
z

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Water depth
Precipitation intensity
Input rate
Precipitation depth
Net precipitation intensity
Net precipitation depth
Pulse response function
(Storm) runoff rate
Response rate
Runoff volume
Step response function
Storage volume
Max. storage capacity
Surface slope
Friction slope
Water surface slope
Time
Concentration time
Return period
Impulse response function
Co-ordinate
Co-ordinate
Depth

Unit (e.g.)
m
mm / hour
mm
mm / hour
mm
l/s ; m3/s
l ; m3
mm; m3
mm
hour
hour
year

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HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS

The surface runoff can be calculated by means of the equations for gradually
varied flow of Barre de Saint Venant. More information on these equations is
provided in the section on flood routing.
For use of the equations, the subbasin is divided in grid cells. Each cell is
considered as a plane with given slopes in the x- and y-direction. The flow over
such a plane is then calculated by the diffusive wave or cinematic wave
approximation of the equations of de Saint Venant.
For the diffusive wave approximation, the equations are:
Conservation of mass (Continuity):

H
Hu
Hv

+
n
t
x
y
[3.1]
Conservation of momentum:

H
( Sox Sfx ) 0
x

with

x &y
H(x,y,t)
n(x,y,t)
Sox & Soy(x,y)
Sfx & Sfy(x,y)
t
u & v(x,y,t)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

and
the
the
the
the
the
the
the

H
( Soy Sfy ) 0
y

[3.2]

horizontal Cartesian co-ordinates

local water depth
net rainfall intensity
surface slope (x & y direction)
friction slopes
time
flow velocity (x & y direction)

[m]
[m]
[m/s]
[-]
[-]
[s]
[m/s]

The relations between the flow velocities and the water depths are calculated by
means of an equation for the calculation of the friction losses, e.g. the equation of
Strickler-Manning
u kx H 2/3

S wx

v k y H 2/3

and

S wy

[3.3]

with
k(x,y)
Swx & Swy(x,y)

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=
=

the Stickler roughness coefficient

the slope of the water surface

[m0.33/s]
[-]

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THE GENERAL HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM

4.1

The general hydrologic system model

The change in time of the amount of water stored in a hydrologic system (a river
basin, a reservoir, a river, a river reach,), S, is related to the rates if inflow and
outflow by the continuity equation, which expresses the conservation of mass :
dS(t)
= i(t) - q(t)
dt
[4.1]
In general, the storage can also be related to the inflow and outflow rates and to
their derivatives with time. This relation is called the storage equation:

S(t) = f(i,
[4.2]
where :
i(t)
q(t)
S(t)

di d 2i
dq d 2 q
, 2 ,..., q,
,
,... )
dt dt
dt dt 2
= the inflow rate
= the outflow rate
= the storage

( m3/s );
( m3/s );
( m3 );

The function f in the latter equation is a function of the nature of the considered
hydrological system (surface runoff, river routing,).
4.2

Linear, time invariant systems

If the storage equation is of the linear type

S a1q a 2

dq
d 2q
di d 2i
a3 2 ... b1i b2 2 ...
dt
dt
dt dt

[4.3]
with the parameters a and b constants, then the system is linear and time
invariant.
The attribute time invariant indicates that the way the system processes input to
output does not change with time.
The assumption of linearity involves that the principles of proportionality and
superposition may be applied:
Proportionality: if q is the output of the system for input I, then c*q is the
output for input c*i
Superposition: if q1 and q2 are the outputs of the system for the inputs i1
and i2 respectively, then q1+q2 will be the output for the input i1+i2.

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RESPONSE FUNCTIONS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

Linear time invariant systems are completely and uniquely characterised by their
response functions. The most common response functions are:
the impulse response function
the step response function
the pulse response function
5.1

The impulse response function

The impulse response function describes the response of a linear system to a unit
impulse. The latter is defined as an input of unit amount that is applied
instantaneously.
Be the moment at which the impulse is applied. The response of the system at
time t ( later than ) is described by u(t-), where t- is the time lag since the
impulse was applied ( Fig. 5.1 ).

0.25

0.2

0.8

0.15

0.6
0.1

0.4

RESPONSE RATE

INPUT M ASS

1.2

0.05

0.2
0

0
TIME

Fig.5.1: The impulse response function

Considering the principles of proportionality and superposition applicable to linear
systems, the response of a combination of discrete pulses may be determined.
E.g. the combined response q(t) of an impulse of amount 2 at time 1 and an
impulse of amount 3 at time 2 is given by (see also Fig.5.2) :
q(t) = 2 u(t-1) + 3 u(t-2)
1
0.8

2*u

0.6

3*u

0.4

sum

0.2
0
1

7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34
TIME

Fig.5.2: The response for 2 impulses: superposition and proportionality

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In analogy, a continuous input can be considered as a sum of infinitesimal

impulses.
Let i() represent the continuous input rate to the linear system. The amount of
input concentrated between the time and +d after the start of the input may be
considered as such an infinitesimal impulse (Fig.5.3). The latter amount equals i()
d.

i()d

u(t-)

t-
q(t)

i( )u(t - )d

t
Fig.5.3 : Convolution
The response resulting from this impulse is i() u(t-) d.
The response to the continuous input rate may be found by integrating the
responses to the pulses that constitute the input. An integral of this type is called a
convolution integral.
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q(t) = i( )u(t - )d
0

[5.1]
5.2

The step response function

The step response function describes the response of the linear system to a unit
step input.
The unit step input is defined as
i(t) = 0
for t < 0
i(t) = 1
for t > 0
where i represents the input rate.

q(t) = s(t) = u(t - )d

0

[5.2]
Applying Eq.5.1 with the latter input, the unit step response function is defined as
The step response function at time t thus corresponds to the integral of the
impulse response function up to that time (Fig.5.4). By substituting l = t- in
Eq.5.2:

s(t) = u(l)dl

[5.3]

INPUT / RESPONSE
RATE

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

10

20

30

40

TIME

Fig.5.4: The step response function

5.3

The pulse response function

The pulse response function describes the response of the linear system to a unit
pulse input.

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The unit pulse input is defined as

i(t) = 0
for t < 0
i(t) = 1/t for 0 <= t <= t
i(t) = 0
for t > t
The total amount of input thus corresponds to unity.
The response to a pulse input is found by applying the principles of superposition
and proportionality to an input consisting of
- a step input with intensity 1/t, starting at time 0;
- a step input with intensity 1/t, starting at time _t,
The subtraction of both steps yields the desired pulse input.
1
p(t)= [ s(t) - s(t - t) ]
[5.4]
t
Using the above mentioned principles, the pulse response is found by subtracting
the responses of both steps:
By substituting Eq.5.3 and after rearranging :

1
p(t) = u(l)dl
t t - t

[5.5]

Fig.5.5 : The pulse response function

5.4

Comments

Considering the relations that exist between the different response functions, the
knowledge of one of these functions is sufficient to describe the linear system.
As an example, the following problem is discussed. Be the pulse response function
for pulses with duration t known. The problem consists of deriving the response
function for pulses with duration t.
The problem can be solved by first deriving the step response function:

s (t ) t p (t ) p (t t ) p (t 2t ) ....

[5.6]

Hereto, use was made of the principles of proportionality ( the pulse has an
intensity 1/t, while the step has an intensity 1 ) and of superposition ( the step is
considered as a succession of pulses).
With the step response function known, the procedure described in 5.3 can be
applied. This leads to the new pulse response function:
p ' (t )

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1
s (t ) s (t t ' )
t

[5.7]

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THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

6.1

Introduction

If it is assumed that the transformation of a net rainfall hyetograph into a

hydrograph is a linear process, the theory of the previous chapter can be applied
to the surface runoff process.
Using the terminology of 5, the unit hydrograph (UH) is defined as the unit pulse
response function of that linear system; it represents the storm outflow of a
catchment if a unit amount (e.g. 1 mm) of net rainfall were applied over an
effective duration t..
The following assumptions are inherent to the concept :
the surface runoff process is a linear process;
the response of a watershed for the surface runoff is thus unique and time
invariant;
the excess rainfall has a constant intensity over t ;
the excess rain is uniformly distributed over the basin.
The first two hypotheses are an approximation of reality, as the actual process is
nor linear, nor time invariant. The method should therefore be used with caution,
especially if floodings occur or when there exist large storage volumes (lakes,
reservoirs,..) in the basin.
The third hypothesis requires the selection of a relatively small time step. The last
hypothesis limits the application of the unit hydrograph to basins of up to a few
hundred km2.
In hydrology, the other response functions are called the S-hydrograph and the
instantaneous unit hydrograph.
The S-hydrograph represents the step response function of the linear system. If
the UH for a given duration is available, the unit hydrographs for other durations
may be derived, using the S-hydrograph, using the procedure described in 5.4.
The instantaneous unit hydrograph is the hypothetical response of the system, if a
unit depth of excess rainfall were to be applied instantaneously on the watershed.
As such, it represents the impulse response function of the system. It is used to
derive the UH for conceptual overland flow models (see e..g. 7) and for analysing
characteristics of the surface runoff in a river basin, independently of the duration
of the rainfall.
Discrete time
The response functions 5 were defined for the continuous time domain. For
hydrologic applications, solutions are normally needed at discrete time intervals. To
apply the response functions in discrete time, the time domain will be divided into
discrete intervals of duration t.
The input function the hyetograph - will be represented as a succession of pulses
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with duration t. For the m-th interval :

m t
I m = (m-1) t i(t) dt

[6.1]
where Im represents the rainfall amount ( mm ) between time (m-1) t and mt.
The output series consists of a number of flows at discrete moments in time, at a
time interval t. For the n-th interval :
q n = q(n t)
[6.2]
where qn is the instantaneous flow rate at the end of the n-th interval ( m3/s ).
The transition from a continuous time domain to a discrete time domain has some
mathematical consequences with the response functions. Hereto, it is referred e.g.
to Ven te Chow (1988).
6.2

Convolution

The convolution problem consists of the transformation of a hyetograph

composed of a series of net rainfall pulses with duration t and amounts Ni, N2,
NM into a stormflow hydrograph, with flow qn at time n t. Be
[6.3]
U n = p(n t)
the pulse response function or unit hydrograph for time n*t after the start of
the pulse (on a discrete time domain).
In discrete time, the convolution integral corresponds to
q n = N 1 U n + N 2 U n -1 + ... + N m U n - m+1 + ... + N M U n - M +1
[6.4]
or
q n = N M U n - m+1
[6.5]
with
Nm
= the net rainfall amount ( mm ) between time (m-1)t and mt.
qn
= the (instantaneous) flow at time n t ( m3/s ).
The summation is performed for m = 1 to M if n > M or for m = 1 to n if n < M.
The procedure is illustrated on Fig.6.1.

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5
4
N

3
2
1
0
1

10

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

3mm

2mm

10

4mm

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1

10

TIME

Fig.6.1: Discrete convolution

Remark
Note that the ordinates of the unit hydrograph have the dimensions L 2/T. By
multiplying the flows by t and diving them by the basin area, they can be
expressed as equivalent amounts of runoff per unit surface area, in mm. In this
case, the U-values become dimensionless. Moreover, the sum of the U-values then
equals 1.

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6.3

De-convolution

De-convolution is the operation whereby the unit hydrograph is defined, based

on (a) know net rain hyetograph(s) and (an) observed storm hydrograph(s).
Several techniques can hereto be used:
Gauss-elimination
Matrix-inversion
Linear regression
Linear or non-linear optimisation
The Gauss-elimination
Consider M net rainfall pulses and N values of the storm runoff. The following set of
equations may be written:
q1 N 1U 1
q 2 N 2U 1 N 1U 2
q3 N 3U 1 N 2U 2 N 1U 3
...
q M N M U 1 N M 1U 2 ... N 1U M
q M 1 0 N M U 2 ... N 2U M N 1U M 1
....
q N 1 0 0 ... 0 N M U N M N M 1U N M 1
q N 0 0 ... 0 N M U N M 1
[6.6]
U1 may be derived from the first equation. With U 1 known, U2 can be derived from
the second equation, etc.
The problem with the Gauss elimination method comes from the fact that the set
of equations is over-determined: the set contains N equations for N-M+1
unknowns (Check this). Consequently, there is no unique solution to the problem.
Partly due to the de-convolution method and partly due to the approximate nature
of the unit hydrograph method (definition of the net rainfall, linear system,) it is
also often observed that the shape of the UH obtained by the Gauss method is not
physically sound.
6.4

Standard unit hydrographs

6.4.1 Introduction
If the UH cannot be determined by de-convolution due to lack of data, standard
unit hydrographs can be used as an alternative. Hereby the (major) characteristics
of the UH are determined, based on the knowledge of global characteristics of the
river basin such as the surface area, the slope, the length of the river, Obviously,
such standard UH rely on empirical data and their applicability is limited to basins
with similar characteristics as the ones that were used to set up the empirical
relations.
Well known methods are the Sneyder Unit Hydrograph (1938) equations derived
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from measurements in the Appalache mountains and the SCS Unit Hydrograph
(1972).
As an illustration, the standard unit hydrograph of Harms and Verworn is
presented.
6.4.2 The standard unit hydrograph of Harms and Verworn
Harms and Verworn ( 1984 ) defined a standard unit hydrograph for European
urban areas up to a few ha, with the following characteristics ( Fig.6.2 ) :
a linear increase up to the peak qp at the time tp;

an exponential recession, similar to the linear reservoir model;

end of the recession at 0.01 * qp

qp

0.01 qp

tp
Fig.6.2 :

TIM
EE

The standard unit hydrograph of Harms and Verworn

The hydrograph can be made dimensionless by defining a dimensionless flow q'

and a dimensionless time t' :

q tL
NA
t
t =
tL
q' =

[6.7]

[6.8]

and

k =

[6.9]

tL

where :
A = the area ( m2 )
tL
= the inlet time
(s)
q = the flow ( l/s )
I
= the effective rainfall amount
k = the recession parameter ( 1/s ).

( mm )

The analysis of about 20 dimensionless unit hydrographs for different catchments

showed the following mean values for the dimensionless peak flow, time to the
peak and recession parameter :
q'p
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= 0.96

t'p

= 0.49
12

k'

= 0.82
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Surface Hydrology - Surface Runoff

The latter values define the standard unit hydrograph. Using these values, the unit
hydrograph for any given area can be reconstructed, using the transformations:

q tL
NA
t
t =
tL
q' =

k=

A
qp

[6.10]

[6.11]

tp
2

0.99

[6.12]
The latter relation is used to certify a runoff volume of 1 mm. The time to peak
should be rounded to a multiple of UH time base when calculating the recession
constant k.
qp
tp
dt
i = 1,2,...
qi =
[6.13]
dt
tp
The values of the rising limb of the hydrograph can be calculated by:
and the decreasing part

qi = q p e

-( t i - t p )

i=

tp
+ 1,.. + 2,.., n
dt

[6.14]

The number of the ordinates is given by the minimum q for the decreasing part: q
> 0.01 * qp.
The lag-time tL is calculated by empirical formulae :
for impervious areas :
L
t L = a u + 0.87 ln A - 3
lf

[6.15]

with :
tL
au
A
L
lf

=
=
=
=
=

the lag time

a calibration parameter
the area
the length of the subcatchment
the flow-path

(minutes);
(default = 11 minutes );
(ha);
(m);
(m).

for pervious areas:

t L = a d + 0.4

i0.388
e

l0.593
f
0.380
S 0 k 0.605

[6.16]

with :
tL
ad
ie
S0
k

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=
=
=
=
=
=

the lag time

a calibration parameter
the effective rainfall intensity
mean surface slope
roughness coefficient
1/ n with n = Manning roughness.
13

(minutes);
(default = 2.3 minutes);
(mm/min);
(%);

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6.5

The time-area method

The time-area allow to define the UH, based on the construction of the isochrones
within the river basin. The latter isochrones are lines that connect the points at an
equal travel time from the basin outlet (Fig.6.3a).

A6

concentration

A5

A4

t
3t
2t

A3

Isochrones

A2
A1

AREA A

40
30
20
10
0
1

4
TIME

dA/dt

15
10
5
0
1

TIME

Fig.6.3 : The time-area method

Knowing the isolines, a graph showing the cumulative basin area as a function of
the travel time can be constructed (Fig.6.3b). It is further assumed that this curve
represents the S-hydrograph of the river basin.
Finally, the UH is obtained by differentiating the S-hydrograph (Fig.6.3.c).

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The definition of the isochrones requires a good understanding of the flow

conditions within the river basin. Hereby, the surface flow, as well as the river flow
has to be accounted for.
An approximate method consists of the drawing of the isolines that connect the
points that are at the same flow distance from the outlet. In the latter case, the xscale on Fig. 6.3b would be a distance scale. When assuming a uniform flow
velocity over the basin, the distance scale can be transformed into a time scale by
accounting for the travel time of the river basin.

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LINEAR RESERVOIR MODELS

7.1

Introduction

For the reservoir models, the river basin is considered to act on the net rainfall as a
reservoir or as a series of reservoirs in series or in parallel.
The linear reservoir models are based on the continuity equation
dS(t)
= i(t) - q(t)
dt
[7.1]
and on a storage equation
S(t) = K q(t)
where :
i(t)
= the inflow rate
q(t)
= the outflow rate
S(t)
= the storage
K
= the reservoir time constant
7.2

[7.2]
(m3/s);
(m3/s);
(m3);
(s);

The single linear reservoir

Combining Eqs.7.1 and 7.2, with x = 1 yields

dq(t)
K
+ q(t) = i(t)
dt
[7.3]
Starting the inflow at time t0 with outflow q0, the general solution of Eq.7.3 is :

q(t) =

t
t0 - t
1 -t t
e K t0 i(t) e K dt + q0 e K
K

[7.4]
For t0 = q0 = 0 and for i = constant, Eq.7.4 reduces to :
t

q(t) = i ( 1 - e- K )

[7.5]

The instantaneous unit hydrograph of this model can be expressed as :

u(t) =

1 -t
eK
K

[7.6]
Consider now a pulse with duration tp and intensity 1. For t tp equation 7.5
remains valid and thus:
t

[7.7]

q(t) = 1 - e K

For t > tp, i = 0. The general solution given by eq. 7.4 (with to = tp ) yields:

q(t) q0 e

tp-t
K

[7.8]

with qo the flow at time tp.

Note that we hereby recognise the exponential recession discussed for the
separation of the stormflow and the baseflow.

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Parameters
The model only requires the knowledge of the parameter K. If no other data are
available for the determination of K, empirical relations can be used.
Viessman ( 1968 ) established the following empirical relation for K :
0.66

K = 0.525
where :
L
n
s

(nL )
s0.33

[7.9]

= the maximum flow length

= the Manning surface roughness coefficient
= the mean slope along the flow path

(m)
(-)
(-)

The equation is applicable to urbanised areas up to 4000 m 2 and slopes from 1 to 8

%.
For 21 French urban catchments ( up to 100 ha ), Desbordes (1978) found:

A0.18 TR0.21 L0.15

K = 5.1 0.36
1.9
s
ITR0.07 (1+ )

[7.10]

where :
K
= the storage parameter
A
= the catchment area
TR
= the duration of the peak rainfall intensity
ITR = the rainfall volume over TR
a
= area contributing to runoff / total area.

(min.);
( ha );
(min.);
( mm );
(-)

It should be mentioned that the presence of ITR in this relation makes the model
nonlinear. Also, the empirical relation reflects both the surface runoff and the sewer
flow.
7.3

Reservoirs in series

If the shape of the hydrograph can not be represented by a single reservoir, two or
more of these reservoirs can be put in series (Fig.7.1 ).
Cnsider a system at rest ( at time t 0 = 0, q0=0 ). The response of the upper
reservoir for a step input with intensity = 1 is given by eq. 7.5:

q1 (t) = ( 1 - e

t
K1

[7.11]

To calculate the outflow from the second reservoir, the outflow from the upper
reservoir is considered as the input of the second reservoir.
The general equation for the outflow of the second reservoir (if the system is at
rest at t=0) is obtained from eq.7.4:

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t
1 -t t
q2 (t) = e K2 0 i2 (t) e K 2 dt
K2

[7.12]

Substituting eq. 7.11 in eq. 7.12 yields

1 - t t K1 t
q2 (t) = e K2 0 (1 e ) e K2 dt
K2

[7.13]

etc.

u1

k1

TIME

u2

k2

TIME

u3

k3

TIME

u4

k4

TIME
Fig.7.1: Linear reservoirs in series
A special case of the reservoirs in series is the Nash cascade. Hereby, a catchment
is conceptualised by a series of n identical reservoirs.
With K the storage parameter for the n reservoirs, the instantaneous unit
hydrograph of this model may then be expressed as:

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Surface Hydrology - Surface Runoff

u(t) =

1
t n-1 - t
) eK
(
K(n - 1)!
K

[7.14]
Note that n does not have to be an integer and (n-1)! may be replaced by the
Gamma function.
Exercise:
Prove that the IUH for the Nash cascade is given by the previous equation
7.4 The linear channel
Reservoir models generate an immediate response to an input. For hydrologic
systems, a delay is often observed between the input and the output. To represent
this phenomenon, a linear channel model can be used to perform a simple
translation between the input and the output:

q(t) = i( t - )
where :
i(t)
q(t)
t

[7.15]

= the inflow rate

= the outflow rate
= the translation time

(m3/s);
(m3/s);
(s).

The model is often used in combination with reservoir models, to delay the input to
the reservoir or to delay the reservoir output.
REFERENCES
Chow, V.T., D.R. Maidment & L.W. Mays (1988). Applied hydrology, McGraw Hill,
New York
Desbordes, M. (1978). Urban runoff and design storm modelling, Proc. Int.
Conf. on Urban Storm Drainage, Southampton, p. 353-361.
Harms, R.W. & H.R. Verworn (1984). HYSTEM - ein hydrologisches
Stadtentwsserungsmodell, Teil I: Modellbeschreibung, Korrespondenz Abwasser,
Heft 2, Hannover.
McCuen, R.H., S.L. Wong & W.J. Rawls (1984). Estimating urban time of
concentration, J. of Hyd. Engng., A.S.C.E., Vol. 110, No. 7, pp. 887-904.
Radojkovic M. & C. Maksimovic (1987). On standardization of computational
models for overland flow, Proc. Int. Conf. on Urban Storm Drainage, Topics in
Urban Drainage Hydraulics and Hydrology, Lausanne.
Viessmann, W. (1968). Runoff estimation for very small drainage areas, Water Res.
Res., Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 87,.
Viessman, W., J.W. Knapp, G.L. Lewis & T.E. Harbaugh (1977). Introduction to
hydrology, Harper Row, New York

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