Cyclone

This article is about the meteorological phenomenon. For densities and are associated with the most prominent
other uses, see Cyclone (disambiguation).
meteorological phenomena. Air masses separated by a
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, front may dier in temperature or humidity. Strong cold
fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms
and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by
squall lines or dry lines. They form west of the circulation
center and generally move from west to east. Warm fronts
form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded
by stratiform precipitation and fog. They move poleward
ahead of the cyclone path. Occluded fronts form late in
the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and
often wrap around the storm center.
Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones form due
to latent heat driven by signicant thunderstorm activity,
and are warm core.[10] Cyclones can transition between
extratropical, subtropical, and tropical phases under the
right conditions. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation.[11]
Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more
often develop from environments of high instability and
low vertical wind shear.[12] In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacic oceans, a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from the name of the ancient
Central American deity of wind, Huracan), in the Indian
and south Pacic oceans it is called a cyclone, and in the
northwestern Pacic it is called a typhoon.[13]

An extratropical cyclone near Iceland on September 4, 2003

circular uid motion rotating in the same direction

as the Earth.[1][2] This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.[3][4] The largest low-pressure systems are cold-core
polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on
the synoptic scale. According to the National Hurricane
Center glossary, warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale.[5] Mesocyclones, tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale.[6] Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low,
and can pinch o from the base of the Tropical Upper
Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the
Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones have also been seen on
extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars and Neptune.[7][8]
Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensication.[9] Extratropical cyclones form as
waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones. These zones contract to form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation
closes and intensies. Later in their life cycle, cyclones
occlude as cold core systems. A cyclones track is guided
over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering
ow of the cancer or subtropical jet stream.

1 Structure
There are a number of structural characteristics common
to all cyclones. A cyclone is a low-pressure area.[14] A
cyclones center (often known in a mature tropical cyclone
as the eye), is the area of lowest atmospheric pressure in
the region.[14] Near the center, the pressure gradient force
(from the pressure in the center of the cyclone compared
to the pressure outside the cyclone) and the force from
the Coriolis eect must be in an approximate balance,
or the cyclone would collapse on itself as a result of the
dierence in pressure.[15]

Because of the Coriolis eect, the wind ow around a

large cyclone is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.[16]
Cyclonic circulation is sometimes referred to as contra
solem. In the Northern Hemisphere, the fastest winds
relative to the surface of the Earth therefore occur on the
eastern side of a northward-moving cyclone and on the
Weather fronts separate two masses of air of dierent northern side of a westward-moving one; the opposite
1

occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.[17] (The wind ow

around an anticyclone, on the other hand, is clockwise
in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the
southern hemisphere.)

Formation

Tropical cyclones form when the energy released by the condensation of moisture in rising air causes a positive feedback loop
over warm ocean waters.[18]

Main articles: Cyclogenesis and Tropical cyclogenesis

Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of
cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere (a low-pressure
area).[9] Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes, all of which result in the development
of some sort of cyclone. It can occur at various scales,
from the microscale to the synoptic scale.

SYNOPTIC SCALE

located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density

airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone, usually resulting
in a narrowing warm sector.[22] At this point an occluded
front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards
into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a
trowal.[23]
Tropical cyclogenesis is the technical term describing the
development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in
the atmosphere.[24] The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly dierent from those
through which mid-latitude cyclogenesis occurs. Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warmcore cyclone, due to signicant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: suciently warm
sea surface temperatures,[25] atmospheric instability, high
humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere,
enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center, a
preexisting low-level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear.[26] An average of 86 tropical cyclones
of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with
47 reaching hurricane/typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity
on the SarSimpson Hurricane Scale).[27]

3 Synoptic scale

Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts

before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones.
Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by signicant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core.
[10]

Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land,

and can lead to tornado formation.[11] Waterspouts can
also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop
from environments of high instability and low vertical
wind shear.[12] Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis,
and has an anticyclonic (high-pressure system) equivalent
which deals with the formation of high-pressure areas A ctitious synoptic chart of an extratropical cyclone aecting the
Anticyclogenesis.[19]
UK and Ireland. The blue arrows between isobars indicate the
The surface low has a variety of ways of forming. Topog- direction of the wind, while the L symbol denotes the centre of
raphy can force a surface low when dense low-level high- the low. Note the occluded, cold and warm frontal boundaries.
pressure system ridges in east of a north-south mountain
barrier.[20] Mesoscale convective systems can spawn sur- The following types of cyclones are identiable in synopface lows which are initially warm core.[21] The distur- tic charts.
bance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front
and the low will be positioned at the crest. Around the
3.1 Surface-based types
low, ow will become cyclonic, by denition. This rotational ow will push polar air equatorward west of the low
via its trailing cold front, and warmer air with push pole- See also: Low-pressure area
ward low via the warm front. Usually the cold front will
move at a quicker pace than the warm front and catch up There are three main types surface-based cyclones:
with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass Extratropical cyclones, Subtropical cyclones and Tropical

3.1

Surface-based types

cyclones

3.1.1

Extratropical cyclone

Main article: Extratropical cyclone

An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low-pressure
weather system that does not have tropical characteristics, being connected with fronts and horizontal gradients
in temperature and dew point otherwise known as baroclinic zones.[28]
The descriptor extratropical refers to the fact that this
type of cyclone generally occurs outside of the tropics,
in the middle latitudes of the planet. These systems
may also be described as mid-latitude cyclones due to
their area of formation, or post-tropical cyclones where
extratropical transition has occurred,[28][29] and are often
described as depressions or lows by weather forecasters and the general public. These are the everyday phenomena which along with anti-cyclones, drive the weather
over much of the Earth.

3
low-pressure system (depression) that is found over the
ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Polar lows are
cold-core so they can be considered as a subset of extratropical cyclones. Polar lows were rst identied on the
meteorological satellite imagery that became available in
the 1960s, which revealed many small-scale cloud vortices at high latitudes. The most active polar lows are
found over certain ice-free maritime areas in or near the
Arctic during the winter, such as the Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Labrador Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Polar lows
dissipate rapidly when they make landfall. Antarctic systems tend to be weaker than their northern counterparts
since the air-sea temperature dierences around the continent are generally smaller. However, vigorous polar
lows can be found over the Southern Ocean. During winter, when cold-core lows with temperatures in the midlevels of the troposphere reach 45 C (49 F) move
over open waters, deep convection forms which allows
polar low development to become possible.[31] The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than
1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and exist for no more than
a couple of days. They are part of the larger class of
mesoscale weather systems. Polar lows can be dicult to
detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations, such as shipping and gas
and oil platforms. Polar lows have been referred to by
many other terms, such as polar mesoscale vortex, Arctic hurricane, Arctic low, and cold air depression. Today
the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems
that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s.[32]

Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classied as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient within the westerlies, they
can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle
when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with radius.[30] An extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from
there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and develops central convection, which warms its
core.[10] One intense type of extratropical cyclone that
3.1.2 Subtropical
strikes during wintertime is a nor'easter.

Polar low Main article: Polar low

A polar low is a small-scale, short-lived atmospheric

Subtropical Storm Andrea in 2007

Polar low over the Barents Sea on February 27, 1987

Main article: Subtropical cyclone

SYNOPTIC SCALE

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some

characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form between the equator and the 50th parallel.[33] As early as the
1950s, meteorologists were unclear whether they should
be characterized as tropical cyclones or extratropical cyclones, and used terms such as quasi-tropical and semitropical to describe the cyclone hybrids.[34] By 1972, the
National Hurricane Center ocially recognized this cyclone category.[35] Subtropical cyclones began to receive
names o the ocial tropical cyclone list in the Atlantic
Basin in 2002.[33] They have broad wind patterns with Cyclone Catarina, a rare South Atlantic tropical cyclone viewed
maximum sustained winds located farther from the cen- from the International Space Station on March 26, 2004
ter than typical tropical cyclones, and exist in areas of
weak to moderate temperature gradient.[33]
Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones
which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found
in the tropics, the sea surface temperatures required for
their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by three degrees Celsius, or ve degrees Fahrenheit,
lying around 23 degrees Celsius.[36] This means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the hurricane season. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may
become tropical in nature as their cores warm.[37]

Maritime Tropical air masses. The term cyclone refers

to such storms cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation
in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on their location
and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by other
names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply as a cyclone.

While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge.[38] They develop over large bodies of warm water,[39] and lose their
strength if they move over land.[40] This is the reason
3.1.3 Tropical
coastal regions can receive signicant damage from a
tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe
Main article: Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can
produce signicant ooding inland, and storm surges can
produce extensive coastal ooding up to 40 kilometres
(25 mi) from the coastline. Although their eects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can
also relieve drought conditions.[41] They also carry heat
and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward
temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part
of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a
result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in
the Earths troposphere.

2012 Atlantic hurricane season summary map

a low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that

produce strong winds and ooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting
in condensation of water vapour contained in the moist
air. They are fueled by a dierent heat mechanism than
other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European
windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classication
as warm core storm systems.[10]
The term tropical refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in
tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in

Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric

conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere
are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones
acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then
moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of
the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system
weakens and eventually dissipates. A tropical cyclone
can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by
condensation to dierences in temperature between air
masses;[10] From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become subtropical during its extratropical transition.[42]

5
Atlantic hurricane

4 Mesoscale

Pacic typhoon
North Indian Ocean cyclone
South Pacic cyclone

3.2
3.2.1

Upper level types

Polar cyclone

Main article: Polar cyclone

Cyclone on Mars, imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope

A polar, sub-polar, or Arctic cyclone (also known as

a polar vortex)[43] is a vast area of low pressure which
strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer.[44]
A polar cyclone is a low-pressure weather system, usually spanning 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) to 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi), in which the air circulates in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, and a
clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the polar cyclone has two centers
on average. One center lies near Ban Island and the
other over northeast Siberia.[43] In the southern hemisphere, it tends to be located near the edge of the Ross
ice shelf near 160 west longitude.[45] When the polar vortex is strong, westerly ow descends to the Earths surface. When the polar cyclone is weak, signicant cold
outbreaks occur.[46]

3.2.2

TUTT cell

Main article: Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex

Under specic circumstances, upper cold lows can break
o from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric
Trough (TUTT), which is located mid-ocean in the
Northern Hemisphere during the summer months. These
upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices, also known as
TUTT cells or TUTT lows, usually move slowly from
east-northeast to west-southwest, and generally do not
extend below 20,000 feet in altitude. A weak inverted
surface trough within the trade wind is generally found
underneath them, and they may also be associated with
broad areas of high-level clouds. Downward development results in an increase of cumulus clouds and the appearance of a surface vortex. In rare cases, they become
warm-core, resulting in the vortex becoming a tropical cyclone. Upper cyclones and upper troughs which trail tropical cyclones can cause additional outow channels and
aid in their intensication process. Developing tropical
disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or
upper lows in their wake due to the outow jet emanating
from the developing tropical disturbance/cyclone.[47][48]

The following types of cyclones are not identiable in

synoptic charts.

4.1 Mesocyclone
Main article: Mesocyclone
A mesocyclone is a vortex of air, 2.0 kilometres (1.2
mi) to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in diameter (the mesoscale
of meteorology), within a convective storm.[49] Air rises
and rotates around a vertical axis, usually in the same
direction as low-pressure systems in both northern and
southern hemisphere. They are most often cyclonic, that
is, associated with a localized low-pressure region within
a supercell.[50] Such storms can feature strong surface
winds and severe hail. Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, where tornadoes may
form. About 1700 mesocyclones form annually across
the United States, but only half produce tornadoes.[11]

4.2 Tornado
Main article: Tornado
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in
contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus
cloud. They are often referred to as twisters or cyclones,
although the word cyclone is used in meteorology, in a
wider sense, to name any closed low-pressure circulation.

4.3 Dust devil

Main article: Dust devil
A dust devil is a strong, well-formed, and relatively longlived whirlwind, ranging from small (half a metre wide
and a few metres tall) to large (more than 10 metres wide

and more than 1000 metres tall). The primary vertical

motion is upward. Dust devils are usually harmless, but
can on rare occasions grow large enough to pose a threat
to both people and property.

4.4

Waterspout

Main article: Waterspout

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4.5

Steam devil

Main article: Steam devil

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External links
Fundamentals of Physical Geography: The MidLatitude Cyclone Dr. Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia, Okanagan
Glossary Denition: Cyclogenesis The National
Snow and Ice Data Center
Glossary Denition: Cyclolysis The National
Snow and Ice Data Center
Weather Facts: The Polar Low Weather Online
UK
NOAA FAQ
Cyclones 'ClearlyExplained'
Cyclone Video Archive
The EM-DAT International Disaster Database by
the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
Disasters

EXTERNAL LINKS

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Cyclone Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone?oldid=648420147 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Gareth Owen, Michael Hardy,
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Postdlf, Ojigiri, Delpino, Cyrius, Magic Window, Lunkwill, MPF, Dissident, Lurker, Micru, Eequor, Golbez, Utcursch, Antandrus,
BozMo, Beland, Rdsmith4, Gscshoyru, Paulley, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Mormegil,
Freakofnurture, JTN, Discospinster, Zaheen, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, DcoetzeeBot, Kbh3rd, Loren36, EastNile, El C, Tom, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Grue, Circeus, Stesmo, Evolauxia, BrokenSegue, AtomicDragon, BillyTFried, Helix84, Cyrillic, Storm Rider, Alansohn,
Quess, Chris16447, Andrewpmk, Zero92, Riana, Yamla, Mac Davis, Malo, Snowolf, Jbergerot, Wtmitchell, ZeiP, Sciurin, Menphrad,
Woodstone, EventHorizon, Dan100, SmthManly, Brookie, Jerey O. Gustafson, Nicklott, Jdorje, Gordeonbleu, Kzollman, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Miss Madeline, Isnow, Plrk, Matilda, FreplySpang, RxS, Jclemens, Saperaud, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe, Who, RexNL,
Ayla, KFP, Dragonstar4647, Butros, Chunkyasparagus, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Splintercellguy, Hairy Dude, Huw Powell,
Sarranduin, Epolk, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Wimt, NawlinWiki, EWS23,
Wiki alf, RattleMan, Thatdog, Johann Wolfgang, DavidH, Justin Eiler, Rjensen, TCrossland, RL0919, FatM1ke, Aaron Schulz, Morgan
Leigh, Haemo, Acetic Acid, Georgewilliamherbert, 21655, Phgao, Warfreak, Thnidu, Closedmouth, Hurricanehink, Shyam, JLaTondre,
Gorgan almighty, QX100, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Cuban8, NeilN, ChemGardener, YellowMonkey, NSLE, Bobet, Incnis Mrsi, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jrockley, Majts, Crimsone, MediaMangler, Gilliam, Algont, Betacommand, Jase061592, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Ciacchi,
Unint, Persian Poet Gal, Deli nk, Whispering, Baa, Colonies Chris, Brinerustle, Verrai, MaxSem, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Daveylee,
TheKMan, Lennylim, Bssc, Nakon, Dreadstar, RandomP, DMacks, Just plain Bill, Where, The undertow, SashatoBot, Esrever, Robomaeyhem, Harryboyles, Kuru, Euchiasmus, Gobonobo, Coastergeekperson04, Patau, Thegreatdr, Gdeyoe, Pierre cb, Jared W, Tartessos75, AxG, AdultSwim, Ryulong, Caiaa, Hu12, Taha442, BranStark, Nehrams2020, Aexon79, Shoeofdeath, JDubman, Beno1000,
Az1568, Courcelles, Anger22, Meow, Tawkerbot2, Chris55, CmdrObot, Shyland, SammyJames, Papushin, Scohoust, CBM, Drinibot,
Runningonbrains, Casper2k3, Raamin, Fl, Gogo Dodo, Naudefj, Dougweller, Christian75, Dchristle, DumbBOT, Kozuch, JodyB, WxGopher, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Sid 3050, Headbomb, Edgao@eastlink.ca, Marek69, Ablonus, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin,
KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Japadict, Luna Santin, Opelio, Eltanin, Spencer, Karkouj, Sittingpretty, Qwerty Binary, Res2216restar,
Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Educe, Barek, MER-C, Hello32020, Coolhandscot, Savant13, Crazyspoonkiller, ZBlack Eagle, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, A4, Sushant gupta, JNW, CattleGirl, Jespinos, Nyttend, Recurring dreams, Jason Rees, Catgut, Animum, Canton japan,
Just James, Judfry99, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, Drizzt Jamo, Drm310, NatureA16, Hdt83, Year2000Prob, MartinBot, Tvoz, Filksinger,
Prin tay, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Jerry, Avaron676, Ajcfreak, Pyrospirit, Mistermandude, HiLo48,
Plasticup, In Transit, Aervanath, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Flamesplash, Nikki311, Jamesontai, Mike V, Slim Margin, ADDFG Spy,
Fbarton, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Lights, Meiskam, TreasuryTag, ABF, Je G., Pparazorback, ProfWW, Philip Trueman, Zidonuke, Eddie6705, Mathwhiz 29, Anonymous Dissident, Chicago8, Qxz, Corvus cornix, Tpal3, Pokemon94, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Cremepu222,
Plusle, Jerey Pierce Henderson, Df747jet, Falcon8765, Scabether, Spinningspark, Newsaholic, Why Not A Duck, The Last Melon,
AlleborgoBot, Legoktm, Salaciousd, Valce, NerfOne, SieBot, Coee, E8, Jauerback, Krawi, YourEyesOnly, Dawn Bard, Triwbe, Deltoraguy, Hirohisat, Flyer22, Exert, The Evil Spartan, Lvrb0y1301, JSpung, Hzh, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Nuttycoconut, Steven Zhang,
Lightmouse, Hobartimus, Mbabane, N96, LonelyMarble, Meckkid, StaticGull, Denisarona, Stillwaterising, Neznanec, Invertzoo, Elnon,
Twinsday, ClueBot, Rumping, Jackollie, The Thing That Should Not Be, Brekky, S28604, Lawrence Cohen, Hotchops8, TheOldJacobite, Shannonfofannon, Djw230, SteveRamone, Ktr101, Excirial, Robbie098, Winter47, Vivio Testarossa, Juderson, Cr7i, The Unnamed
Person, ShirleyOCD2007, Akaala, Mikaey, Chaosking2468, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Ben g08, Uwnsk, SoxBot III, Party, Vanished user
uih38riiw4hjlsd, Glacier Wolf, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Feinoha, Avoided, Corker1, NellieBly, Alexius08, The Rationalist, Jadtnr1, Bhockey10, HexaChord, Addbot, Willking1979, Ocrasaroon, AVand, Guoguo12, Ziggybogeydoo, Friginator, Albamhandae,
Yasha1969, SunDragon34, AkhtaBot, C3r4, Ronhjones, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Chamal N, Jaydec, Mrrov0, Altgenre, Tide rolls,
Lightbot, Onegentlemanofverona, Mjquinn id, Matj Grabovsk, Teles, Gail, LuK3, Suwa, Ale66, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D,
Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Gobbleswoggler, QueenCake, Bev0003, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Cheetham007, Rubinbot,
Danielba894, Pyrrhus16, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, Flewis, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, A123a,
Xqbot, JonathanS2, Sionus, Armoforlife, Capricorn42, 666tellall, Jerey Mall, Coolhero28, Nickkid5, Tad Lincoln, Anna Frodesiak,
The Evil IP address, Tyrol5, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Papalew, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, ChanakaW, Terrierhere, Sophus
Bie, MLauba, Kilamoro, Chaheel Riens, Babyseal82, Thehelpfulbot, Nixn, Limichael9, Sky Attacker, Recognizance, Aman1996, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Redrose64, S2jonathan, Jamesrausch, Pinethicket, Edderso, PrincessofLlyr, Hamtechperson, TheAustinMan, Ya
mum696969, Jhbuk, Johnbv417, Abc518, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Dinamik-bot, Lazza38, Vrenator, Begoon, January, Reaper Eternal,
Bluey27, Diannaa, Weedwhacker128, Tbhotch, Ollkaof, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, WildBot, Deagle AP, DASHBot, EmausBot, Gfoley4, Darkfood4, Wikipelli, AvicBot, Nr5278, KuduIO, H3llBot, Hcrepin, Tolly4bolly, Hi-Lo, L Kensington, Akhter
jafri, MonoAV, Aaron1716, Orange Suede Sofa, NTox, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Burng, AmyShenae, Hon-3s-T,
O.Koslowski, Corrector6879, Rehg98, Morgan Riley, TornadoLGS, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot,
Jack4456789, Hurricanefan25, Abhizen10, CitationCleanerBot, Airsan, Nairvinith, LaIlEex, Darorcilmir, Tchen99, Cool Dude3172, Billyxd, Dopiman, Reatlas, Jimmie1989, Everymorning, Samsnscube, Dustin V. S., WxBot, Glaisher, Ginsuloft, Prashant Bajia, Ra.one18,
Marco Antonio 2345, Tshuva, Liz, Tomasiriondo1!!, Tomastomas11, ArjunBlogs, Imonwater, Cyclonerulesyaya, Eklavyasood, Monkbot,
Ejrusselllim123, Fuvvjcymfhcvhf g, Tacoboat1331, Girlygirly3333, Doosheyandhershey, Squinge, Royal Wizard, SAMAH MC, Ntxray
and Anonymous: 952

8.2

Images

File:2012_Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/2012_
Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: Created using Wikipedia:WikiProject Tropical
cyclones/Tracks. The background image is from NASA [1]. The tracking data is from the National Hurricane Center's Atlantic hurricane
database Original artist: Cyclonebiskit
File:Baroclinicleafphasecyclogenesiscropped.gif
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/
Baroclinicleafphasecyclogenesiscropped.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

10

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
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the Earth Observations Laboratory, Johnson Space Center.
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on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

8.3

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