Review for final exam

Teng Zhang
University of Minnesota

December 12, 2012

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General considerations

FRIDAY, December 14, 2012 1:30 pm - 4:30 pm Moos Tower,

Room 2-650
13 multiple choice questions (5 points each), and 8
hand-graded questions (10-25 points each).
Formula sheet available at the final study guide online
Please refer to the final study guide for the material we will
cover in final exam (past exams might contain material we
will not cover).

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Section 7.1: Integration by parts

Choose u in the order of logarithmic, inverse trigonometric,

polynomial and exponential.
Choose exponential function for dv .
R
R
lnR u du, ln2 u du (integration by parts twice),
RExamples:
tan1 x dx, e x sin x dx (integration by parts twice)

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Section 7.2: Trigonometric integrals

sinm x cosn x dx (when m is odd, u = cos x, when n is odd,

u = sin x, and the other case)
R
tanm x dx secn x (when m is odd, u = sec x when n is even,
u = tan x and the other case)
R
R
R sin(Ax) cos(Bx) dx, sin(Ax) sin(Bx) dx,
cos(Ax) cos(Bx) dx (half-angle identity)
R
R
R
Examples: sin3 x cos2 x dx, tan3 x sec4 x dx, tan x sec3 x dx
R

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Section 7.3: Trigonometric substitutions

If there is an additional linear term (e.g., x 2 + 2ax + b), use

substitution (e.g., u = x + a).
R
R x3
Example:
5 + 4x x 2 dx, 1x
dx
2

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Section 7.4: Integration of rational functions

Step 1: if P(x)/Q(x) is improper, decompose it to a
polynomial plus a proper rational function R(x)/Q(x) (by
long division).
Step 2: Factorize Q(x) into linear factors (ax + b) and
irreducible quadratic factors (ax 2 + bx + c and b 2 4ac < 0).
Step 3: write R(x)/Q(x) as sum of partial fractions of the
form
A
Ax + B
or
(ax + b)i
(ax 2 + bx + c)j
Step 4: solve for the constants A and B (maybe by plugging
in the root of linear factors)
Step 5: integrate each of of partial fractions

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Section 7.5: Strategy for integration

Simplify the function

and use substitution if possible.
R
R x3
R sin3 (x)
x

dx, e 2xe +1 dx, 1x

dx
Examples:
2
x

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Approximate Integration: definition (Section 7.7)

Left endpoint rule, Right endpoint rule, Midpoint rule, Trapezoidal

rule (will be on formula sheet)
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Approximate Integration: Over/under estimates (Section

7.7)
For an increasing/decreasing function f (x), find the order of
Rb
Ln , I = a f (x) dx and Rn .
For an function concave down (f 00 (x) < 0 for a x b),
(exercise 47)
Z b
Tn <
f (x).
a

Example: exercise 1(d). List the numbers Ln , Rn , Tn and I in

increasing order.

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Approximate integration: Error bounds (Section 7.7)

Suppose that f is
1
2

twice differentiable on [a, b], and

|f 00 (x)| K for a x b,

then

K (b a)3
K (b a)3
,
|E
|

.
T
24n2
12n2
Example: how large does n need Rto be to guarantee that the
2
Trapezoid rule approximation of 0 sin x dx has error less
than ?
|EM |

Error bounds |ES | for Simpsons rule (will be on formula

sheet).

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Section 7.8: Improper integration

Definition of

R
a

f (x) dx,

Ra

f (x) dx,

f (x) dx

When f (x) is discontinuous at b, and a < b < c, definition of

Rb
Rc
Rc
a f (x) dx, b f (x) dx, a f (x) dx
R5 1
Example: 2 x2
Comparison test
Example: show that
convergent.

R
2

x 2 sin6 x
1+x 4

dx and

R
1

xe x
1+x 2

dx are

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Section 8.1: Arc length

The arc length formula for y = f (x), a x b:

Z
L=

q
1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx.

Example: Find the length of the curve

1
y = (e x + e x ), 1 x 1.
2
q
How to simplify expressions such as 1 + ( 12 (e x e x ))2 , or
q
2
1 + ( x4 x12 )2 ?

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Section 8.5: Probability

Two conditions such that
R f a probability density function: 1.
f (x) is nonnegative 2. f (x) = 1
Given a probability density function, find its mean and median.
Given a probability density function f (x), the probability that
the random variable between a and b is
Z b
P(a X b) =
f (x) dx.
a

Example: Let f (x) = 2e cx for x 0 and f (x) = 0 for all

other values of x. 1. for what c, f (x) is a probability density
function? 2. Find its mean and median. 3. What is the
probability P(1 X 2)

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Section 9.2: Eulers method

Find an approximate solution to a differential equation with

initial value
Make a table about n, xn and yn . Find yn iteratively by
applying
yn = yn1 + hF (xn1 , yn1 ), n = 1, 2, 3, .
Example: Use Eulers method with step size h = 1 to find a
estimate for y (2), where y (0) = 0 and
dy
= x x 2y .
dx

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Section 9.3: Separable Equations

Need to recognize a separable equation.

Recall the steps of solving a separable equation.
Without initial condition, there are infinite solutions.
Dont forget negative solutions to equations such as
y 2 = F (x) + C , or ln |y | = F (x) + C .
Example: y 0 = e 2x+y , y 0 = x 2 y .

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Section 9.3: mixing problem (example 6)

A tank contains 20 kg of salt dissolved in 5000 L of water. Brine

that contains 0.03 kg of salt per liter of water enters the tank at a
rate of 25L/min. The solution is kept thoroughly mixed and drains
from the tank at the same rate. How much salt remains in the
tank after half an hour?
Let y (t) be the amount of salt in the container at time t, set
up equation.
dy / dt is the rate of change of the amount of salt
dy / dt = rate in rate out.
Exercise: 43/45 in Section 9.3

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Section 9.4: Population Model

Given the model (exponential growth or logistic model) and

parameters (relative growth rate k, carrying capacity), find
the general solution P(t).
Given P(t), find population size at a given time, or find t
such that the population is some time.
Example: Given the problem
dP
P
= 0.08P(1
), P(0) = 1000
dt
1000
(a) Find P(t)
(b) at what time the population reach 2000?

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Qualitative analysis of a (system of) differential

equation(s)

You should be able to answer the following questions for the

systems you are trying to model
Q: When is the function increasing/decreasing?
A: When the derivative is > 0, the function is increasing,
when it is < 0 it is decreasing.
Q: What does this mean in terms of the system thats being
modeled?
A: increasing/decreasing in terms of population/amount of
salt/

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Section 10.1: Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

Sketching a parametric curve (pay attention to the

domain/range).
Eliminating the parameter to find a Cartesian equation of the
curve.
Example: eliminate the parameter t and sketch the parametric
curve:
x = e t 1, y = e 2t .

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Section 10.2: Calculus with Parametric Curves

Find the slope of tangent, without eliminating the parameter.

Example: at point (1, 1), what is the slope of the tangent line
to the parametric curve y = t 3 and x = t 2 ?
Example: When does the parametric curve y = t 3 1 and
x = t + 1 have vertical/horizontal tangent lines?

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Section 10.3: Polar Coordinates

Connection between polar coordinates (r , ) and Cartesian
coordinates (x, y ):
y
x = r cos , y = r sin , r 2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan = .
x
Example: find a polar representation for the Cartesian point
x = 3, y = 4.
There are infinitely many representations in polar coordinates,
for example (r , + 2k) and (r , + (2k + 1)) are the
same points.
Definition of polar curves: what is r = 2 or = 1?
Conversion between the equation for polar curves and the
equation for Cartersian curves. Example: r 2 sin 2 = 1.
Slope of the tangent line for the polar curve:
dy
=
dx

dr
d
dr
d

sin + r cos
cos r sin

and when is the slope horizontal/vertical?

,
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Section 10.4: Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

Area of a polar region bounded by r = f (), and rays = a

and = b:
Z b
1 2
r d.
A=
a 2
Sometimes we need to find a, b by the intersection of two
polar curves r = f () and r = g (). The intersection is
obtained by solving the equation f () = g ().

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Section 11.1: Sequences

Definition of a limit of s sequence. Example: limn (1)n .

Relationship to limit of a function: if limx f (x) = L and
ln n
f (n) = an , then limn an = L. Example: limn n+1
(lHospitals rule).
If limn an = L and f is continuous at L, then
limn f (an ) = f (L). Example: limn e 1/n .
Squeeze Theorem: if an bn cn and
limn an = limn cn = L, then limn bn = L
Monotonic Sequence Theorem: Every bounded, monotonic
sequence is convergent.

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Section 11.2 Series

Definition:

n=1 an

= limn sn , where sn =

Pn

i=1 ai .

Geometric series:
a + ar + ar 2 + + ar n1 + =

a
when |r | < 1,
1r

and it diverges for |r | 1.

Divergence test:
1
2

an is divergent if

limn an does not exists.

limn an exists, but is nonzero.

P
1
Telescoping sums. Example:
n=1 n(n+1)
P
P
If
are convergent,
n=1 an and
n=1 bn P
Pboth
P

(a

b
)
=
a

n
n
n
n=1
n=1
n=1 bn .

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Sequence and series

Dont mix up sequence and series.

Example of sequence: limn n1 ;
P
1
Examples of series:
n=1 n .
For example, divergence test and root/ratio tests are for
series, not sequence.

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Section 11.3: Integral test

Integral test: if an = f (n), and

Pf is continuous, positive,
decreasing
on [k, ). Then n=k an is convergent if and only
R
if k f (x) dx is convergent.
The p-series
(

X
convergent if p > 1
1
is
np
divergent if p 1.
n=1
Example:

1
n=2 n ln n

Dont forgot to show that the function is decreasing,

sometimes by differentiation of f (x).

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Section 11.4: The Comparison Tests

Comparison test for series: Assume two series
with bn an 0, then
1
2

an and

bn

an and

bn

P
P
if P bn is convergent, so isP an .
if
an is divergent, so is
bn .

The limit comparison test: Assume two series

with an , bn 0, then if
an
= c,
lim
n bn

where c is a finite number and c > 0, then either both series

converge or both diverge.
Usually apply p-series and geometric series to compare, and
find
to compare by the dominant terms. Examples:
P the series
n
n=1 n3 +1 .
Note the difference betweenP
comparison test and limit

n
comparison test. Example:
n=2 n3 2 .
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Section 11.5: Alternating Series

Alternating series test: If the alternating series

X
X
(1)n1 bn or
(1)n bn
n=1

n=1

satisfies bn 0, limn bn = 0 and bn+1 bn for all n, then

the series is convergent.
Sometimes we need to use derivative to show that bn is
P
(1)n n2
decreasing. Examples: determine if
n=1 n2 +5 is
convergent or divergent.

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Section 11.6: Absolute/Conditional Convergence and

Ratio/Root Tests

|an | is convergent.
P
P
P an is conditionally convergent
Pif |an |nis1 divergent and
an is convergent. Example: n=1 (1) n .
an is absolutely convergent if

Ratio/root test:

( a  L < 1

absolutely convergent
n+1
X
 an 
= L > 1 or , then
an is divergent
lim p
n
n

|an |

1
(no conclusion.)

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Section 11.8: Power Series

A power series is a series of the form

cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + ,

n=0

There are only three possibilities for

1
2
3

n=0 cn (x

a)n :

It converges only when x = a.

It converges for all x.
There exists R such that it converges when |x a| < R and
diverges when |x a| > R. (R is called radius of convergence)

We first find the radius of convergence R by ratio test or root

test, and then test the endpoints a R for convergence
separately.
Example:
the interval of convergence for the series
n
P (3)find
n

n=2 n n (x + 1) converge.
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Section 11.9: Power series as functions

Power series representation for

1
1x :

X
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + =
x n , for |x| < 1.
1x
n=0

Domain of the power series = interval of convergence.

Basic manipulation. Example: find power series
2x 2
x
representations for 1+x
3 or 5x .
Inside the radius of convergence we can perform
integration/differentiation term by term. Example: find power
1
1 (x).
series representations for f (x) = (1x)
2 and f (x) = tan

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Section 11.10: Taylor series

f 0 (a)
f 00 (a)
f 000 (a)
(x a)+
(x a)2 +
(x a)3 +
1!
2!
3!
is called the Taylor series of f at a.P
cn
n
Exercise: what is f 00 (2) for f (x) =
n=0 n! (x 2) .
f (x) = f (a)+

f 0 (a)
f 00 (a)
f (n) (a)
(xa)+
(xa)2 + +
(xa)n
1!
2!
n!
is called nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a, and
Rn (x) = f (x) Tn (x) is called remainder.
Taylors inequality: if |f (n+1) (x)| M for |x a| d, then
M
|Rn (x)|
|x a|n+1 for |x a| d.
(n + 1)!
Tn (x) = f (a)+

Example: prove that e x = 1 + x + x2! + x3! + for all x

Basic manipulation. Example: find Taylor expansion for sinx x
at a = 0.

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Section 12.1-12.2: Vector and 3D-coordinate system

The distance |P1 P2 | between points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and

P2 (x2 , y2 , p
z2 ) is
|P1 P2 | = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 .
Definition: A vector is a quantity that have both a magnitude
and a direction.
Addition (Triangle/Parallelogram law), subtraction, scalar
multiplication of vectors.

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Section 12.3: Dot product

Dot product between vectors for a =< a1 , a2 , a3 > and

b =< b1 , b2 , b3 >:
a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
Geometric interpretation: if is the angle between vectors a
and b, then
a b = |a||b| cos .
When two vectors are orthogonal, =/2, cos = 0.
When two vectors are parallel, =0 or , cos = 1.

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Section 12.4-12.5: Cross product

Definition: the cross product of a and b is
a b =< a2 b3 a3 b2 , a3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b2 a2 b1 > .
If is the angle between a and b (0 ), then
|a b| = |a||b| sin .
Example: Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P(1, 2, 0), Q(3, 1, 4) and R(0, 1, 2).
The plane through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and with normal vector
n =< a, b, c > is described by
a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + c(z z0 ) = 0.
Example: find the plane that passed through P(1, 2, 0),
Q(3, 1, 4) and R(0, 1, 2) (main point: find its normal vector
by cross product).
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