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Introduction to Workshop
Safety Regulations
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General workshop safety rules
1.3 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
1.4 Fire Safety
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able
to:
1. Acquire knowledge about safety precautions
while working in workshop.
2. Use the protective wear.
3. Classify and be able to understand the safety
equipment : e.g fire extinguisher.
1.1 : INTRODUCTION
Before you can use equipment and machines or attempt practical work in a workshop you
must understand basic safety rules. These rules will help keep you and others safe in the
workshop.
Free access to the workshop areas is restricted to authorised personnel only.
No other person may enter the workshop without permission.
Always listen carefully to the workshop supervisor and follow instructions.
Safety in a machine shop may be divided into two broad categories:
Those practices that will prevent injury to workers.
Those practices that will prevent damage to machines and equipment. Too
often damaged equipment results in personal injuries.
When working with machine tools or other equipment with rotating spindles,
jewellery, loose clothes etc. are prohibited and long hair must be completely
covered.
No machine may be used or work undertaken unless the workshop supervisor is
satisfied that the person is capable of doing so safely. If equipment is fitted with
guards these must be used. Equipment should never be used if the safety guards
have been removed.
Hearing protection
Damage to hearing can occur from both impact noise and exposure to lower
intensity steady state noise over long period of time. Both hand and power tools are
capable of producing damage to hearing. It is recommended that hearing protection
must be worn if average noise levels exceed 85BA (decibels) over an 8 hour period.
Dust Masks
Make sure that the appropriate masks are worn in dusty conditions.
Foot wear
Make sure that appropriate solid covered footwear is worn to protect feet from
falling objects. NO slippers are allowed!!!
Gloves
Wear the appropriate work gloves as needed to protect your hands from injuries
caused by handling sharp or jagged objects, wood, or similar hazard-producing
materials.
Laboratory coats
Lab coats provide additional protection and it is recommended that they must be
worn at all times in a workshop.
Body protection
Loose fitting clothing, neckties, rings, bracelets, or other apparel that may become
entangled in moving machinery will not be worn by machine operators.
No machine is available
6. Drilling
2. Sawing
7. Threading
3. Filing
8. etc
4. Scrapping
5. Chipping
COMMON HAND TOOL
1. Hammer
10. Scrappers
2. Hacksaw
11. Chisels
3. Files
12. Trammel
4. Vices
5. V-block
14. Drills
6. C-Clamp
15. Spanner
7. Try Square
16. Pliers
8. Scribers
17. Tap
9. Punch
2.2
2.3
2.3a
File
A file is a metalworking and woodworking tool used to cut fine amounts of material from
a workpiece. Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of
interchangeable parts, filing is much more important in the construction of mechanisms.
component parts were roughly shaped by forging, casting or machining. These
components were then individually hand-fit for assembly by careful and deliberate filing.
Files come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, cuts, and tooth configurations. The crosssection of a file can be flat, round, half-round, triangular, square, knife edge or of a more
specialized shape.
File features
Most files are made from high carbon steel where the Length has been hardened and
tempered, but the Tang has been left soft. Files are manufactured in a variety of shapes
and sizes. They are known either by their cross-section, the general shape, or by their
particular use. Which file you use is dependent on the type of work you are doing and the
material you are using. Files are used to square ends, file rounded corners, remove burrs
from metal, straighten uneven edges, file holes and slots, smooth rough edges, etc. Files
have three distinguishing features, and are classified by these features:
Cross-section or Shape
Grade of Cut
Files have cutting teeth on both Faces. In the case of the Hand File, only one of
the Edges has teeth on it and the other is smooth, and called the Safe Edge. The
Safe Edge allows you to rub the File up against a surface without wearing any
material away.
Always make sure that the Handle is securely attached to the Tang, otherwise you
could give yourself a nasty injury.
The Length of the File, (measured in millimeters), is measured from the Shoulder
to the Point.
Grade of Cut
Files are usually made in two types of cuts :
Double Cut
The Single Cut File has a single row of teeth extending across the face at an angle of 65
to 85 for the length of the file. It is often used with light pressure to produce a smooth
surface or to put a keen edge on knives, shears and saws.
The Double Cut File has two rows of teeth which cross each other. For general work, the
angle of the first row is 40 to 45, and the angle of the second row can be anywhere
between 30 and 87. First set of teeth is know as the overcut, second is known as upcut
and upcut is finer then overcut. This type of file usually used with heavier pressure than
the single cut and removes material faster from the workpiece.
Type of files
2.2b
HACKSAW
Job piece held in a vice and hacksaw move forward and backward
Hacksaw blade are made from high carbon steel and high speed steel
A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade in a frame, used for cutting materials such as
metal or bone.
Hacksaw features
Hand-held hacksaws consist of a metal arch with a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins
for attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the
thin blade under tension. The blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away
from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. On the push
stroke, the arch will flex slightly, decreasing the tension on the blade.
Hacksaw blade are made from Low Tungsten Steel or Carbon Steel, however the more
expensive blades are made from High Speed Steel.
Different hacksaw blades have different number of teeth ranging from 14 to 32 teeth per
25 mm. Blades having lesser number of teeth per cm are used for cutting soft materials
like aluminum, brass and bronze. Blades having larger number of teeth per cm are used
for cutting hard materials like steel and cast iron.
Table 2.1. Selection of hacksaw blade
Teeth per
25mm
Use
14
18
General use. Soft materials in thin sections. Hard materials in thick sections.
24
32
No of teeth per 25 mm
Material
thickness (mm) Hard materials Soft materials
Up to 3
32
32
3 to 6
24
24
6 to 13
24
18
13 to 25
18
14
Thin stock calls for finer teeth; thicker metal requires fewer teeth per 25 mm.
Handle :There are three types of Hacksaw Handle used. The most commonly used
handles are the File Handle and the Pistol Grip Handle.
ii.
When fitting a new blade to a hacksaw, point the teeth forward, (away from the
handle).
iii.
Tighten the wing nut and then as a general rule tighten three turns. It is important
to have the correct tension on the blade, if it is too loose then the blade will buckle
and not cut straight, and if it is too tight damage to the blade ends or the frame
may result.
Figure 2.6 : Types of hacksaw a) Adjustable frame [pistol grip], b) Fixed frame, c)
Tubular adjustable frame
1. Groove
2. Pistol
3. Pin
4. Pin
6. Lock screw
5. Thumb rest
Care of hacksaw
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Keep saw blades clean, and use light machine oil on the blade to keep it from
overheating and breaking.
7.
8.
2.2c
FIXING TOOLS
i] Vice
A vice is a mechanical screw apparatus used for holding or clamping a work piece to
allow work to be performed on it with tools such as saws, drills, screwdrivers, etc. Vises
usually have one fixed jaw and another, parallel, jaw which is moved towards or away
from the fixed jaw by the screw.
There are three types of vice :
Bench vice
Drilling vice
Hand vice
Bench vice
Moveable jaw
Fixed jaw
Spindle with
buttress thread
Handle
Figure 2.8 : A vice must be mounted so that when you are standing next to it, the top
surface of its jaws is level with your bent elbow.
Figure 2.9 : If the bench top is too low, the vice can be raised with a hardwood block.
Drilling vice
It is used to hold the job on the drilling machine for drilling holes in the workpiece.
Drilling vice generally consists of different parts like handle, fixed jaw, screw, moveable
jaw, nut, washer, etc but its base is provided with slots through which it is fitted on the
drilling machine.
2. Fixed handle
4. Swivel base
Hand vice
It is a very small machine which is used for gripping very small jobs.
Figure 2.13
2. If it is necessary to hold the job on one side of the jaws, then use a piece of steel
or wood on the other side to keep jaws parallel and free from excessive strain.
3. Length of the handle of the vice must be sufficient to tighten the job. Never use a
hammer to tighten the workpiece.
4. Clean the vice and its moving parts regularly before use for smooth working.
5. Fixed the vice rigidly to the work bench with the help of nuts and bolts.
2.2c
FIXING TOOLS
ii] Clamp
It is used to hold different jobs together to perform fitting operations like assembly and
marking. A c clamp is a form of a clamp used to hold metal or wood items. As the name
implies, they are shaped in the letter C which offers a good grip to the metal and wooden
items.
Many people also refer this clamp to be a G clamp as the screw part beneath the
revolving rod gives it a shape of the letter G. These tools are considered as the most
recognizable clamps and are available in sizes varying from 1 inch to 8 inches. Every size
denotes the maximum opening width of the tool. Although, there are larger sizes
available as well however, the smaller ones are most commonly used.
2.2c
FIXING TOOLS
iii] V block
Basic function of V block is to mark and drill. The bar length is placed longitudinally in
the V groove and the screw of U-clamp is tightened. It grips the rod firmly with its axis
parallel to the axis of the V groove. It is used in conjuction with a U-clamp for holding
round bars for marking, centre drilling, for holding in the centre of a lathe and for drilling
holes.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Steel rule
Caliper
Scriber
Try square
Surface gauge
Surface flat
i] Steel rule
The most basic of the graduated measuring devices is the rule (made of steel, and
often called a steel rule), used to measure linear dimensions.
Rules are available in various lengths. Metric rule lengths include 150, 300, 600,
and 1000 mm, with graduations of 1 or 0.5 mm.
Steel rules may be flexible or non flexible, but the thinner the rule, the more
accurately it measures, because the division marks are closer to the work.
Beside measuring the length, a steel rule can also be used to assess the flatness of
a surface.
1. Place the rule on edge across the surface then hold the work and the rule up to the
light (Figure 2.18)
2. If the surface is flat, no light will be able to penetrate between the edge of the rule
and the work piece.
There are two important aspects to keep in mind when using a steel rule :
1) The first is that the rule should be placed so that the graduations are as close to the
work as possible (Figure 2.19). This will eliminate parallax and other errors which
might result because of the thickness of the rule.
For example, where possible, the rule should be placed at 90 to the work so that
the graduations actually touch the work surface.
Figure 2.19
2) Secondly, a habit to avoid is measuring a work piece from the beginning of the
rule the very end markings of a steel rule may have been damaged.
Read the measurement at the graduation that coincides with the distance to be
measured.
However, when you use the rule in this way, remember to subtract the initial
numbered amount from the total reading.
Figure 2.20
ii] Caliper
The calipers are opened (either by being pulled open against a friction screw or
having an adjustment knob unwound) until the jaws of the caliper are a gentle
push-fit over the work.
This manual calipers do not have a scale to read the measurement. Therefore, the
calipers are then transferred to steel rule and a reading made of the distance
between the manual calipers jaws. With care, this process can be highly accurate.
Inside
Outside
Hermaphrodite
A scriber is a piece of hardened steel rod having a needle like a point on one or
both sides.
The process of using a scriber is called scribing and is just part of the process of
marking out.
It is used instead of pencil or pen, because the marks are hard to see, easily
erased, and inaccurate due to their wide mark; scribe lines are thin and semipermanent.
For proper use, the end of scriber must be kept sharp. If the end of the scriber gets
blunt, it can be sharpened with an oil stone.
It is also called scribing block. A surface gauge is used for layout work.
It consists of a heavy flat cast iron black fitted with a vertical steel rod.
Surface gauge is used for locating the centre of round bars held in V block by
drawing straight lines and by tilting the job through different angles.
Figure 2.27 : Surface gauge is also used to the diameter of round bars
The spindle may be adjusted to any position with respect to the base and tightened
in place with the spindle nut.
The scriber can be positioned at any height and in any desired direction on the
spindle by adjusting the scriber.
Figure 2.30
2.5
i.
ii.
i] Drilling
Drilling is an operation of producing circular holes o different sizes with the help
of drills.
It cuts by applying pressure and rotation to the workpiece, which forms chips at
the cutting edge.
Twist drills are generally used drills for drilling holes in workpieces.
Figure 2.32 : A drill bit enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal
to that of the tool
ii] Tapping
A tap cuts a thread on the inside surface of a hole, creating a female surface which
functions like a nut.
By using a set of taps : starting tap, intermediate tap and finishing tap.
Different tap set are required for cutting different threads of different diameter.
Wrench is a tool for holding the tap during the hand tapping process.
Care of tap
1. Care must be taken not to damage the cutting edges. A chipped tap must never be
used.
2. When not in use, taps should be kept clean and stored in a rack (Figure 2.34).
Figure 2.41
References
Books :
1. B.J.Black, Workshop processes, practices and materials, 2nd Edition, Arnold,
1997.
2. F.W.Turner, O.E.Perrigo, H.P.Fairfield, Machine Shop Work
3. S.K. Yadav, Workshop Practice : Principles and Applications, IBS Buku Sdn
Bhd.
Website :
1. http://www.wikipedia.com
2. http://home.howstuffworks.com
3. http://homerepair,about.com
4. http://www.practicalstudent.com
5. http://autospeed.co.nz
6. http://www.technologystudent.com
7. http://www.tpub.com
8. http://books.google.com.my
9. http://chestofbooks.com
10. http://www.mechlook.com
11. http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk
12. http://www.cdxetextbook.com
13. http://www.custompartnet.com
Chapter 3
Measuring instrument, gauges
and marking out tools
Chapter Outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Errors In Measurement
3.3 Vernier Scale
3.3.1
Vernier Caliper
3.3.2
Vernier Height Gauge
3.3.3
Vernier Depth Gauge
3.4 Micrometers
3.4.1
External Micrometer
3.4.2
Internal Micrometer
3.4.3
Depth Micrometer
3.5 Gauges
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe common measuring instruments, gauges and
marking out tools in mechanical workshop
2. Select suitable measuring instruments, gauges and
marking out tools in engineering application.
3. Use accurately common measuring instruments, gauges
and marking out tools in engineering application.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There are three reasons why we need measurement.
1. To make things, whether the things we make are of our own designs or somebody
elses.
2. To control the way other people make things. This applies to ordering an engagement
ring, fencing a yard or producing a million spark plugs.
3. For scientific description. It would be impossible to give definite information to
someone about aircraft design, electron mobility, etc without measurements.
In some application, not only measurements are required but precise measurement is necessary
especially where parts are to be fit together. To achieve any degree of precision, the measuring
equipment used must be precisely manufactured with reference to the same standard of length.
Having produced the measuring equipment to a high degree of accuracy, it must be used
correctly.
3.2
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Any
measurement
made
with
a
measuring
device
is
approximate.
If you measure the same object two different times, the two measurements may not be exactly
the same. The difference between two measurements is called variation in the measurement.
Another word for this variation - or uncertainty in measurement is "error". This "error" is not the
same as a "mistake." It does not mean that you got the wrong answer. The error in measurement
is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It is the difference between
the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were measuring
Errors can be minimized, by choosing an appropriate method of measurement, but they cannot be
eliminated.
Causes of error :
1) Reading value
Digital : Record all the digits shown.
Figure 3.1
Non digital : Record all the figures that are known for certain
Figure 3.2
2) Parallex Error
The error that occurs when the pointer on a scale is not observed along a line normal to the scale
Figure 3.3
3) Rounding off
If the last figure is between 5 and 9 inclusive round up
If the last figure is between 0 and 4 inclusive round down
Should not be done after each step of a calculation (it causes rounding errors)
4) Errors in procedure
The accuracy of a final result also depends on the procedure used.
Ways to improve accuracy in measurement :
1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level of precision. The smaller
the unit, or fraction of a unit, on the measuring device, the more precisely the device can
measure. The precision of a measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it
can measure.
2. Know your tools! Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and
reading the value measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always take readings by looking
straight down (or ahead) at the measuring device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or
right angle will give an incorrect value.
3. Repeat the same measure several times to get a good average value.
4. Measure under controlled conditions. If the object you are measuring could change size
depending upon climatic conditions (swell or shrink), be sure to measure it under the same
conditions each time. This may apply to your measuring instruments as well.
3.3
VERNIER SCALE
measurement, and then looking to see which mark on the vernier caliper comes most closely into
alignment with a mark on the main scale. This yields a secondary measurement.
Features
Parts of a vernier caliper:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Example 2
Exercise
DIAL CALIPER
Accomplish with a dial for the least count readout. Normally dial caliper is accurate to 20 m per
150 mm (0.001 in. per 6 in.) of travel.
In this instrument, a small gear rack drives a pointer on a circular dial. Typically, the pointer
rotates once every inch, tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter, allowing for a direct reading without
the need to read a vernier scale (although one still needs to add the basic inches or tens of
millimeters value read from the slide of the caliper).
DIGITAL CALIPER
Another extension of vernier caliper scale reading is used in the electronic digital caliper. These
battery operated devices not only count the distance travelled by the moveable jaw and display
the count on a digital readout, but they also provide parts for computer cables, so that the data
can easily be used in statistical process control.
Because the digital display makes the instrument even easier to read, electronic digital caliper is
very useful for less experienced users. It also use a floating zero which allows users to make any
point within the scale ranges the references, setting it to zero. Some digital calipers can be
switched between metric and inch units.
The vernier height gauge consists of a vertical graduated beam or columnon which the main
scale is engraved. The vernier scale can move up and down over the beam. The bracket carries
the vernier scale which slides vertically to match the main scale. The bracket also carries a
rectangular clamp used for clamping a sciber blade. The whole arrangement is designed and
assembled in such a way that when the tip of the sciber blade rests on the surface plate, the zero
of the main scale and vernier scale coincides. The scriber tip is used to scribed horizontal lines
for preset height dimensions.
The height gauges can also be provided with dial gauges or electronic readout instead of a
vernier. The dial height gauge reads to 20 m (0.001 in). Electronic height gauge is even more
precise which reads to 10 m (0.0001 in)
base
ruler
Locking screw
Depth gauges comes in various configurations, depending on the specific application. Depth
gauge types include digital tire thread depth gauges, digital depth gauges, single hook type
digital depth gauges, needle digital depth gauges, double hooks digital depth gauges, digital
depth gauges with adjustable base, vernier depth gauges, and dial depth gauges.
The digital version is capable to output measurements to a wide variety of peripherals and data
collection devices. These simple, inexpensive tools are typically about 150mm long, and they
can even measure up to longer range, such as 1000mm.
3.4
MICROMETER
A micrometer allows a measurement of the size of a body. It is one of the most accurate
mechanical devices in common use.
Three most common types of micrometer; the names are based on their application:
Figure 3.12 : Micrometer thimble showing 0.276 inch where 0.2000 + 0.075 + 0.001
Example :
-
= 0.3
= 0.001
= 0.326 inch
Figure 3.13 : Micrometer thimble showing 5.78 mm where 5.00 + 0.5 + 0.28 = 5.78 mm
Example :
The accuracy of micrometers is checked by using them to measure gauge blocks, rods, or
similar standards whose lengths are precisely and accurately known.
Frame
The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each other. It is
thick because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would
distort the measurement.
Anvil
The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against.
Screw
(not seen) The heart of the micrometer, as explained under "Operating principles". It is
inside the barrel.
Spindle
The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
Thimble
The part that one's thumb turns. Graduated markings.
Ratchet stop
Device on end of handle that limits applied pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque.
DEPTH MICROMETER
The depth micrometer is used to measure the precise depths of holes, grooves, and
recesses by using interchangeable rods to accommodate different depth measurements.
The ratchet is turned clockwise until the spindle face touches the bottom of the blind
hole. The scales are read in exactly the same way as the scales of a normal micrometer.
Care of micrometer
1. Coat metal parts of all micrometers with a light coat of oil to prevent rust.
2. Store micrometers in a separate container provided by manufacturer.
3. Keep graduations and markings on all micrometers clean and legible.
4. Do not drop any micrometer. Small nicks or scratcthes can cause inaccurate
measurements.
3.5
GAUGES
Purpose
A device used for measuring holes.
Picture
Center
gauge
(a.k.a fishtail
gauge)
The center gauge helps ensure that the
tool bit is the correct dimensions to cut
these threads.
Dial
indicator
To
check
the
variation
in
tolerance during the inspection process
of a machined parts.
(a.k.a
dial Used in industrial.
test
indicator,
dial gauge or
probe
indicator)
Feeler gauge
Block gauge
Pressure
gauge
(a.k.a
vacuum
gauge)
Radius
gauge
Inside
radius
Outside
radius
Ring gauge
References
1. http://www.knockhardy.org.uk
2. http://www.me.iitb.ac.in
3. http://www.regentsprep.org
4. http://www.splashmaritime.com.au
5. http://www.technologystudent.com
6. http://www.tresnainstrument.com
7. http://www.wikihow.com
8. http://www.wisegeek.com
9. Anand K Bewoor, Vinay A. Kulkarni. Metrology & measurement. McGraw Hill.
Chapter 4
Industrial materials used in
workshop and
identification
Chapter Outline
4.1 Steel and its alloys
4.2 Cast Iron
4.3 Copper and its alloys
4.4 Aluminum and its alloys
4.5 Bearing Metals
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able
to:
1) Acquire knowledge on basic engineering
materials in real world industry.
2) Differentiate types of engineering materials,
basic characteristics and its application.
3) Application of engineering materials especially
in workshop practice.
4.0 : INTRODUCTION
Generally, engineering materials can be divided into two categories; metal and nonmetal. The major characteristics of metallic materials are their crystallinity, conductivity
to heat and electricity and relatively high strength and toughness.
In workshop practices, all materials we use are metallic material. Metal mainly comprises
as ferrous and nonferrous. It means classification of metal based on ferrous (iron) content
or non ferrous content. There are five types of metal covered in this topic such as :
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Plain
carbon steels
Low carbon
steels
Medium carbon
steels
High carbon
steels
Low alloy
steels
Stainless
steels
Tool steels
6- Chromium-vanadium steels;
7- Tungsten-chromium steels;
9- Silicon-manganese steels.
Second digit indicate % of major alloying elements (1 means 1%).
Last two digits (3rd and 4th number) indicate amount of carbon in steel (10 means
0.10% C).
Example :
Plain carbon steels are specified by a four-digit number system: 10XX
where , 10 indicates that the steel is plain carbon, and
XX indicates the percent of carbon in hundredths of percentage
points.
For example, 1020 steel contains 0.20% C.
The plain carbon steels can be classified into three groups according to their carbon
content:
TYPES OF
CARBON
PLAIN
PROPERTIES/
CONTENT
APPLICATION
CARBON
CHARACTERISTICS
STEEL
Plate
steel
for
Low carbon Contain less
Low cost
fabrication
than 0.25% C
steels
Tin can
Rated at 55-60%
machinability
Nails
Bolt and nut
Easy to form in which
high strength is not
required.
Applications requiring
higher strength than
Machinery
Range in
low carbon steel
components and
carbon
Medium
engine parts
Machinability is 60between
carbon steel
i.e : crankshafts,
70%
0.25% and
gears and
0.60%
Good toughness and
connecting rods.
ductility
Fair formability
Hardest, strongest
Least ductile of the
carbon steel
High wear resistance
High carbon
steel
Carbon in
amounts
greater than
0.60% but
less than 1.4%
Springs, cutlery
Cutting tools &
blades
Manganese
(Mn)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
EFFECTS
Improves :
Strength,
Hardness,
Wear resistance
Hot hardness.
Improves
Strength
Hardness of steel
Increases
Toughness
OTHERS
Nickel (Ni)
Vanadium (V)
Hot hardness
improves
Strength
Toughness
Enhances
strength
toughness of steel
EFFECTS
Chromium,
(usually above 15%)
Nickel
Carbon
Common used of stainless steel is kitchen cutlery, watch strap, piping and fitting.
Die steel
Are designed for use at elevated temperatures. It has high toughness and high
resistance to wear and cracking. Alloying elements are tungsten, molybdenum,
chromium and vanadium.
TYPES OF
CAST IRON
DESCRIPTIONS
* The structure causes
the surface of the metal
to have a grey color
when fractured; hence
the name gray cast iron.
Ductile Iron
* Composition of grey
iron in which the molten
metal is chemically
treated before pouring to
cause the formation of
graphite spheroids rather
than flakes.
* Has less carbon and
silicon than gray cast
ATTRACTIVE
PROPERTIES
* Good vibration
damping, which is
desirable in engines
and other machinery
TYPICAL
PRODUCT
* Automotive
engine blocks and
heads
* Internal lubricating
qualities, which makes
the cast metal
* Motor housings
machinable.
* Ductility of grey
cast iron is very low;
it is a relatively brittle
material.
* Machine tool
bases
* Machinery
components
requiring high
strength and good
wear resistance
* Railway brake
shoes
iron
* Formed by more rapid
cooling of the molten
metal after pouring
* Excellent wear
resistance
* Good strength
Malleable Iron
* When castings of
white cast iron are heat
treated to separate the
carbon out of solution
and form graphite
Chapter 5
Introduction to Welding
Chapter Outline
5.1 Overall safety in welding
5.2 Filler, Flux, Electrode and shielding gases
5.3 Gas welding
5.3.1
Oxy-acetylene gas welding
5.4 Arc welding
5.4.1
SMAW
5.4.2
MIG
5.4.3
TIG
5.5 Spot welding
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able
to:
1. Acquire basic knowledge on arc welding and gas
welding and its operating.
2. Differentiate between arc welding, gas welding
and its application.
3. Justify which welding operation is relevant to
certain task.
4. Acknowledge safety procedure when handling
with this equipment
Figure 1 : Oxy-gas welding station (keep cylinders and hoses away from the flame)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Because of the heat sources, such as open flames, arcs, sparks, and hot metal used in
welding and related operations, fire and explosion hazards are always present in the
work area.
Welding processes should be carried out away from all combustible materials,
including flammable fluids, vapors, gases, fuel, wood and textiles.
Protection of the operators eyes, face, and body against sparks, spatter, and infrared
and ultraviolet radiation is essential.
Several types of safety equipment and protective clothing are available and should be
used.
Welding and related methods and machinery that use electricity as a source of energy
also present hazards.
Proper installation and maintenance of equipment and training of personnel are
essential.
Proper ventilation systems must be installed and maintained.
Never look at the arc with the naked eye.
Stand on dry footing when welding.
Keep area around welder clean.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers permanent joining technique using welding process such as gas
welding, arc welding and spot welding.
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalescence at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
Oxyfuel-gas and arc welding are among the most commonly used joining operations. Gas
welding uses chemical energy; to supply the necessary heat, arc welding use electrical
energy instead.
In all of these processes, heat is used to bring the joint being welded to a liquid state.
Shielding gases are used to protect the molten-weld pool and the weld area against
oxidation. Filler rods may or may not be used in oxyfuel-gas and arc welding to fill the
weld area.
The selection of a welding process for a particular operation depends on the workpiece
material, on its thickness and size, on its shape complexity, on the type of joint, on the
strength required, and on the change in product appearance caused by welding.
A variety of welding equipment is availablemuch of which is now robotics and
computer controlled with programmable features.
Discontinuities can develop in the weld zone (such as porosity, inclusions, incomplete
welds, tears, surface damage, and cracks). Residual stresses and relieving them also are
important considerations in welding.
The weldability of metals and alloys depends greatly on their composition, the type of
welding operation and process parameters employed, and on the control of welding
parameters. General guidelines are available to help in the initial selection of suitable and
economical welding methods for a particular application.
Applications of welding : Manufacture of automobile bodies, furniture, machine frames,
general repair work and ship building.
The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic
types of weld joints are shown in figure below :
Butt joint : The parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges.
Corner joint : The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the
corner of the angle.
Lap joint : Consist of two overlapping parts.
Tee joint : One part if perpendicular to the other in the approximate shape of the
letter T.
Edge joint : A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or mainly parallel
members.
Figure 3 : Flux used in shielded metal arc welding: (a) overall process; (b) welding area
enlarged
5.2.3 Electrode
Electrode is a metal rod which conducts a current from the electrode holder to the
base metal. Used in electric arc welding.
Two types of electrode :Consumable ; Non consumable
A) Consumable electrode
Consumable electrodes not only used as a conductor for the electrical current, but
it provides the source of the filler metal in arc welding.
These electrodes are available in two principal forms of wire and rods (also called
sticks).
These electrodes are available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks) and
wire.
Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 mm (918 in.) long and 9.5 mm (3/8 in.)
or less in diameter.
The problem with consumable welding rods, at least in production welding
operations, is that they must be changed periodically, reducing arc time of the
welder
Consumable weld wire has the advantage that it can be continuously fed into the
weld pool from spools containing long lengths of wire, thus avoiding the frequent
interruptions that occur when using welding sticks.
In both rod and wire forms, the electrode is consumed by the arc during the
welding process and added to the weld joint as metal.
No flux is required
Used in MIG and TIG
5.3 : GAS WELDING
5.3.1 Oxy-acetylene gas welding
Oxyfuel-gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any welding process that
uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. This flame is the source of the
heat that is used to melt the metals at the joint.
Fuel gases (such as hydrogen and methylacetylene propadiene) can be used in oxyfuelgas welding. But, the most common fuel gas welding process uses acetylene (C2H2). This
process is known as oxyacetylene-gas welding (OAW) and is used typically for structural
sheet-metal fabrication, automotive bodies and various repair work.
The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas
source (usually cylinders), two pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one of each for
each cylinder), and a torch. The cylinders are often carried in a special wheeled trolley.
Advantages :
1. Simple, portable and cheap
Disadvantages
1. Low welding speed
2. Not recommended for welding reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium
Flame types
In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important tool. All the welding equipment
simply serves to maintain and control the flame. The correct type of flame is essential for
the production of satisfactory welds. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and
condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency. The proportion of acetylene and
oxygen in the gas mixture is an important factor in oxyfuel-gas welding.
Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel gas welding :
(a) neutral flame
(b) oxidizing flame
(c) carburizing or reducing flame
a) Neutral flame
The neutral flame as shown in figure below is produced when the ratio of oxygen to
acetylene, in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one. Its termed
"neutral because it will usually have no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It
will not oxidize the weld metal and it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of
the weld metal. The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:
(i) Mild Steel
(ii) Stainless steel
(iii) Cast iron
(iv) Copper
(v) Aluminum
b) Oxidizing flame
The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than
required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or burn some of the metal being welded. To
have this flame set carburizing flame first convert it to neutral flame and then reduce the
supply of acetylene to get oxidizing flame. Its inner cone is relatively shorter and excess
oxygen turns the flame to light blue color. It burns with a harsh sound. An oxidizing
flame tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because of excess oxygen and
which causes the temperature to rise as high as 6300F.
The oxidizing flame is commonly used for the welding metals that are not oxidized
readily such as :
(i) Copper base metals (brass, bronze)
(ii) Zinc base metals
(iii) A few types of ferrous metals, such as manganese steel and cast iron
c) Carburizing flame
The carburizing (or reducing) flame, is created when the proportion of acetylene in the
mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral flame. A carburizing flame has
an approximate temperature of 5500F (3038C). A reducing flame can be recognized by
acetylene feather which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer
flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in
color. Larger the excess of acetylene larger will be its length.
The carburizing flame is commonly used for the welding of aluminum and nickel alloys.
Metals that tend to absorb carbon should not be welded with reducing flame. For
example, iron and steel, it produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide.
This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications in which the weld may
need to be bent or stretched.
Figure 7 : (a), (b), (c) shows the three basic types of flames. (d) The principle of the
oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
Figure 9 : (a) General view of and (b) cross-section of a torch used in oxyacetylene
welding. (c) Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding.
5.4 : ARC WELDING
In arc welding, developed in the mid-1800s, the heat required is obtained from electrical
energy. The process involves either a consumable or a nonconsumable electrode. An arc
is produced between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to be welded, by using an
AC or a DC power supply.
Power supply
A welding power supply is a device that provides an electric current to perform arc
welding operation. Welding usually requires high current (over 80 amperes) and it can
need above 12,000 amps in spot welding. Low current can also be used; welding two
razor blades together at 5 amps with gas tungsten arc welding is a good example. A
welding power supply can be as simple as a car battery and as sophisticated as a modern
machine based on silicon controlled rectifier technology with additional logic to assist in
the welding process.
5.4.1
Figure 12 : SMAW
5.4.2
: Gas metal arc welding, GMAW (@ metal inert gas welding, MIG)
Advantages :
1. Continuous weld may be produced.
2. High level of operators skill is not required.
3. Slag removal is not required.
Disadvantages :
1. Expensive and non-portable equipment is required.
2. Outdoor applications are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the
shielding gas.
3. GMAW guns can be bulky and difficult-to-reach small areas or corners.
Figure 13 : MIG
5.4.3
: Gas tungsten arc welding, GTAW (@ tungsten inert gas welding, TIG)
Principle :
1. The torch holding the tungsten electrode is connected to a shielding gas cylinder
as well as one terminal of the power source. This will allow the welding current
from the power source to enter the electrode.
2. The workpiece is connected to the other terminal of the power source through a
different cable.
3. The shielding gas goes through the torch body and is directed by a nozzle toward
the weld pool to protect it from the air.
4. Protection from the air is much better in TIG than in SMAW because an inert gas
such as argon or helium is usually used as the shielding gas and because the
shielding gas is directed toward the weld pool.
5. When a filler metal is used, it is added to the weld pool from a separate rod or
wire, being melted by the heat of the arc.
6. This process may be performed manually or by machine and automated methods.
Figure 14 : TIG
Advantages :
1. High quality weld
2. Little or no postweld cleaning
3. Can be used to weld reactive metals, such as titanium, zirconium, aluminum and
magnesium.
Disadvantages :
1. Slow process
Chapter 6
Introduction to Metal
Casting
Chapter Outline
6.1 Overall safety in metal casting
6.2 Melting practice
6.3 Sand casting
6.3.1
Process cycle
6.3.2
Elements of gating system
6.3.3
Molding material
6.3.4
Pattern
6.3.5
Core
6.4 Die casting
6.5 Basic design rule in casting
6.6 Cleaning and casting defects
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able
to:
1. Have
a basic understanding on casting
terminology and processes
2. Have acquired knowledge on casting defects and
design rules
6.1
1. Electric arc furnace : The furnace is charged with ingots, scrap, alloy metals and
fluxing agents. An arc is produced between three electrodes and the metal charge,
melting the metal. A slag with fluxed covers the surfave of the molten metal to prevent
oxidation, to refine the metal and to protect the furnace roof from excessive heat. When
ready, the electrodes are raised and the furnace tilted to pour the molten metal into the
receiving ladle.
Other characteristics : High rate of melting, much less pollution and the ability to hold the
molten metal for any length of time for alloying purposes.
3. Crucible furnace : The crucible or container holding the metal charge is heated by a
gas or oil burner. When ready, the crucible is lifted out of the furnace and tilted for
pouring into the molds.
Other characteristics : Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals. Special hazards include
carbon monoxide, metal fumes, noise and heat.
6.3 :
Sand Casting
Form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy (aluminum, cast
iron, stainless steel).
Involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern and sand mold.
Produce automobile components, such as engine blocks, engine manifolds,
cylinder heads, and transmission cases
Advantages :
It can create big components with complex shapes; it can be used for variety of metals;
the cost associated with tools and equipment involved in the casting process is relatively
lower; the scrap metal can be used again and the preparation time is relatively shorter.
Disadvantages :
The materials created by sand casting are not as strong as those created by other
techniques. The rate of production is relatively low for sand casting because one mold
only can be used once. The preparation of the final product requires additional machinery
and labor which adds to the cost.
Riser
Vent
sand.
Molding is performed by several methods such as green sand and dry sand.
A) Green sand mold :
Mixture of sand (90%), water (3%) and a clay (7%)
Widely used
Cheap
Surface finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and machining
is often required to achieve the finished product
B) Skin dried mold (also known as dried green sand) :
Additional bonding materials (or binder) are added
Cavity surface is dried by a torch or heating lamp directed to the mold surface to
increase mold strength.
This improves the dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
More expensive and require more time, thus lowering the production rate.
6.3.4 Pattern
In casting, pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into
which molten material will be poured during the casting process. Therefore, the first step
in making a sand casting is the design and construction of a pattern.
The pattern material is determined primarily by the number of castings to be made. Wood
patterns are relatively easy to make and are frequently used when small quantities of
castings are required. However, it is not very dimensionally stable, as it may warp or
swell with changes in humidity and it tends to wear out fairly rapidly. Metal patterns are
more expensive but are more dimensionally stable and longer lasting.
Types of pattern :
Figure 10 : Types of pattern a) Single piece, b) Split, c) Match-plate, d) Cope and Drag
pattern
a) Single piece pattern :
This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the desired casting. For making a mould,
the pattern is accommodated either in cope or drag. Used for producing a few large
castings, for example, stuffing box of steam engine. This is generally used for casting
simple shapes and the productivity rate is low by using single piece pattern and the
removal of the pattern from the mold cavity is difficult when complex pattern shapes are
inserted. Used for producing a few large castings, for example, stuffing box of
steam engine.
b) Split pattern :
The disadvantage of single piece pattern can be avoided by using split piece pattern by
splitting the complex shape in to two parts that is one of them is attached to the cope part
and the other to the drag part and both of them are joined together by using dowel pin
(dowel pin is a temporary fastener used for joining of two parts). Gated system is
incorporated after the cope and drag part are joined together. Example, taps, bushings,
gears, flywheels.
c) Match plate pattern :
A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drags portions mounted on
opposite sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the "match plate" that conforms to the
contour of the parting surface. The gates and runners are also mounted on the match
plate, so that very little hand work is required. This results in higher productivity. This
type of pattern is used for a large number of castings. Because the moulding is done on
machines, match plate patterns produce castings which are more accurate than those
produced by hand moulding. Example, piston rings, engine.
d) Cope and drag pattern :
A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag portions each mounted
on separate match plates. These patterns are used when in the production of large
castings. The complete molds are too heavy and cannot be handled by a single worker.
6.3.5 Core
For castings of the hollow type, cores are employed which form the inner pattern
thereby providing for molten metal to run into the cavity formed between the core outer
face and the inner sand formation of the mold, similarly to that for a solid casting.
Cores are made from sand (silica sand) and binder (linseed oil, core oil, resins, etc). The
mixture of sand will be compacting in a specially formed box composed of two or more
parts.
Figure 11 : Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores
temperature also affects the tooling, as a higher temperature will have a greater adverse
effect on the life of the dies.
Advantages :
1. Near net shaped components
2. High production rate
3. Design can reduce machining and assembly operations (welding, fastening, etc.)
4. Good dimensional control
5. Good surface finish
6. Can cast thin walled components (<0.050)
Disadvantages :
1. Not applicable for high melting point metals and alloys (e.g. : steel)
2. Long wait for first production parts (too long lead time)
3. Casting defects (e.g. : air entrapment, gas and shrinkage porosity can be prevalent
causing lower mechanical properties)
4. Component size limitations
5. High die cost
There are two principal die casting methods:
i) Hot chamber machine
Used for alloys with low melting temperature, which are chemically inert to the
material of the plunger and other parts of the casting machine : zinc alloys (except
zinc alloys containing more than 10% of aluminum), tin alloys and magnesium
alloys.
In the hot chamber die casting machines, the pressure chamber (cylinder) and the
plunger are submerged in the molten metal in the pot (crucible).
Hot chamber machines have short casting cycle (about 1 sec.). They are capable
to cast thin wall casting with good filling the cavity under precise temperature
control of the molten metal.
Maintenance of hot chamber machines is more expensive as compared to the cold
chamber process.
Process :
It relies upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning, the plunger
goes up allowing the melt to fill the cylinder space. The die is closed at this stage.
The plunger goes down forcing the melt to flow through the gooseneck into the
die cavity. After the die has been filled with the molten metal, the plunger is held
under a pressure until the solidification is completed. The die opens. The casting
stays in the die part equipped with ejectors. The plunger goes up and the melt
residuals return through the gooseneck back to the pot. The ejectors push the
casting out of the die.
A few days
Die Casting
Several weeks
Expensive
Higher labor costs on long runs Lower labor costs on long runs
Finish
Pebbly
Smooth
Alloys
High temperatures
Unlimited
Product Size
6.5 :
i) Wall thickness
Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects. A thick section,
often referred to as a hot spot, causes uneven cooling and can result in shrinkage, porosity
or cracking.
Figure 16 : Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold
iii) Corner
Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture.
Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls
Figure 17 : Corner
Figure 18 : Aluminum piston for an internal combustion engine: (a) as cast and (b) after
machining. The part on the left is as cast, including risers, sprue, and well, as well as a
machining allowance; the part on the right is the piston after machining.
Misrun
Shrinkage cavity
Cold shut
Microporosity
Sand wash
Scab
Sand blow
Shift (mold shift, core shift)
1) Misrun
Figure 19 : Misrun
2) Shrinkage cavity
3) Cold shut
Occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly in the mold cavity,
leaving a weak spot.
Solution: avoid narrow cross-section
4) Microporosity
Figure 22 : Microporosity
5) Sand wash
It is a projection on the drag face of a casting that extends along the surface,
decreasing in height as it extends from one side of the casting to the other end.
It usually occurs with bottom gating castings in which the molding sand has
insufficient hot strength and when too much metal is made to flow through one
gate into the mold cavity.
6) Scab
Figure 24 : Scab
Occurs when a portion of the face of a mold lifts or breaks down and the recess
thus made is filled by metal.
When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be disengaged with such
violence as to break up the sand which is then washed away and the resulting
cavity filled with metal.
The reasons can be : Too fine sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture
content of
sand
and
uneven
molds
ramming.
7) Sand blow
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal
form.
Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of the mold cope
relative to the drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at the parting
line.
Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced, and (he displacement is usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of
the molten metal
References
http://www.custompartnet.com
http://www.ghinduction.com
http://www.ilo.org
http://mechanicalinventions.blogspot.com
http://mechanical-info.blogspot.com
http://www.rotblattsculpture.com
http://www.substech.com
http://www.westcoastcastings.com
http://en.wikipedia.org
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter, you should be able
to:
1. Understand common machine tools used in
workshop
2. Describe various types of machine operations
3. Understand the safety procedure/practice in
machine shop workshop
7.1
7.1.1
Correct dress is important, remove rings and watches, roll sleeves above elbows.
Always stop the machine before making adjustments.
Always wear protective eye protection.
Know where the emergency stop is before operating the machine.
Use pliers or a brush to remove chips and never use your hand.
Never lean on the machine.
Never attempt to measure work while the machine is operated.
:TURNING
Lathes generally are considered to be the oldest machine tools. Lathe is a machine which
removes the metal from a piece of work to the required shape and size. One of the most
basic machining processes is turning, meaning that the part is rotated while it is being
machined. It is a versatile machine tool, manually operated, and widely used in low and
medium production also capable of variety of shapes and operations. The job must be
softer than tool material.
There are several types of lathe machines, but the most popular is engine lathe. No
machine shop is seen without this type of lathe. The good thing about engine lathes is that
it can be used in various materials, aside from metal. Moreover, the set-up of these
machines is so simple that they are easier to use. Its main components include the bed,
headstock, and tailstock. These engine lathes can be adjusted to variable speeds for the
accommodation of a wide scope of work. In addition, these lathes come in various sizes.
Engine lathes all have the same general functional parts, even though the specific location
or shape of a certain part may differ from one manufacturer. Basic parts in a lathe
machine consist of:
Bed
Carriage
Apron
Cross slide
Lead screw
Head stock
Tail stock
Ways
The cutting tool is held in a tool post fastened to the cross-slide, which is assembled to
the carriage. By moving the carriage, the tool can be fed parallel to the work axis to
perform straight turning or by moving the cross-slide, the tool can be fed radially into the
work to perform facing, form turning or cut-off operations.
Workholding devices
Workholding devices are important, particularly in machine tools and machining
operations, as they must hold the workpiece securely.
There are four common methods used to hold workparts in turning :
1.
2.
3.
4.
g)
Threading : A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating
workpart in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus
creating threads in the cylinder.
(h)
Boring : A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the
inside diameter of an existing hole in the part.
(i)
Drilling : Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the
rotating work along its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
(j)
Knurling : This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting
of material. Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular crosshatched pattern in the work surface.
Figure 3 : Machining operations other than turning that are performed on a lathe
a) Facing, b) Taper turning, c) Contour turning, d) Form turning, e) Chamfering, f)
Cut-off, g) Threading, i) Drilling and j) Knurling
Peripheral Milling
In peripheral (or slab) milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth located on the
periphery of the cutter body. The axis of cutter rotation is generally in a plane parallel to
the work-piece surface to be machined.
Also called as plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface being
machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside
periphery of the cutter.
Several types of peripheral milling
a) Slab millingThe basic form of peripheral milling; the cutter width
extends beyond the workpiece on both sides.
b) Slotting, also called slot millingThe width of the cutter is less than the
workpiece width, creating a slot in the work. When the cutter is very thin, this
operation can be used to mill narrow slots or cut a workpart in two, called saw
milling.
c) Side millingThe cutter machines the side of the workpiece.
d) Straddle millingThe same as side milling, only cutting takes place on
both sides of the work.
Figure 5 : a) Slab milling, b) Slotting, also called slot milling, c) Side milling, d) Straddle
milling
Face milling
In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the work-piece surface. The milled surface results from the action of
cutting edges located on the periphery and face of the cutter.
Conventional face millingThe diameter of the cutter is greater than the
workpart width, so that the cutter overhangs the work on both sides.
Partial face millingthe cutter overhangs the work on only one side.
End millingthe cutter diameter is less than the work width, so a slot is cut
into the part.
Profile millingthis is a form of end milling in which the outside periphery
of a flat part is cut.
Pocket millinganother form of end milling, this is used to mill shallow
pockets into flat parts.
Figure 6 : a) Conventional face milling, b) Partial face milling, c) End milling, d) Profile
milling, e) Pocket milling, f) Surface contouring
Types of Milling Machine
Milling machine can be broadly classified into the following types.
a) Column & Knee Type Milling Machines
Used for general purpose milling operations,
Most common milling machines. The spindle to which the milling cutter is may
be horizontal (slab milling) or vertical (face and end milling).
The basic components are:
Work table, on which the work-piece is clamped using the T-slots. The
table moves longitudinally with respect to the saddle.
Saddle, which supports the table and can move transversely.
Knee, which supports the saddle and gives the table vertical movements
for adjusting the depth of cut.
Overarm in horizontal machines, which is adjustable to accommodate
different arbor lengths.
Head, which contains the spindle and cutter holders. In vertical machines
the head may be fixed or vertically adjustable.
7.4
: SHAPING MACHINE
Shaping is the operations involving the use of a single-point cutting tool moved linearly
relative to the workpart.
In conventional shaping, a straight, flat surface is created by this action.
In shaping, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the cutting tool.
Figure 8 : Shaping
The motion of the ram consists of a forward stroke to achieve the cut and a return
stroke during which the tool is lifted slightly to clear the work and then reset for
the next pass.
10
7.5 :
GRINDING MACHINE
Grinding is a machining operation that also known as abrasive machining. One of the
best methods for producing accuracy and fine finishing on parts is abrasive machining.
An abrasive is a small, hard particle having sharp edges and an irregular shape. Abrasives
are capable of removing small amounts of material from a surface through a cutting
process that produces tiny chips.
The grinding wheel is usually disk-shaped, and is precisely balanced for high
rotational speeds.
Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material.
Figure 11 : Grinding
a)
b)
11
7.6 : DRILLING
Hole making is among the most important operations in manufacturing and drilling is a
major and common hole-making process.
Drilling machine
Drilling machine is used for drilling holes, tapping, reaming, and small-diameter boring
operations.
Drilling machines with multiple spindles (gang drilling) are used for high
production- rate operations.
Workholding devices for drilling are essential to ensure that the workpiece is
located properly.
12
c)
d)
Countersinking : This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole
is cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
e)
Figure 14 : Machining operations related to drilling; (a) reaming, (b) tapping, (c)
counterboring, (d) countersinking, (e) centerdrilling and (f) spot facing.
13
Reference :
1. http://www.brighthub.com
14
Chapter 8
Introduction to Sheet Metal
Chapter Outline
8.1 Overall safety in sheet metal working
8.2 Layout
8.3 Sheet metal processes :
8.3.1
Shearing
8.3.2
Forming
8.3.3
Finishing
8.4 Joints
Learning outcome
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe common tools and equipment used in sheet
metal shop.
2. Understand common operations in sheet metal shop.
3. Select suitable tools and equipment in sheet metal
application.
4. Execute accurately basic skills in sheet metal practice
with appropriate tools and equipment.
5. Understand the safety procedure/practice in sheet
metal shop.
8.1
Working in a sheet metal shop can be a physically demanding job and requires careful
attention to safety procedures. Cuts, back injury and repetitive motion injuries can be
avoided by using safe work practices.
Machinery
Any machinery in the shop should be used with caution and carefully examined
before use.
If a machine is damaged, it should be locked out and not used until repaired.
When working, do not wear baggy clothing, jewelry or long hair. These can get
caught in moving parts.
Physical Injuries
Working with sheet metal involves tasks that use the same physical motions over
and over.
Students should be rotated between different jobs to prevent repetitive motion
injuries.
Sheet metal edges can be extremely sharp, so students should wear gloves to
protect their hands from cuts.
Work Environment
The sheet metal shop is an area that should have adequate lighting and proper
ventilation. This is extremely important when the shop space is small.
If any fumes will be present, the students should wear a respirator and safety
glasses.
Fitness
Maintain your overall health and fitness level because sheet metal work can
require crawling into tight spaces and areas for installations.
Standing, climbing, bending, and squatting may be required for long periods.
Keep your work close to you and rotate your tasks as much as possible to avoid
fatigue
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.
Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered
foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. Sheet metal is
available as flat pieces or as a coiled strip.
There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as aluminum,
brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important sheet metals
include silver, gold, and platinum. Sheet metal has applications in car bodies, airplane
wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings and many other things.
8.2
: Layout
The layout of metal is the procedure of measuring and marking material for cutting,
drilling, or welding. Accuracy is essential in layout work.
Most cases use shop drawings, sketches, and blueprints to obtain the measurements
required to fabricate the job being laid out. Ability to read and work from blueprints and
sketches is paramount in layout work.
Figure 1 : This type of fitting commonly used in gravity furnace leads where a
rectangular-to-round transition is required to connect cold air registers.
Layout tools are used for laying out fabrication jobs on metal. Some of the more common
layout tools that will use in performing layout duties are as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Figure 2 : Other marking and measuring tools used in sheet metal work
a. Mallet
A mallet is a kind of hammer, usually of wood, smaller and usually with a relatively large
head. It has round or rectangular cross section. The striking face is made flat to the work.
It is used to give light blows to the sheet metal in bending and finishing.
Figure 3 : Mallet
b. Stake or forming support
Used as supporting and forming tools.
Help in bending operations.
Types of stake :
1. Half moon stake used for working the edges on disc
2. Hatchet stake widely used for forming, bending and seaming
3. Bick iron used for forming long tapered cylindrical components
4. Funnel stake used for forming long tapered conical components
5. Horse head stake used for bending, holding and supporting the component
6.
7.
a) Straight shear
b) Bent shear
Figure 5 : Shears used in sheet metal
5. Hand shear light application for metal < 0.8 mm thickness
Steel Rule
Try Square
Scriber
Divider
Protractor
1. Steel rule
Used to set out dimensions
2. Try square
Used for making and testing angles of 90
Figure 13 : Protractor
8.3
Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size. If the sheets are
thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first step in any sheet
metal process is to cut the correct shape and sized blank from larger sheet.
Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one minor
classification
Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture or
separate the material.
Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape
changes without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. For example, this
includes bending and stretching.
Finishing processes
8.3.1 : Shearing processes
Three principal operations in press working that cut sheet metal:
a) Shearing
b) Blanking
c) Punching
Shearing
Shearing is a sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting
edges by means of a power shear. Typically, it is used to cut large sheets.
Figure 14 : Shearing operation (1) As punch first contacts sheet and (2) After cutting
Engineering analysis :
The shearing action is illustrated in the figure:
Figure 15 :
(1) Just before the punch contacts work
(2) Punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation
(3) Punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a smooth cut surface
(4) Fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges which separates the sheet
Blanking and punching
Blanking and punching are similar sheet metals cutting operations that involve cutting the
sheet metal along a closed outline.
If the part that is cut out is the desired product, the operation is called blanking and the
product is called blank.
If the remaining stock is the desired part, the operation is called punching.
Both operations are illustrated on the example of producing a washer:
order to best suit the given application. A press brake contains an upper tool called the punch
and a lower tool called the die, between which the sheet metal is located. The sheet is
carefully positioned over the die and held in place by the back gauge while the punch lowers
and forces the sheet to bend. In an automatic machine, the punch is forced into the sheet
under the power of a hydraulic ram. The bend angle achieved is determined by the depth to
which the punch forces the sheet into the die. This depth is precisely controlled to achieve the
desired bend.
While using a press brake and standard die sets, there are still a variety of techniques that can
be used to bend the sheet. The most common method in bending operations involve the
processes of :
V-bending - Sheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-shape punch
and die
Edge bending [also known as wipe bending] - It requires the sheet metal to be
held against the die by a pressure pad. The punch then presses against the edge of
the sheet metal that extends beyond the die and pad. The sheet will bend against
the radius of the edge of the die.
Figure 20 : (above) V bending and (below) Edge bending; (1) Before (2) After bending
b. Stretching
Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched and
bent simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured parts.
Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a piece of sheet metal is securely
gripped along its edges by gripping jaws. The gripping jaws are each attached to a carriage
that is pulled by pneumatic or hydraulic force to stretch the sheet. The tooling used in this
process is a stretch form block, called a form die, which is a solid contoured piece against
which the sheet metal will be pressed. The most common stretch presses are oriented
vertically, in which the form die rests on a press table that can be raised into the sheet by a
hydraulic ram. As the form die is driven into the sheet, which is gripped tightly at its edges,
the tensile forces increase and the sheet plastically deforms into a new shape. Horizontal
stretch presses mount the form die sideways on a stationary press table, while the gripping
jaws pull the sheet horizontally around the form die.
Figure : Drawing
8.4.1 : Edges
Edges are formed to :
Enhance the appearance of the work
To strengthen the piece
To eliminate the cutting hazard of the raw edge.
1) Single hem edge
This edge can be made in any width. In general, the heavier the metal, the wider the
hem is made.
: Lap Joint
A lap joint is one of the many joints used to join two pieces of sheet metal together. With
a lap joint, this is done by overlapping the metal and fastening them with rivet together. If
two pieces of metal are joined without any material being removed, a joiner will have
made a full lap joint. The thickness of this joint will be the sum of the thickness of both
metal pieces.
Rivet
Figure 30 : Lap Joint
8.4.4 : Rivet
Rivet can be used to join thin pieces of metal. Rivets are permanent joining and used
primarily for lap joints as shown in figure above.
A rivet is an unthreaded, headed pin used to join two or more parts by passing the pin
through holes in the parts and then forming a second head in the pin on the opposite side.
A head is formed on the plain end of the pin by hammering or by direct pressure. Once
the rivet has been deformed, it cannot be removed except by breaking one of the heads.
The process of joining two or more plates by means of rivets is called riveting. Before
being installed, a rivet consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The
end opposite the head is called the buck-tail. On installation, the rivet is placed in a
punched or pre-drilled hole and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e. deformed), so that it
expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place. To
distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the factory head
and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail.
Figure 32 : The tail of rivet expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter,
holding the rivet in place
Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension
loads (loads parallel to the axis of the shaft). However, it is much more capable of
supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft). Bolts and screws are
better suited for tension applications.
Types of rivet head :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solid rivet
Blind rivet
Figure 36 : Riveting team working on the cockpit shell of a C-47 transport at the plant of
North American Aviation. The woman on the left operates an air hammer, while the man
on the right holds a bucking bar.
2) Riveting machine
Figure 40 : Method of riveting (a) Initial position, (b) Final position showing
riveted head
Figure 43 : Rivet gun is used to fasten rivets into two separate materials allowing the
materials to clamp together
Method of riveting blind rivet using rivet gun:
1.
2.
3.
Drill holes in both materials that you will be using the rivet to hold together. The
holes should be adequate enough for the rivet to fit.
Open handle of rivet gun completely. Insert rivet mandrel into nosepiece until rivet
head is in contact with face of nosepiece.
Squeeze handle until rivet mandrel breaks or snap off. If it doesn't snap off after you
squeeze it, simply release the handle and squeeze again and do not try to force the
pin to snap off or you may damage the material or pull the rivet through before it has
completely flattened.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
http://www.assemblymag.com
http://www.custompartnet.com
http://www.doityourself.com
http://www.ehow.com
http://me.emu.edu.tr/
http://www.surebonder.com
http://en.wikipedia.org
United States Department of Labor: Sheet Metal Workers Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2010-11 Editions.
9. State Compensation Insurance Fund: Sheet Metal Worker Safety
10. S. Kalpakjian and S.R. Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6th
Edition in SI Units, Prentice Hall, Singapore.
11. M. P. Groover. Principle of Modern Manufacturing, 4th Edition SI Version, John
Wiley and Sons, Asia.