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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
Evolutionary theory
Evolutionary theory states that all organisms have developed from pre-existing organisms. To be more
precise, all organisms have a common origin in some initial form of life, which over billions of years of
change in many different directions, has given rise to the vast variety of organisms, present and past.
Therefore all living things are fundamentally similar because their basic chemistry has been inherited
from the very first organisms
Isolation
-
Darwin and Wallace argued that evolution could be brought about by a mechanism in which
competition and environmental pressures naturally selected the best-adapted individuals. This
mechanism was called national selection
Darwin published ;The Origins of the Species in 1859
Isolation must occur for a new species to evolve usually by a physical barrier
Within each separate populations, different mutations occur and therefore different variations are
produced
Natural selection acts on the different populations in different ways because each has different
characteristics and environmental pressures
Eventually the populations become so different they no longer interbred
This process over millions years will give rise a new organisms
E.g. Marsupials are only found in Australia and New Guinea however their fossils can be found in
Antarctica and South America this provides testimony to the common ancestry of marsupials before
the breaking of the super continent Gondwanaland
Many species in Australia were widely distributed across the continent from east to west. The formation
of desert in central Australia effectively isolated the organisms in the west from those in the east. Now
a comparison of eastern Australian and western Australian species reveals a similarity due to a
common ancestry prior to the isolation
Chemical
-
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
THE
CHEMICAL
CONDITIONS
IN THE
ENVIRONME
NT
COMPETITIO
N FOR
RESOURCES
Example the Red wolf, jackal and dog all come from a common
ancestor each is a separate species belonging to the same genus
Canis
Micro evolution
Ancient kangaroos which were much smaller have evolved into the
modern-day red kangaroo
Larger in size
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
-
Peppered
-
E.g. The leaden flycatcher and the restless flycatcher both feed on similar
insects but in different ways. The leaden flycatcher catches flying insects from
trees whereas the restless flycatcher hovers above the ground and emits a call
that disturbs the insects before pouncing on them shows how over time,
different species of flycatcher evolved occupying slightly different niches as a
result of competition
Moth
In England, the peppered moth occurred in two varieties: white and black form
The white form was much more common as they were able to camouflage
against the white lichen that covered the trees of its habitat
As industry developed in the 19th century, the bark and lichen became
darkened under a cover of soot
The black moth was now better camouflaged and it became more abundant as
the white moth fell more easily to prey
Prac:
-
White = 1
Grey = 2 and 3
Black = 4, 5 and 6
Year
Black
White
Grey
Total
0
10
10
10
30
1
7
12
11
30
2
2
14
14
30
3
0
18
12
30
4
0
23
7
29
5
0
30
0
30
6
-
Predators may feed on black moths more often because they are an easier
target. Their colour is more distinct and so provides a greater contrast in its
surroundings more easily seen by predators
Although black moths do not exist in one year, they may reoccur the next due
to grey moths breeding, providing a chance of black offspring
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
Model (specific to this model of natural selection)
Advantages
Disadvantages
We could generate a few generations
Model does not include the natural
of moths in a short period of time,
complexities e.g. moths are not
making it more practical (time
hermaphrodites, they have more than one
compression)
offspring, population number varies from
each year
It is less expensive using dice and
Over simplifies
pictures instead of moths and breeding
facilities
It simplifies the process of natural
selection making it clearer and easier to
understand
ANALYSES
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
PREPARE A CASE
STUDY TO SHOW
HOW AN
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGE CAN LEAD
TO CHANGES IN A
SPECIES
DESCRIBE USING
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES,
HOW THE THEORY OF
EVOLUTION IS
SUPPORTED BY THE
FOLLOWING AREAS
OF STUDY
BIOGEOGRAP
HY
COMPARATIV
E
EMBRYOLOGY
COMPARATIV
E ANATOMY
BIOCHEMIST
RY
Kangaroos
25 million years ago, the physical conditions in Australia ace changes, with
increased aridity causing a decrease in rainforests and an increase in open
woodlands and grasslands with poor-quality grasses. These changes have
altered the selecting pressure of kangaroos
Ancient kangaroos which were much smaller have evolved into the
modern-day red kangaroo
Larger in size
In the South Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria and gangue
fever control
After the war, DDT was made available for use as an agricultural insecticide
Publication of the book Silent Spring led to DDT being banned in the US in
1972 due to its assumed side effects poisoning both wildlife and the
environment and were endangering human health
Malaria in Africa
When it was first introduced in WWII, DDT was very effective in reducing
malaria morbidity and mortality
However the program was halted sometime after and malaria rebounded to
600, 000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969
The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had acquired
resistance in the interim, presumably because of the continual agricultural use
Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for
disease prevention
Darwin supported his theory of natural selection using fossil records and the geographical
distribution of species
Biogeography
The study of the distribution of patterns of different species
Investigation of both past and present distributions to show changes in
biodiversity over time
Biogeography attempts to work out the dispersal of organisms from their place
of origin, how the population changed over time and the processes involved in
either its survival or its extinction
Plate tectonics caused the joining and separation of land masses providing a
land bridge which allowed migration to new areas or caused populations to be
separated. Isolation and natural selection led to the evolution of new species
in separated areas
Example Australias separation from other land masses explains its diversity
in animals. This explains the proliferation of the Australian marsupials and the
presence in the region of the only two living monotremes the echidna and
platypus
Fossil
A fossil is any trace of remain of pre-existing life they may be whole
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
organisms, fragments of body parts, impressions made by the organism,
droppings or footprints
Fossilisation can occur in many different ways: Whole animals may be
preserved or when bones woods of shells are quickly covered by layers of
sediment (the living material is later replaced by minerals and a fossil replica
is produced)
Fossils are mostly found in sedimentary rocks produced in layers
The lowest sediments found in the bottom later must be the oldest, the
highest sediments closest to the surface must be the youngest
BY comparing the layers of sediment, the sequence from the very earliest life
to the present can be observed
Sedimentary rocks provide a record in their fossils of the history of life fossil
record
They show the history of life and when different groups emerged (simple
complex, marine aquatic)
Fossils how the evolution of the horse from a small animal, Hyracotherium
about the size of a fox terrier which lived 55 million years ago to the modern
horse, Equus.
Hyracotherium browsed on trees and had smaller teeth and 4 toes on each
front foot and 3 on each rear foot
The Equus is much larger, has larger teeth and one toe on each foot
Changes were due to environmental changes reduction of rainfall and
swampy area becoming dry grasslands
Comparative embryology
Study of embryo development
Early stages of embryos of many vertebrates appear very similar similar in
anatomy but the structures carry out different functions as they develop into
the organs of the body homology
Transitional form
Missing link that shows characteristics of two different groups
Transitional forms suggest a possible pathway of evolution when one group
evolves from another group
The evolution from ancient reptiles to mammals in particularly well
documented by a series of transition fossils they merge so closely that it
becomes difficult to distinguish whether it was a mammal-like-reptile or
reptile-like-mammal
Archaeopteryx
The skeleton is not unlike that of a reptile, but feathers are undeniably
a characteristic of a bird
Lobe-in-fish
Lobe-fin fish had lungs, but in the amphibian larger ribs, pelvis and
limb bone shave evolved for support on land
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
Comparative anatomy
Similar anatomy such as the pentadactyl limb
In the pentadactyl limb, the same basic skeleton structure has been adapted
for a number of uses ranking from running to grasping and flight due to
common ancestry homologous structures
Biochemistry
Proteins are made up of distinct amino acids linked in a specific sequence
The similarity of proteins in different organisms can be determined by
comparing the amino acid sequence in the proteins such as haemoglobin and
cytochrome c
Helps to establish the pathway in which biological evolution may have
occurred
Biogeography
The geographical distribution of organisms and fossils provide evidence for
evolution
When Darwin travelled the world in t=the beagle, he visited many islands and
continents
He noted South America, like other parts of the world has its own distinct
fauna and flora
The most likely explanation for distinctive organisms in different geographical
regions was that these organisms had come from ancestors within the region
and adapted to the condition there
The limb of every vertebrate, including humans, are based on an arrangement
of bones called the pentadactyl limb meaning five
Although they are similar structures, they are used in different ways referred
to as homologous structures
The fact that such a structure is present, strongly suggests that these
invertebrates shared a common ancestor whose descendant evolved in
different ways divergent evolution
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
USE AVAILABLE
EVIDENCE TO
ANALYSE, USING A
NAMES EXAMPLE,
HOW ADVANCES IN
TECHNOLOGY HAVE
CHANGES SCIENTIFIC
THINKING ABOUT
EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS
Biochemistry
Study of molecules and how they react in organisms
All living things contain the same basic organic compounds and similar cell
function through DNA and the production of enzymes
The degree of similarities in the molecular makeup of two organisms show the
closeness of their relationship and hence is an indication of the time distance
to a common ancestor -> organisms with a high degree of biochemical
similarities would have a recent common ancestors, while organisms with
many biochemical differences will have a distance common ancestor
Biochemistry has been used in the study of blood proteins e.g. haemoglobin
and antibody/antigen reactions when different blood types are mixed
DNA Hybridisation
Double stranded DNA are heated so that the nitrogenous base pairs in DNA
are broken to produce single strands of DNA
When these single strands cool, they reassociate into double strands is
single strands from different species mix, they will form a hybrid doublestranded DNA
There will be mismatches in these hybrid DNA strands the fewer the
mismatches the closer related they are
DNA hybridisation has shown that there are more similarities between
chimpanzees and humans than between chimpanzees and gorillas
Molecular clock can be sued to estimate the time of divergence of one species
from another they are calibrated against the fossil record
EXPLAIN HOW
DARWIN/WALLACES
THEORY OF
EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION
AND ISOLATION
ACCOUNTS FOR
DIVERGENT
EVOLUTION AND
CONVERGENT
EVOLUTION
Adaptive radiation
As organism spreading into new habitats, over millions of years they evolve,
adapting to environments they inhabit
Following the mass extinction of the dinosaurs, mammals adapted to occupy
many vacant niches in ecosystems
Divergent evolving to be different
Divergent evolution occurs when different groups arise from a common
ancestor due to adaptive radiation
This occurs when species which are closely related, experience different
environments, due to isolation and as a result different characteristics would
be selected. Eventually over many generations, the populations become so
different that when physical barriers are removed, the different populations no
longer interbred.
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
USE AVAILABLE
EVIDENCE TO
ANALYSE, USING A
NAMED EXAMPLE,
HOW ADVANCES IN
TECHNOLOGY HAVE
CHANGED SCIENTIFIC
THINKING ABOUT
EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
-
Identity
technology
Identify
scientific
understanding
Describe advances in
technology
Then
Observable evidence
Evidence based on structural
anatomy e.g. hind-limb, knuckle
walking, enamel on teeth
Identify and describe advances in
understanding
Then
Evidence based on structural
anatomy showed that gorillas
and chimpanzees were more
closely related to each other
than to humans or organ-tans
Technology
Scientific
understanding
ANALYSE
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES ON THE
HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF
THEORIES OF
EVOLUTION AND USE
AVAILABLE EVIDENCE
TO ASSESS SOCIAL
Now
Amino acid sequencing of
proteins such as cytochrome c
and haemoglobin revealing
amino acid differences between
species
Now
Amino acid sequencing revealed
identical sequences in
chimpanzees and humans but
one amino acid difference
between there species and
gorillas
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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
AND POLITICAL
INFLUENCES ON
THESE
DEVELOPMENTS
the end result which is the currently accepted theory of evolution by natural
selection proposed by Charles Darwin in the late 19th century
Darwin
-
Wallace
-
He had read books and papers published by numerous scientists of the time
and his travels included trips to South America and to the Malay Islands
In one of his trips, he wrote to Darwin proposing his ideas of natural selection
which were remarkably similar to one that Darwin had formulated
independently 12 years previously but never published due to the awareness
of social and political upheaval it would cause
This prompted Darwin to present his ideas of evolution by natural selection
Darwin felt the urgent need to complete his book, On the Origin of Species,
which was published in 1859, detailing the evidence of his findings and the
formulation of his theory of evolution by natural selection
chromosomes
Genes are situated along chromosomes
In a double stranded chromosome, each gene is represented twice this allows for division and mitosis
Chromosomes occur in pairs corresponding pairs are known as homologous chromosomes
Mutations are a permanent change in genetic information
May be caused due to exposure to UV, viruses, copying errors etc.
The change in the genetic code (e.g. change to base pair sequence) means there is a new allele for a
particular gene
A change in the DNA code will mean there will be in a change in the polypeptide produced new
alleles produced
Law of segregation
For each characteristic there are two factors which segregate, with one factor in each reproductive cell, and then
recombine at fertilisation. The characteristics do not blend; one dominates over the other
Law of independent assortment
Pairs of factors segregate independently of other pairs of factors when forming reproductive cells
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Dominant
Recessive
BLUEPRINT
OF LIFE
Round seeds
Wrinkled seeds
Yellow seeds
Green seeds
Humans
Smooth pod
Constricted pod
46 chromosomes
Green pod
Yellow pod
22 pairs of autosomes (non-sex
chromosomes) White
and 1 flower
pair of sex chromosomes
Red flower
The chromosomes number
is said to be diploid
(2n)
Tall46stem
Short
stem
Gametes (sperm or egg cells)
contain
23 chromosomes
(i.e. one of each of the pair). The chromosome
Terminal
flower
Axial flower
number 23 is said to be a haploid (1n)
When 2 gametes combine at fertilisation, the offspring inherits chromosomes of each homologous pair
from each parent
OUTLINE THE
Gregor Mendel
EXPERIMENTS
The founder of the modern study of genetics was an Australian monk, Gregor
CARRIED OUT BY
Mendel, who lived in the 19th century
GREGOR MENDEL
He started with many strains and bred them for several years to find easily
recognisable traits that bred them
The plants grew relatively fast and he was able to collect quantitative and
qualitative data
His experiment began in 1856 and his results were published in 1866
Mendels method
He studied 7 characteristics of peas
DESCRIBE THE
ASPECTS OF THE
EXPERIMENTAL
TECHNIQUES USED
BY MENDEL THAT LED
TO HIS SUCCESS
Before he began his experiment, he selectively bred plants, each for 2 years to
produce only pure breeding offspring
He crossed pea plants by transferring pollen from one plant to another using a
brush preventing random pollination stamen removed from one flower and
used to brush of the anther of another flower
Mendel crossed pure breeding round seeds with pure breeding wrinkled seeds
and found that the first generation (F1) were all round seeds
F1 all had the same characteristic one characteristic of the parent but not a
blend
Mendel then allowed the F1 generation to interbreed to obtain the F2
generation, he found characteristics from the parent of the P1 emerging in the
F2 constantly in a ratio of 3:1
Mendel repeated his experiment many times in large number of crosses over a
span of 10 years
Mendels conclusion
Concluded by the law of segregation
An organisms characteristics are determined by factors (genes) that
occur in pairs
In a sec cell (gamete) only one factor is present
During fertilisation, the factors pair up again, they dont blend
He concluded that there were two factors for a characteristics dominate or
recessive
Hence determined the monohybrid ratio of 3:1 dominance
Mendels investigation is considered successful because it consistently showed
the re-emergence of the recessive trait in the F2 in a 3:1 ratio
From his he was able to determine that the parents each contribute a factor
(gene or allele) to the offspring
The contributed factor combined to form the phenotype of the offspring
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Technique
Bred peas for many
generations to produce pure
breeding stock
Used a fast growing species
DESCRIBE OUTCOMES
OF MONOHYBRID
CROSSES INVOLVING
SIMPLE DOMINANCE
USING MENDELS
EXPERIMENT
SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING
MONOHYBRID
CROSSES USING
PUNNETT SQUARES
OR OTHER
APPROPRIATE
TECHNIQUES
PROCESS
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
DESCRIBE AN
EXAMPLE OF
HYBRIDISATION
WITHIN A SPECIES
AND EXPLAIN THE
PURPOSE OF THIS
HYBRIDISATION
DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN
HOMOZYGOUS AND
HETEROZYGOUS
GENOTYPES IN
MONOHYBRIDS
CROSSES
DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN THE TERMS
ALLELE AND GENE,
Contribution
Making his investigation valid by knowing the nature of
the potential stock
He was able to get quick and many results improving
reliability
Improving the accuracy of his experiment
A hybrid is the offspring of two species of the same genus of two varieties of the same
species
In many instances the hybrid has hybrid vigour with increased vitality and a
better chance of survival than either parent stock
Labradoodle
Cross between the Labrador Retriever and the standard or miniature Poodle
Parent breeds are both amongst the worlds most intelligent dog breeds
They are generally friendly, energetic and good with family and children
The hybrid is an allergen-free guide dog
It combine the low-shredding (odour free and hypoallergenic) coat of the
Poodle with the gentleness, friendliness and trainability of the Labrador to
provide a guide dog suitable for people with allergies to fur and dander
Puppies do not consistently have predictable characteristics while many
Labradoodles display desired traits, their appearance and behavioural
characteristics remain to come extent unpredictable
Homozygous genotype when the pair consist of two of the same alleles (e.g. two
recessive allele for shortness tt or two dominant alleles for tallness TT)
Heterozygous genotype when the pair consist of a dominant and recessive allele (e.g. a
receive short and dominant tall allele Tt will only show the dominate trait in the
phenotype
Gene a section of DNA coding for proteins that expresses itself as the phenotype of an
organism. Genes code for the production of particular polypeptides (protein). A
chromosome typically contains thousands of genes
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USING EXAMPLES
For example a small portion at the bottom of the chromosome may code for eye colour
Allele An allele is an alternate for a particular trait e.g. there are two allele for height in
pea plants tall (T) or short (t) alternate form of a gene
For example, the gene that produces antigen markers on the surface of red blood cells has
three variants A, B and I. Different combinations of these alleles produce different blood
groups. The haploid human genome contains around 30, 000 genes. Only 6, 000 or so
have different allele variations. 2 alleles per gene (1 from mother, 1 from father)
EXPLAIN THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DOMINANT
AND RECESSIVE
ALLELES AND
PHENOTYPES USING
EXAMPLES
Dominant allele- The dominant allele is expressed in the phenotype whenever present as
the dominant form of that allele
Recessive allele The recessive allele is only expressed when there is no dominant allele
present. The recessive characteristics is only seen in the phenotype when in the
homozygous recessive condition
-
OUTLINE THE
REASONS WHY THE
IMPORTANCE OF
MENDELS WORK
WAS NOT
RECOGNISED UNTIL
SOMETIME AFTER IT
WAS PUBLISHED
PERFORM AN
INVESTIGATION TO
CONSTRUCT
PEDIGREE OR FAMILY
TREES, TRACE THE
INHERITANCE OF
SELECTED
CHARACTERISTICS
AND DISCUSS THEIR
CURRENT USE
Patterns to
-
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DESCRIBE THE
CHEMICAL NATURE
OF CHROMOSOMES
AND GENES
IDENTIFY THAT DNA
IS A DOUBLESTRANDED
MOLECULE TWISTED
INTO A HELIX WITH
EACH STRAND
COMPRISED OF A
SUGAR-PHOSPHATE
BACKBONE AND
ATTACHED BASES
ADENINE, THYMINE,
CYTOSINE AND
GUANINE
CONNECTED TO A
COMPLEMENTARY
STRAND BY PAIRING
THE BASES
Together Sutton and Boveri found that the behaviour of chromosomes and the inheritance
of genes were similar.
Firstly Mendel said inheritance was caused by two factors inside each cell.
Boveri found that the chromosome is found in the nucleus and not the
cytoplasm
Sutton found that chromosomes in the nucleus causes inheritance
Theodor Boveri (German)
He worked on sea urchins
Concluded that male sperm nuclei and female egg nuclei was equivalent in
the amount of hereditary information, each having a half set (haploid number)
of chromosomes.
He showed that a full complement was required for the normal development of
an organism and that chromosomes were not all the same sea urchins
developed to be abnormal if they had more or less diploid chromosomes
Through his experiments, Boveri showed that hereditary factors must be
somehow related to the nucleus - At the time it was thought that all
chromosomes were equal, he showed that each chromosomes had different
qualities
Walter Sutton (American)
Worked with grasshoppers
From his experiments he conclude that chromosomes, duplicated and divided
but remain as a distinct structure
Concluded that chromosomes were the carriers of hereditary units
He noted Mendels law of segregation (i.e. that every individual carries pairs of
factors for each trait and the number that the member of this pair separated
during the formation of gametes) of alleles could be explained by the
behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis
He explained not all factors followed Mendels law because they were located
on the same chromosome and were not independently assorted during
meiosis
- In 1902 he suggested genes where in chromosomes
Each chromosome is made up of 60% protein and 40% DNA
Chromosomes are rod shaped structures that contains tightly packed DNA
molecules (coiled around a protein core)
A gene is a section of DNA on a chromosome made up of a particular
sequence of bases
Different genes are different lengths
DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid)
Carries genetic information from one generation to the next
1944 - Oswald Avery demonstrated that genes were made of DNA
1952 - Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins showed that the DNA molecule was
helical using x-ray diffraction crystallography
1953 - James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the double helix structure
The basic unit of a DNA is the nucleotide - consists of a sugar(deoxyribose) , a
phosphate and one of four nitrogenous bases - either adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C) or thymine (T) (A and T, G and C)
Nucleotides are joined together to form polynucleotides
When two polynucleotide chians line up together, the bases attach to each other
like the rungs of a ladder - ladder like structure, the sides made up of alternating
sugar and phosphate molecules and the runs
consist of
paired nitrogenous bases
Phosphate links the sugars to one
another
Makes up the sides of the ladder
Nitrogen bases bonded together by
hydrogen bonds
Sequence of the nitrogen bases make
up
the code
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EXPLAIN THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE
STRUCTURE AND
BEHAVIOURS OR
CHROMOSOMES
DURING MEIOSIS AND
THE INHERITANCE OF
GENES
Meiosis
Special type of cell division concerned with producing sex cells (gametes) for the
purpose of sexual reproduction
Gametes are produced in the reproductive organ of males and females come
together to produce a zygote
In mitosis the original parent cell is genetically identical to the daughter cells while
in meiosis the daughter cells are not identical to the parents - with the number of
chromosomes
Gametes only have half the number of chromosomes and so combine with another
gamete to form a full set of chromosomes for reproduction
Genetic mistakes/mutations occurring here will be passed on to the offspring
Stages
Meiosis 1
Prophase
The chromatids shorten and thicken, becoming visible under a microscope
The 2 homologous pairs come near each other - each homologous pairs
containing 2 chromatids therefore actually 4 aligned with each other
The combination of four chromatids is called a tetrad and the coming
together is the process called synapsis
Process of crossing over occurs segments of DNA from one chromatid
pass to another resulting in genetically new chromatids
Metaphase
Tetrads align on the equatorial plate
Centromeres attach to spindle fibres, which extend from the poles of the
cell
Anaphase - Homologous pairs separate 23 chromosomes to each pole
Telophase - Nucleolus reorganises and cytoplasmic division into two cells takes
place
Meiosis 2
Prophase - Each chromosome containing two chromatids attached by the
centromere move to the equatorial plate
Metaphase - 23 chromatid pairs gather at the centre prior to separation
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-
PROCESS
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
CONSTRUCT A MODEL
THAT DEMONSTRATES
MEIOSIS AND THE
PROCESSES OF
CROSSING OVER,
SEGREGATION OF
CHROMOSOMES AND
THE PRODUCTION OF
HAPLOID GAMETE
Anaphase
The centromere divides (46 chromatids become 46 chromosomes)
Spindle fibres move one chromosome from each pair to one pole of the
cell
Telophase - Nuclear envelope develops, the nucleus reappears and the cells
undergo cytokinesis
Aim: to construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the process of crossing over,
segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes.
Method:
1. Prepare many copies of two pairs of homologous chromosomes (such as below)
on paper with different colours.
2.
Cut out both pairs of homologous chromosomes and glue them down to form a
parent cell.
3. Cut two of each of the chromosome strands out and glue them down so that
identical chromosome strands are together (Chromosomes doubling)
4. For each pair of chromosomes, cut one of the strands as indicated on the diagram
5. For each homologous pair, swap the parts that are cut up so that the
chromosomes are now: QCa and qcA and MT and mt (Crossing over)
6. Randomly group a pair of chromosome 1 and a pair of chromosome 2 (random
segregation of double stranded chromosomes)
7. Randomly group a single strand of chromosome 1 and a single strand of
chromosome 2 (random segregation of single stranded chromosomes) to produce
haploid gametes
Discussion
Advantages
Comparisons between meiosis with and
without crossing over can be made to see
Disadvantages
It cannot be modelled to scale
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the advantages and disadvantages of
each
The likelihood of a gamete carrying a
certain disease or characteristic can be
calculated and applied to reality, in
breeding programs for example
It shows a simple representation of
meiosis and crossing over to
encourage easy understanding
It is a visual representation that can be
easier for some people to
understand
DESCRIBE THE
INHERITANCE OF SEXLINKED GENES, AND
ALLELES THAT
EXHIBIT CODOMINANCE AND
EXPLAIN WHY THESE
DO NOT PRODUCE
SIMPLE MENDELIAN
RATIOS
Conclusion: Chromosome doubling, crossing over of alleles of genes (i.e. the exchange of
parts of chromosomes) and the random movement of chromosomes to daughter cells and
to gamete cells all contribute to the great genetic variability in gamete cells (i.e. ovum
and sperm)
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproductive leads to greater variability than asexual reproduction because it
combines genetic information from two different organisms. This variability arises because
of:
Crossing over: the exchange of genes between chromosome pairs. This causes the
combination of alleles on the chromosomes in the gametes to be different from
the alleles chromosome of the parent
Random segregation: genes on different chromosomes sort independently. They
can line up in the middle of the cell in many different ways. This produces gene
combination in gametes different from parents (2 to the power of 23)
Random fertilisation: male and female gametes (sex cells) combine randomly.
Many different combinations are possible so this causes variation
Co-dominance
In the case, two alleles are not dominant of each other both expressed in each
others present
NO blending but both can be seen
Thus crossing co-dominant traits do not give the usual Mendelian ratio (3:1)
E.g. Roan cattle
If a type of cattle has the gene for red and white, it would not make a pink
cow but the airs on the cow would be both red and white making it roan
The cross between the two roan cows of the F1 generation does not give
the ratio 3:1 because a heterozygous animal does not give the dominant
trait, as would happen in simple dominant-recessive cases. A
heterozygous animal gives the roan colour, which results in the 1:2:1
ratio
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-
SOLVE PROBLEMS
INVOLVING CODOMINANCE AND SEX
LINKAGE
EXPLAIN THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
HOMOZYGOUS AND
HETEROZYGOUS
GENOTYPES AND THE
RESULTING
PHENOTYPES IN
EXAMPLES OF CODOMINANCE
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OUTLINE WAYS IN
WHICH THE
ENVIRONMENT MAY
AFFECT THE
EXPRESSION OF A
GENE IN AN
INDIVIDUAL
IDENTIFY DATA
SOURCES AND
PERFORM A FIRSTHAND INVESTIGATION
TO DEMONSTRATE HE
EFFECT OF
ENVIRONMENT AND
PHENOTYPE
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environments resulted in different rates of growth (i.e. those supplied with water grew
better)
The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be reflected in the phenotype of
the affected organism
DESCRIBE THE
PROCESS OF DNA
REPLICATION AND
EXPLAIN ITS
SIGNIFICANCE
Replication
The two strands of the DNA double helix unwind and separate a section at a
time along the chromosome exposing portions of the nucleotide base
sequence
It is unwound by an enzyme called helicase
These parent strands will form the template for synthesis of complementary
strand
Within the nucleus are stockpiles of free nucleotides which pair with the
exposed bases with the help of another group of enzymes (catalysed by DNA
polymerase).
The sequence of bases in the daughter strands are determined by the
sequence of bases on the parent strands. The resulting new strands are
identical to the original strands
The leading strand is built as a continuous strand
The lagging strand is built by linking DNA fragments (called Ozizaki fragments)
together
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OUTLINE, USING A
SIMPLE MODEL, THE
PROCESS BY WHICH
DNA CONTROLS THE
PRODUCTION ON
POLYPEPTIDES
Significance
Is that identical copies of genes can be made, and hence genetic information
can be passed on to offspring
DNA replication ensures that gamete cells produced through meiosis each
contain one of each chromosome and therefore one of each gene. It also
ensures that the daughter cells produced through mitosis each contain a full
complement (i.e. 2 of each) of chromosomes and therefore two of each gene
o Mitosis (producing new cells with all the necessary genetic
information) is needed for growth of an organism, and repair
o Meiosis is needed for sexual reproduction. Self-replication is a
necessary pre-requisite of life
Proteins are large molecules that consist of tens or hundreds of amino acids.
There are twenty different types of amino acids found in proteins such as alanine,
cysteine, lysine and serine.
Each protein has a unique number and arrangement of amino acids
Genes are made of DNA and each gene has a characteristic sequence of
nucleotides. It is this sequence of base pairs that makes up the genetic
instructions.
How a gene makes a polypeptide:
Transcription (within the cell nucleus):
o Transcription is the process by which the code containe din the DNA
molecule is transcribed (rewritten) into a mRNA molecule
o A part of the DNA that corresponds to a gene unwinds
o One strand of the unwound DNA acts as a template, upon which a chain of
nucleotides form this chain is called messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
the sugar in mRNA is ribose (not deoxyribose)
the four bases in mRNA are adenine, uracil (instead of thymine),
cytosine and guanine
o The enzyme that directly controls the proves is RNA Polymerase
DNA reforms
From nucleus to the ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm:
o Amino acids needed for protein synthesis are transported to ribosomes by
transfer RNA (tRNA)
o mRNA moves to the ribosomes
Translation (on the ribosomes):
o Moving along the mRNA molecule, each triplet of bases (codon) codes for
a specific amino acid
o
Each tRNA with its attach amino acid binds its anticodon to the
corresponding codon of bases on the mRNA strand
o A sequence or chain of amino acids is formed
o Newly form polypeptide is released into the cells cytoplasm
-
Codon: group of three bases on an mRNA molecule that code for a specific amino
acid
tRNA: a molecule with an amino acid at one end and an anticodon at the other
that is used in protein synthesis
mRNA: a form of RNA that is transcribed from a strand of DNA and translated into
a protein sequence at a cell ribosome
RNA: a nucleic acid, which contains the sugar ribose that is found in living cells
A protein is made up of one or more polypeptides.
A polypeptide is chain of many amino acids.
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EXPLAIN THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN PROTEINS
AND POLYPEPTIDES
EXPLAIN HOW
MUTATIONS IN DNA
MAY LEAD TO THE
GENERATION OF NEW
ALLELE
DISCUSS EVIDENCE
FOR THE MUTAGENIC
NATURE OF
RADIATION
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and other forms of radiation developed cancers and/or died
In 1905 doctors recorded many cases of skin cancer on the necks of
grape nickers linking to the exposure to the sun (UV light radiation)
o Beadle and Tatum used x-rays and UV radiation to mutate bread
moulds to prove their one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
o Atomic bombs (which release radiation) dropped in Nagasaki and
Hiroshima caused a dramatic increase in cancer patients in those
areas
o Nuclear disasters such as Chernobyl in the late 1980s
o Agent orange is a defoliant used in the Vietnam War and produced
many cases of cancer in the people exposed.
The above examples form evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation,
whereby some are the result of scientific experiments or the implications of the
exposure of radiation on society.
Darwin knew that variation within a population was essential for natural selection
to operate but he did not know the sources of this variation.
Mutations are one source of variation in a population
We now know of the many sources of variation within a population thus
supporting Darwins theory including:
o Crossing over in meiosis allows for new combination of characteristics to
arise
o Random segregation in meiosis each chromosome of the homologous
pair sorts independently and randomly so that the gametes can have
different combinations of chromosomes
o Fertilisation sexual reproduction when the union of a sperm with an
ovum forms a new combination of genes, not identical to the parent
o Mutations
Gradualism
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection is based on gradual, slow and
continuous change in populations over time
Most recent day scientists accept this theory when it applies to evolution within a
species
Not all scientists agree that this theory always applies to the development of new
species
The fossil record does, at times, show gradualism forming a new species, for
example, the fossil history of the horse
o
EXPLAIN HOW AN
UNDERSTANDING OF
THE SOURCE OF
VARIATION IN
ORGANISMS HAS
PROVIDED SUPPORT
FOR DARWINS
THEORY OF
EVOLUTION BY
NATURAL SELECTION
DESCRIBE THE
CONCEPT O
PUNCTUATED
EQUILIBRIUM IN
EVOLUTION AND HOW
IT DIFFERS FROM THE
GRADUAL PROCESS
PROPOSED BY
DARWIN
Punctuated equilibrium
Species persist unchanged over very long periods of time (5-10 million years) and
the evolution of new species occurs over much shorter time periods (50 to 100
000 years)
Rapid evolution that gives rise to new species occurs in small, isolated
populations when conditions change and when natural selection pressures are
great.
Evidence for the punk ekk theory comes from the fossil record. Many fossil
species show little or no change over long periods of time and these periods are
interrupted by much shorter periods during which new species appear and rapidly
replace the ancestral species.
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PERFORM A FIRSTHAND INVESTIGATION
OR PROCESS
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
DEVELOP A SIMPLE
MODEL FOR
POLYPEPTIDE
SYNTHESIS
ANALYSE
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO OUTLINE
THE EVIDENCE THAT
LED TO BEADLE AND
TATUMS ONE GENE
ONE PROTEIN
HYPOTHESIS AND TO
EXPLAIN WHY THIS
WAS ALTERED TO THE
ONE GENE-ONE
POLYPEPTIDE
HYPOTHESIS
Some of the mutants could not live without a particular vitamin or amino
acid in their food
As they had predicted, they were able to create single gene mutation that
incapacitated certain enzymes, so that these mutated moulds required an
external supply of the substance that the enzyme normally produced, and the
substance that the enzyme normally used piled up in the cell.
This led to the one gene/one enzyme hypothesis.
It was then found that not all genes coded for enzymes but also for different types
of proteins so this was revised to one gene-one protein.
Similarly, when it was discovered that many proteins are made up of more than
o
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one polypeptide chain one gene is not necessarily responsible for the structure
of an entire protein, but for each polypeptide chain making up the protein. Beadle
and Tatums hypothesis was thus revised to be the one gene-one polypeptide
hypothesis.
o E.g. where the code is not for enzymes include some genes that have the
code to build structural proteins such as keratin and collagen
o Some proteins have more than one polypeptide chain, e.g. haemoglobin
has four polypeptide chains of two different types and each of the two
chain types is controlled by a different gene
Beadle and Tatum won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1958
PROCESS
INFORMATION TO
CONSTRUCT A FLOW
CHART THAT SHOWS
THAT CHANGES IN
DNA SEQUENCES CAN
RESULT IN CHANGES
IN CELL ACTIVITY
Aim: Construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can result in
changes in cell activity
PROCESS AND
ANALYSE
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO EXPLAIN
A MODERN EXAMPLE
OF NATURAL
Introduction: If a mutation causes a change in the DNA code, this will influence the protein
produced. If the protein is an enzyme that controls a specific reaction then the absence of
the correct code to make this protein means that a particular reaction cannot occur.
e.g. a change in the code changes the amino acid
sequence
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SELECTION
PROCESS
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
DESCRIBE AND
ANALYSE THE
RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF THE
WORK OF: JAMES
WATSON, FRANCIS
CRICK, ROSALIND
FRANKLIN, MAURICE
WILKINS, IN
DETERMINING THE
STRUCTURE OF DNA
AND THE IMPACT OF
THE QUALITY OF
COLLABORATION AND
COMMUNICATION ON
THEIR SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
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Current reproductive technologies and genetic engineering have the potential to alter the path of evolution
IDENTIFY HOW THE
FOLLOWING CURRENT
REPRODUCTIVE
TECHNIQUES MAY
ALTER THE GENETIC
COMPOSITION OF A
POPULATION:
ARTIFICIAL
INSEMINATION,
ARTIFICIAL
POLLINATION,
CLONING
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OUTLINE THE
PROCESSES USED TO
PRODUCE
TRANSGENIC SPECIES
AND INCLUDE
EXAMPLES OF THIS
PROCESS AND
REASONS FOR ITS
USE
DISCUSS THE
POTENTIAL IMPACT
OF THE USE OF
REPRODUCTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES ON
THE GENETIC
DIVERSITY OF
SPECIES USING A
NAMES PLANT AND
ANIMAL EXAMPLE
THAT HAVE BEEN
GENETICALLY
ALTERED
(extinction)
If all farmers use the same clone and dont
grow other plant varieties, genetic
diversity can be lost.
Producing clones of complex animals so
far has proved to be expensive, mostly
unsuccessful and of limited value.
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PROCESS
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
DESCRIBE A
METHODOLOGY USED
IN CLONING
ANALYSE
INFORMATION FROM
SECONDARY
SOURCES TO
IDENTIFY EXAMPLES
OF THE USE OF
TRANSGENIC SPECIES
AND USE AVAILABLE
EVIDENCE TO DEBATE
THE ETHICAL ISSUES
ARISING FROM THE
DEVELOPMENT AND
USE OF TRANSGENIC
SPECIES
Ethical issues
Ethical issues
Environment and nature
Financial gain
For
Many new discoveries are
considered threats at first
(e.g. nuclear power) if we
could develop products
that are too our benefit, it
would be unethical not to
develop them
We could create crops that
re more drought resistance
and tolerant to pest and
diseases and have higher
yields quality improves
and less money is spent
Financial gain is essential
and can be put back to
further research
Foods with higher
nutritional values may be
developed to supply better
nutrition to people in third
world countries
Reduced use of pesticides
is better for consumers
health
Solve food shortage sin
third world countries
producing higher yields at
lower cost
Against
We may be changing the
natural process of evolution
Biodiversity is upset as
variation in the gene pool is
lowered leading to mass
extinction
People in third world
countries may not be able to
afford or have access to
beneficial GM products, so
they may fall further behind
developed countries,
widening the poverty gap
Ownership of certain GM
products between
companies can create a
monopoly
Potential long-term health
risks are not yet known
People may experience
allergic reactions to foods
they could previously eat if
the foods contain the DNA of
other organisms
Vegetarians may
unknowingly eat food with
animal DNA
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