Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DMM 2412
METROLOGY
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
CHAPTER 1
Fundamentals Of Metrology
1.1
2.1
3.1
4.1
CHAPTER 2
WHAT IS METROLOGY
NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS OF INSPECTION
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
PRINCIPLES OF METROLOGY
CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION
TESTING AND ITS PROCEDURES
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
FACTORS IN SELECTING TESTING INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION
CARE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Measurement Errors
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF A MEASURING SYSTEM
TYPES OF ERRORS
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS
Vernier Caliper
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION
PARTS OF A VERNIER CALIPER
MEASURING ACCURACY
READING THE SCALE
DIAL CALIPER
DIGITAL CALIPER
DEPTH VERNIER CALIPER
APPLICATIONS OF VERNIER CALIPER
Micrometer
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION
EXTERNAL MICROMETER
DEPTH MICROMETER
INTERNAL MICROMETER
SPECIAL TYPES OF MICROMETERS
INTRODUCTION
PRINCIPLE OF A DIAL INDICATOR (PLUNGER TYPE)
PARTS OF A DIAL INDICATOR
HOW DOES A DIAL INDICATOR WORK
MEASURING ACCURACY
READING THE SCALE
GUIDELINES WHEN USING DIAL INDICATOR
SOURCES OF ERRORS
APPLICATIONS OF DIAL INDICATOR
Gauge Block
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION
TYPES AND GRADES
STANDARD SET OF GAUGE BLOCKS
TO DETERMINE THE GAUGE BLOCKS COMBINATION
CHECKING SURFACE FLATNESS OF GAUGE BLOCKS
GAUGE BLOCK APPLICATIONS
MAINTENANCE AND CARE OF GAUGE BLOCKS
CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS A SURFACE PLATE
ADVANTAGES OF GRANITE SURFACE PLATE
CARE OF SURFACE PLATE
SOURCES OF ERRORS
SURFACE PLATE ACCESSORIES OR HOLDING DEVICES
PRINCIPLES OF SURFACE PLATE INSPECTION
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING DEVICES USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A
SURFACE PLATE
CHAPTER 10
INTRODUCTION
TESTING ANGLES
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
CALCULATION METHOD
Gauges
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
DISADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
FACTORS IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
TYPES OF GAUGES
Profile Projector
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
CHAPTER 12
INTRODUCTION
APPLICATION
TEST PROCEDURES
DIFFERENT STANDARD OVERLAY CHARTS
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
MAINTENANCE OF OPTICAL COMPONENTS
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE TEXTURE MEASUREMENT
DEFINITIONS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS TERMS
WAVE LENGTH LIMIT C
BASIC TERMS OF SURFACE TEXTURE
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CUT-OFF VALUES
DEFINITION OF SURFACE PARAMETERS
ADDITIONS TO THE SURFACE SYMBOL
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF METROLOGY
1.2
WHAT IS METROLOGY
Metrology is the science of measurement. However, we have to go one step ahead
and must also deal with the correctness of measurement. We have to observe whether
the measuring result is given with the sufficient correctness and accuracy for the
particular need or not. Thus, in industrial terms metrology is primarily concerned with
methods and techniques of measurement based on agreed units and standards. The
practice of metrology involves precise measurement, which requires the use of
apparatus and equipment to permit the degree of accuracy required to be obtained.
In a broader sense, metrology is not limited to length measurement. It is also
concerned with the industrial inspection and its various techniques from the raw
material to the finished product or even assembled parts.
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
a. To ensure the products designed are within the process and measuring instrument
capabilities available in the plant.
b. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the
relevant parts tolerances.
c. To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these are
adequate for their respective measurements.
d. To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available
facilities, and to reduce the cost of rejects and rework through application of
Statistical Process Control Techniques.
e. Standardization of measuring methods: This is achieved by laying down the
inspection methods for any product right at the time when the production
technology is prepared.
f. Maintenance of the accuracy of measurement: This is achieved by periodical
calibration of all measuring instruments used in the plant.
1.4
PRINCIPLES OF METROLOGY
a.
Units
meter
kilogram
second
Kelvin
Ampere
Symbols
m
kg
s
K
A
Symbol
G
M
k
H
Da
d
c
m
Table 1.2
Multiplier
1000000000
1000000
1000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
10
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
Meaning
billion
million
thousand
hundred
ten
tenth
hundredth
thousandth
millionth
List of Prefixes
c.
1 km
1m
1 dm
1 cm
1 mm
=
=
=
=
=
1000 m
10 dm
10 cm
10 mm
1000 m
=
=
100 cm =
100 mm
0.05m
0.88 dm
300 =
=
0.05 x 1000
=
0.88 x 100
300 x 0.001
=
=
50 mm
=
88 mm
0.3 mm
1000 mm
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
In the machine shop work, every piece must be made accurately to size and
shape specified by the designer. Accurate workmanship also depends primarily on
accurate inspection or measurement and layout work. To ensure the quality of a
product has been achieved, the inspections or measurements must be taken to see if the
design and manufacturing standards have been achieved.
2.2
Measuring
b. Gauging
It is a method of inspection by means of comparing a part against a gauge such
as plug gauge, to determine whether or not the part is within the specified limits. In
gauging method, suitable gauges are used to determine if the work piece has a good or
bad result without providing the actual dimensions. One of the widely used gauges is
the plug gauge. Generally, it consists of 'Go' member and 'No Go' member. Gauges are
used for quick verification, but it will not tell you how good or bad a part is.
SNAP GAUGE
Gauging
Measuring
Characteristics
Gauging
more
information
less
difficult
ease of use
easy
slow
time
fast
expensive
cost/process
cheap
worker
Table 2.1
2.3
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
a. Direct Measurement:
The length of the work piece is compared directly against the line of measuring
instrument such as vernier caliper of micrometer.
Work piece
Measurement is taken by
means of caliper.
c. Comparative measurement:
It is comparison between the standard such as gauge blocks and the work piece. The
gauge blocks are first set to nominal size of the work piece. Then the measuring value
is obtained from the dial gauge which shows the difference between the gauge blocks
and the work piece. This method is the best and very accurate measurement can be
achieved.
Dial Gauge
Gauge Blocks
Dial Gauge
Workpiece
2.5
CALIBRATION
A measuring instrument may lose its accuracy (or precision) during use or after
a period of time. To maintain its accuracy, it requires a continuing system of calibration
control, and this can only be carried out by trained staff in a calibration room. To put an
instrument into a state of accuracy requires it to be tested first to see if it is within its
calibration limits. If the instrument is found to be out of calibration, then a rectification
or adjustment must be made. This adjustment is commonly called 'calibration',
'recalibration' or 'reconditioning'. Thus, calibration may be defined as a comparison of
two testing instruments - one of which is a standard of known accuracy traceable to
national standards - to detect any discrepancy in accuracy and adjust it to bring it within
its tolerances for accuracy.
Inventory and Classification
A systematic approach to calibration control starts with a physical inventory of
all standards, instruments, gauges, and test equipment. If instruments are used for
product inspection they should be included within the list of items to be systematically
controlled for accuracy. For each item which enters the inventory system, a record card
is prepared. This card shows the historical origin of the item, its assigned serial number,
checking schedule and related information. The card also provides space to record the
results of checks and the repairs needed. The physical test equipment is also marked
with the assigned serial number for identification and trace ability in the system.
2.6
CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT ERRORS
INTRODUCTION
When making the measurements, there should be one goal in mind to be as
accurate as possible. But due to many variations, no measurement in the workshop is
ever perfectly accurate. The result of the process (the measured value) will always
differ from the actual size. If the same work piece is successively measured with a
calliper, micrometer and a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), each successive
measurement will show differences in dimension. In measuring technology, this
difference between the unknown actual size of the work piece and measured value
obtained is known as the inaccuracy of measurement or measurement error.
3.2
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.3
Standard
It may be affected by internal and external influences (thermal expansion), stability
with time, elastic properties, trace ability and manipulation.
Work piece
It may be affected by internal and external influences, cleanliness, surface
condition, elastic properties, geometric truth, establishment of the work piece
reference, etc.
Instrument
It may be affected by hysteresis, backlash, friction, dents or wear, errors in
amplification device, calibration errors, etc.
Personal
can be many and mainly due to improper training and handling, skill, lack of
concentration, attitude towards and realization of personal accuracy achievement,
improper selection of instruments, etc.
Environment
It may be affected by temperature, heat radiation, heating components, vibrations,
people, surrounding and many other factors.
TYPES OF ERRORS
Generally, the errors which exist in any measurement can be considered to be of two
distinct types:
a)
Systematic error:
It occurs constantly under the same measurement condition and can be detected.
Thus, it can be largely eliminated.
Random error:
It occurs naturally and is inherent in the measuring process. It is the result of
random situations and is difficult to detect and eliminate.
For example: The workpiece is located wrongly when being held in the fixture.
d. Reading errors
How accurately can a scale be read? This depends upon the thickness of the line scale,
the spacing of the scale divisions and the thickness of the datum of pointer used to give
the reading.
e. Instrument errors
Pitch errors in the instrument such as micrometer, errors of scale division, play, wear
and friction in the movable parts; etc. give rise to instrument errors.
f. Abbes Law
It states that maximum accuracy may be obtained when the standard is in line with the
axis of the workpiece to be measured. For example, take a vernier calliper to measure
the workpiece. In this case, the contact point or measuring surfaces may not move in
parallel with or keeping squareness to the line of standard, causing error. So when
measuring with a vernier calliper, care must be taken, not to apply excessive force on
the workpiece for fear of error by out-of-squareness of measuring surfaces.
h. Airy points
When a long bar is resting on two points (called airy points), errors may arise from
sagging. To minimize these errors, the airy points of a long bar of uniform crosssection has to be supported at suitable point from each of the end surfaces. Gauge
blocks should be supported at airy points so that both ends of the long bar are kept
parallel.
CHAPTER 4
VERNIER CALIPER
INTRODUCTION
The Vernier Caliper is a common measuring instrument which is widely used in the
workshop. It comes in various types of design and accuracy. It is made up of a
graduated beam (main body) with a fixed measuring jaw and a movable jaw which
carries a vernier scale. It is especially suitable for quick and relatively accurate
measurements. It is capable of making both outside and inside measurements. In
addition, it is also provided with a depth measuring rod which is used for depth
measurement. Generally it has a measuring accuracy of 0.02 - 0.05mm and
measuring range of 0 - 300mm.
4.2
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
4.3
MEASURING ACCURACY
Basically, there are three types of the standard vernier scale available. They are
1/10mm, 1/20mm, and 1/50mm.
a.
b.
On the main scale, a distance of 20mm is divided into 20 equal parts, thus the
distance between marking = 1mm.
On the vernier scale, 19mm is divided into 20 parts, thus the distance between
marking = 0.95.
Therefore, measuring accuracy = 1mm - 0.95mm = 0.05mm
4.4
2.
Twentieth value vernier
Measurement result:
73mm + 0.6mm + 0.05mm = 73.65mm
1
inches
16
1
=
inches
16
1
=
8
16
1
=
inches
128
1 4
1 3
and 2
inches
1 6
1 6
1 3
inches
1 6
On the vernier scale:
The 7 divisions coincide with one of the division on the main
scale.
7
1
Hence, reading = 7 x
=
inches
128
128
Hence, reading = 2
Therefore, measurement
=2
13 7
+
16 128
= 2
111
128
DIAL CALIPER
The Dial Caliper is very useful for accurate,
reliable, and quick measurements.
It is much easier to handle than measuring
instruments with vemier reading and it has a
measuring accuracy of 0.02mm. The dial face itself
is represented by the vemier scale, so that we do not
have to find the coincidence line. The movement of
the pointer is amplified by means of a rack-pinion
mechanism. Zero setting can be easily reset by
rotating the dial face. The application of dial caliper
is the same as vernier caliper. The measured value
can be obtained by simply reading the value of the
main scale and add the value found in the dial face.
Example of read off:
On the main scale, it shows that the distance is more than 10mm and the pointer is at
0.4mm on the dial face. Thus, the measured value = 10mm + 0.4mm = 10.40mm
4.6
DIGITAL CALIPER
b. Vernier caliper tilted during use, especially when taking the depth.
4.7
The Depth Vernier Caliper is used to check the depth of holes, recesses, slots,
counterbores, etc. It is carefully made so that the beam (main body) is perpendicular to
the base in both directions. Generally, the base has a larger area for better stability
a.
b.
c.
d.
Sources of errors
The measuring surfaces do not rest perpendicular to the reference (tilted) as shown.
CHAPTER 5
MICROMETER
INTRODUCTION
One of the most widely used measuring instrument in the workshop is the
Micrometer. It is very useful for accurate, reliable, precise, and quick
measurements. It comes in different designs, shapes, ranges, and accuracies,
depending on its applications. However, one thing that they have in common is
the way they are read off. Generally, it consists of a "C" shape frame with an
anvil which comes in different shapes (flat, point, ball, disk, etc.) and a movable
spindle. The movement of the spindle is carried out by means of very accurate
screw threads principle. Micrometers have a measuring accuracy of 0.001 0.010mm.
5.2
EXTERNAL MICROMETER
It is used to check external dimensions such as the diameter of a shaft and
thickness of a work piece. It consists of a fixed anvil and a movable spindle. The
anvil can be made of carbide which has a very flat surface. The object to be
measured is positioned between the fixed anvil and the measuring surfaces. Both
measuring surfaces are very accurately ground.
Parts of an external micrometer
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Anvil
Measuring Surfaces
Movable spindle
Ratchet
Thimble
Sleeve
U-shaped frame with insulator plate
(to prevent heat transfer from hands)
Measuring range
The length of the threads on the measuring spindle is usually 25mm. This means
that the measuring ranges of the external micrometer are stepped at every
25mm. The measuring ranges of the micrometer are divided into:
Measuring accuracy
There are 50 graduations on the thimble for the micrometer with 0.5mm pitch on
the spindle. If the thimble is rotated one complete revolution, the spindle will
move 0.5mm. Thus, one graduation on the thimble scale represents 0.01 mm.
Measuring accuracy = 0.5 spindle pitch
50 graduations
= 0.01 mm
One graduation on the thimble represents 0.01mm. The upper scale on the sleeve
represents whole numbers such as 1, 2 3, 4mm and so on. One graduation on the lower
scale of the sleeve represents 0.5mm.
Measurement result:-
e. Use a ratchet to avoid excessive pressure when rotating the spindle. When
hecking the outside diameter, ensure that the measuring surfaces touch the
highest point of the workpiece.
When it is not used, wipe it clean and ensure that it is free from dirt. Do not close
the measuring surfaces together, otherwise it will be damaged due to expansion of
the spindle during the changing of temperature.
g. Apply oil to protect it from rust and keep it in the proper place.
Sources of errors
a. Misreading - most common misreading is by 0.5mm, incorrectly counting sleeve
graduations.
b. Dirt, nicks, durrs, oil, etc., on the anvil and spindle will prevent proper contact
and cause inaccurate reading.
c. Wear and damage on the anvil and spindle.
d. Pitch errors - the screw of the spindle is worn out.
e. Miscalibrate - the zero setting is set wrongly.
f. Applied too much force when measuring.
5.3
DEPTH MICROMETER
5.4
INTERNAL MICROMETER
It is used to check internal dimensions such as diameter of a hole and width
of a slot. It comes with different designs, ranges, and shapes depending on its
applications.
Internal Micrometer with central locking device
Bend and worn out measuring rod. Improperly assembled extension measuring rod.
Instrument is not located perpendicular to the hole center line (common error).
Internal Micrometer with measuring jaws
Generally, it consists of two different pairs of jaws. One has a smaller measuring
range (5 - 30mm) located on the upper jaw side and the larger measuring range (30 55mm) is located on the lower jaw side. It is commonly used to check the width of
the slots. It has a measuring accuracy of 0.01mm. Calibration of this instrument can
be carried out by using a ring gauge.
Sources of errors
a. Bending and worn out measuring jaws.
b. Measuring jaws are not positioned perpendicular to reference surfaces.
Internal Micrometer with self centering pin
5.5
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical dial indicator is a precision measuring instrument which
is designed to provide more flexibility and increased accuracy in the
measurement processes. Such instruments are often used in conjunction with
surface plates, height gauges, gauge blocks and measuring holding devices to
check length measurement by using the so-called comparative method and to
inspect geometric features such as roundness. The dial indicator has a
measuring accuracy of 0.001 - 0.01mm and a measuring range of 0 - 10mm.
6.2
=
=
6.3
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
6.5
MEASURING ACCURACY
6.6
6.7
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
a. Damage on the measuring insert and worn out of the gear teeth.
b. Dial indicator is not positioned perpendicular to the surface of the workpiece cosine error.
c. Misreading - a person using a dial gauge that makes more than one revolution
must be aware of how many revolutions the pointer has made when taking the
measurement.
d. The dial indicator is not clamped and secured properly. This will cause
vibrations.
6.9
CHAPTER 7
GAUGE BLOCK
INTRODUCTION
7.3
Table 7.1
Required length
1st gauge block
2ndgaugeblock
3rd gauge block
4th gauge block
5th gauge blocks
=
=
=
=
=
=
50.255mm
1.005mm
1.050mm
1.200 mm
7.000 mm
40.000mm
50.255mm
Subtraction
49.250
48.200
47.000
40.000
00.000
7.5
7.6
a.
b.
c.
e.
7.7
a.
b.
c.
d.
Any- burns on a gauge blocks can prevent a proper wring and possibly damage
the surfaces. Deburring is carried out with a special deburring stone.
Partly flat -falling off to or sloping to hump
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION
Part dimensions can be checked very precisely and accurately by means
of the surface plate method in conjunction with many types of height gauges,
measuring instruments and holding devices. However, accurate measurements
can only be maintained when the reference surfaces of the parts are established
with respect to the surface plate which acts as a simulated datum or reference.
Thus, surface plates provide a true, flat reference surface for any types of
dimensional measurements.
8.2
8.3
cast iron
granite stone
8.4
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
a. Eventually wear may cause loss of accuracy, but this takes quite some time.
b. A workpiece which has burrs and dirt will cause poor readings as well as
increasing unnecessary wear.
8.6
a)
a. Position and hold the part at perpendicular to the surface plate by help of
angle plate.
b. Determine how you will find feature dimension wanted. In this case, a = c
-b
Case II
a. Position and hold the part at parallel to the surface plate by help of parallel
bar.
b. Determine how you will find feature dimension wanted. In this case, a = c
- b.
a. Position the part vertically in such a way that the reference surface is placed
directly on the surface plate.
b. Determine how to find dimension a (i.e. center line of the hole to the
reference surface.)
c. In this case, a = (b + c) divided by 2.
To inspect a workpiece using vernier height gauge and dial gauge
Case I
a. Set up the gauge blocks to the nominal size of the part (20.00)
b. Set zero to the dial gauge when It touches the gauge block
8.8
Parallel bar
It is made of harden tool steel and rectangular in shape which come in diffrent sizes.
They are machined very accurately in such a way that the surfaces are parallel, straight
and squared to each other. Generally, they are used in conjunction with a surface plate
for stack-up or supporting the workpiece to establish the reference the reference
surfaces.
2.
Angle block
They are used to hold and locate the workpiece vertical to the surface plate. They are
made of cast iron and machined very accurately to maintain the squareness and
flatness. They can also be used to check the squareness of the workpiece by means of
light gap.
3.
Vee block
They are made of harden tool steel and precisely ground. They have to Vee-grooves.
They are used hold and locate the round workpieces to establish the centerline or axis
of a round workpiece with respect to the surface plate. Commonly, they can be used
to check the roundness of the workpiece.
CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION
a)
Units for angles
The unit used for measuring angle is the degree or radian. In SI unit, the magnitude of
a plane angle is defined in terms of a circle with the apex of the angle as its center.
The magnitude of the angle is the ratio of the arc enclosed (subtended) by its side to the
radius of the circle is known as the radian.
b)
Relationship Between Radians and Degrees
There are 360 in a circle. One degree is subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute is
divided into 60 seconds.
360 0 2rad
180 0 rad
2rad rad
10
360 0
180 0
180 0
1rad
57.2 0
9.2
TESTING ANGLES
Angle may be tested with :
a.
Fixed angle gauges
i.
steel square
ii.
knife-edge square
iii.
back square
iv.
angular end blocks
b.
i.
ii.
iii.
c.
i.
ii.
a.
Fixed Angle Gauges (Solid steel square, back square and knife-edge square)
Steel squares with angles of 90, 60, 45 and 120 are used in industry as fixed
angle gauges. Steel squares are differentiated into :
a. solid steel square
b. back square
c. knife-edge square
The positions of the work piece edges and surfaces, with respect to each other,
are tested with these instruments in conjunction with the light-gap method. It can detect
angle errors of as little as 1 minute and detect evenness errors of up to 5 micron. The
back square is used to check lines marked-out as bending edges for correctness of
measurements and angles. The distance on the scribed line from the reference edge of
the work piece is checked with a measuring ruler.
The knife-edge square is used to check angularity and surface finish by lightgap method. If the surface of the work piece and the testing edge of the angle gauge are
pressed together and held against the light, a light slit will appear. The more uniform
this light slit along both the testing edges of the angle gauge, the more exact the
angularity.
9.3
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
Angle correct
Reference surface
Back square
.
Knife-edge square
a.
To set 25 17 = 30- 5 + 20 - 3
Subtraction
Note : The combination of angular end blocks should comprise as few as possible so
that the total error is kept to a minimum.
b.
Angle Measuring Instruments
Angles can also be checked by using measuring instruments; such as, a simple
protractor and a universal bevel protractor. These are display instruments for direct
measuring of any angle within a given measuring range.
Simple Protractor
In a simple protractor, the pointer-like arm can be set against a circular degrees scale
from 0 to 180 (measuring range). Only whole degrees can be measured using this
protractor. Intermediate values can only be estimated. The measuring accuracy is one
degree.
d.
Universal Bevel Protractor
This protractor makes it possible to measure any angle with a reading accuracy of 5
minutes. It consists of a fixed and a movable measuring edge. The circular main scale is
divided into 4 sections of 90 and serves to read the complete angular degrees. The
angle nonius (vernier) consists of an arc of 23, divided into 12 equal intervals.
e.
Angle Vernier
The graduation of the vernier from 0 to 60 represents 23 exactly and is divided into 12
equal parts. This means the distance between graduated marks is 23/12 = 155 the
difference at 2 produces a reading accuracy of 5.
9.4
CALCULATION METHOD
a)
Sine Bar
A sine bar may be used to check accurate angle measurement. It consists of an
accurately ground bar on which two accurately ground pins (or rollers) of the same
diameter are mounted in an exact distance. The fixed distance between two pins are
usually 100 mm or 200 mm.
Measurements are made by using the principle base of trigonometry, i.e. sine rule
sin
opposite
hypotenuse
The workpiece being measured is placed on the sine bar and the inclination of the sine
bar is raised by stacking-up gauge blocks until the top surface is exactly parallel with
the surface plate.
The sine-bar itself forms the hypotenuse and gauge blocks form the opposite side to
the angle being measured. The dial gauge is used to measure the angle required by
moving it along the surface of the workpiece.
Example of application
Given : Angle = 9 30
L = 100 mm
a.To find H
Sine rule : H = Sine x L
= 0.1651 X 100
= 16.51 mm
b.
Combination of gauge blocks
H = 16.51
1.01
1.5
4.00
10.00
16.51
Refer to ABC :
AB = d1 - d2
2
= 47.25 - 35.70
2
= 5.78
ABC = 90
BC = L = 30
Then, tan = AB
2
BC
= 5.78
30
= 0.193
= 10.9
2
Hence, outer taper, = 10.90 x 2
= 21.8
Using two balls of 25.00 and 20.00 mm diameter respectively inspect the tapered hole
as shown. The measurements indicated in the diagram below were obtained. Find :
a. the included tapered angle
b. the top diameter d of the hole
Solution
a. A and B are the centres of the balls and D and E are points where the balls just
touch the sides of the hole.
ADE = BED = 90
Draw BC parallel to DE, then in ABC
AC = 12.5 - 10 = 2.50 mm
AB = 35.36 + 4.65 -12.5 +10 = 37.51mm
Now ACB = 90 and ABC = /2
Sin = AC = 2.5
2 AB 37.51
= 3 49
2
Included tapered angle = 2 x 3 49 = 7 38
b. To find d, draw AF horizontal and FG vertical.
In AFD :
AD = 12,5
FAD = , ADF = 90
2
AF = 12.5
cos 3 49
= 12.53 mm
In GFH :
GF = 12.5 - 4.65 = 7.86 mm, FGH = 90, GFH =
2
GH = Tan x GF = Tan 3 49 x 7.86 = 0.52 mm
2
Thus d = 2 (AF + GH) = 2 x (12.53 + 0.52) = 26.10 mm
Find the checking dimension M for the symmetrical dovetail slide shown in
diagram below.
Solution
Draw AC from the centre of the roller.
In ABC :
ABC = 90
ACB = 60 (bisect by AC)
2
= 30
BC = AB
tan 30
=
7.5
tan 30
= 12.99
Thus, M = 64 + 2 (12.99 + 7.5)
= 104.98 mm
Example 4
In the diagram shown below, a vee block is being checked by means of cylindrical
pin of 25.00.
What is the dimension x ?
Solution
Draw AB from the centre of the pin. Then in ABC :
BAC = 90 (angle bet. radius and tangent)
BCA = 45 (bisect by BC)
AB
= 12.5 = 17.68 mm
sin 45
0.7071
CHAPTER 10
GAUGES
INTRODUCTION
Gauges are commonly used as testing instruments in mass production.
They come in different shapes / sizes and are rigid in design. However, they do not
have a measuring scale. Therefore, they do not indicate or record the actual value
(dimensions) of the work pieces form or shape.
They can only be used for determining whether the inspected parts are made
within he specified limits, shapes or forms or whether they meet functional
requirements.
10.2
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10.3
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
ADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
Tests can be done quickly which helps to save time of checking.
They can be used by less skilled workers.
The process of inspection is very cheap.
They help to decide whether the part is inside the tolerance or not.
They are portable and independent from power supply.
DISADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
They provide no actual reading of measurements.
They give less information regarding the condition of the inspected parts.
They cannot be manufactured entirely without errors.
They are subjected to loss of accuracy from wear.
The manufacturing cost of gauges may not be recovered from a small
quantity of parts.
10.4
FACTORS IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
Materials for gauges should fulfill most of the following requirements:
a. Hardness to resist wear is the most important aspect (min 65RC).
b. Stability to preserve size and form.
c. Corrosion resistance.
d. Machinability for obtaining the required degree of accuracy.
e. Low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid temperature effect.
10.5
10.6
TYPES OF GAUGES
Some gauges like testing gauges are used to test whether the work piece
conforms to the specified size of the shape, form or profile. Some gauges like limit
gauges is used to test whether the work piece dimensions lie between the specified
limits or tolerance ranges. It represents the minimum and maximum dimensions of the
work piece. Generally, it consists of Go and No Go members. The No Go member
is marked in red for easy identification. Generally, the Go member becomes worn-out
faster than the No Go member because it used very often.
a)
Hole gauges
A hole gauge is a metal plate which consist of various sizes of holes diameter and has
a measuring range of 0.1 to 10 mm, with an increase of 0.1 mm per hole.
It is use for quick determination of twist drill diameter, wire, or steel rod. When it is
use, never force the test piece into the hole gauge, otherwise there will be deformation
or it will wear out the gauge.
b)
Feeler gauges
A feeler gauge mainly consists of steel blades of different thickness and has a
measuring range of 0.05 to 0.5 mm.
They are used for determining the clearance or gap between two mating parts such as
guideways, bearings, or slideways. Sometimes, they can be used to set-up the
machine tool onto the surface of the workpiece for the zero-setting.
It is a straight hardened steel blade and has a wedge shaped cross-section with an angle
of 30 degrees. The measuring edge is hardened and lapped. It is used to check the
straightness and flatness of the work surfaces. The light-gap method is used for this
test.
When the knife edge is placed onto the work surface and held against the light, a series
of light beams will penetrate through tiny uneven surfaces and appear to the eyes as a
wide beam of light. If there is no light gap or the light beam appearance is uniform, it
tells you that the work surfaces are flat or straight.
d)
Radius gauge
It consists of a series of hardened steel blades with a measuring range of 1-7, 7.5-15 and
15.5-25 mm. They can be used to check the internal and external radius by means of
light-gap method.
It is a template which consists of V-grooves with angles of 60 for the metric thread. It is
used to check the profile and flank angle of a thread cutting tool by means of light gap
method. The angle is corrected if there is no light gaps.
It can be also used for setting-up and alignment of thread cutting tools with respect to
the work piece
f)
It is a template which consists of numerous V-grooves at 600 for the metric thread.
Generally, it comes in a set of different pitches with a measuring range of 0.25- 6.00
mm pitch. It is used to check the flank angles and pitches of the threads by means of
light gap method. If the angle and pitch are correct, no light gaps should be seen
between the gauge and the surface of the workpiece.
It is a template with a point angle of 118 and used to check the wedge angle of twist
drill. The graduated scale serves to check the length of cutting edges of the drill.
i)
Limit Plug Gauge
It is used to check the diameter of a straight hole and the width of a slot. It generally
consists of Go and No Go members. The selection of limit plug gauge is dependent
on the diameter and tolerances of the hole.
a.
Go end:
It represents the minimum dimension and checks the lower limit of the hole.
b.
No Go end:
It represents the maximum dimension and checks the upper limit of the hole. It is
marked in red and is shorter than Go member for easy identification.
Test Procedure
It is very important to use proper procedures when checking the hole with the plug
gauge if we want to get precise measurement. Hold the plug gauge very gently and let
it slide into the hole under its own weight. The Go member should easily enter the
hole without forcing it. The No Go member should not enter the hole. However, if the
Go member does not enter the hole, it indicates that the hole is undersized And if the
No Go member enters the hole, it indicates that the hole is oversized.
j)
a.
b.
c.
It has a C-shape frame and Go and No Go members are behind each other.
ii.
Apply the snap gauge onto the shaft. The Go member must slide or go over the shaft
on its own weight without forcing it.The No Go member must not go over onto the
shaft.
If the Go member cannot slide over onto the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is
oversized.
If the No Go member can be inserted onto the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is
undersized.
Advantages of Snap Gauges compared with Ring Gauges
a.
Part is not necessary to be deburred.
b.
Part can be checked directly onto the machine.
c.
Time is saved.
l)
Thread Gauges
Basically, they are used to check the flank diameter of threads. There are three
types of thread gauges.
i.
Thread plug gauges
They are used to check the flank diameter of internal threads of a workpiece.
Basically, a thread plug gauge consists of Go and No Go members. The No Go
member is marked in red and has less thread for easy identification.
a) Go member: Used to check the lower limit of flank diameter of internal threads.
b) No Go member: Used to check the upper limit of flank diameter of internal threads.
ii.
The thread ring gauge used to check flank diameter of external threads of a
workpiece. Basically, they come together with a Go thread ring gauge and No
Go thread ring gauge.
a) Go thread ring gauge: Used to check the upper limit of flank diameter of threads.
b) No Go thread ring gauge: Used to check the lower limit of flank diameter of
threads.
iii.
b.
If the breadth of the hole is within the specific limits but the length is
oversized, and the No Go gauge is used to check both the maximum sizes of the
rectangular hole, it is observed that the gauge will not enter the hole and therefore
the work is accepted although the length of the rectangular hole is outside the
specified limits.
To overcome this situation, two separate No Go are always used. One is to check
the breadth and the other to check the length of the rectangular hole.
Gauge Tolerances and Wear Allowances
Gauges cannot be manufactured entirely without error. They are subjected
to loss of accuracy from wear. Thus the tolerances and wear allowances are
needed for the manufactured of gauges. The gauge tolerances and permissible
wear allowances depend upon the nominal size of the workpiece and the quality
class.
Work piece
Tolerance
Tolerance for Go
and No Go gauge
0.009-0.018
0.001
0.018-0.032
0.002
Plug gauge
Ring gauge
Go
No
Go
Go
No Go
0.001
+0.002
+0.001
+0
0.001
0.001
0.002
+0.001
-0
0.001
+0.003
+0.001
-0
0.002
0.001
0.003
+0.002
-0
0.003
0.002
+0.005
+0.002
+0
0.003
0.002
0.050
+0.003
-0
0.058-0.100
0.004
0.004
+0.008
+0.004
+0
+0.0
04
0.004
0.008
+0.004
-0
0.100-0.180
0.006
0.007
+0.0.1
3
+0.007
+0
0.006
0.007
0.013
+0.006
-0
0.180-0.320
0.009
0.012
+0.021
+0.012
+0
0.009
0.012
0.021
+0.009
-0
0.320-0.580
0.014
0.025
+0.039
+0.025
+0
0.014
0.025
0.039
+0.014
-0
0.580-1.00
0.025
0.048
+0.073
+0.048
+0
0.025
0.048
0.073
+0.025
-0
1.00-1.800
0.040
0.080
+0.120
+0.048
+0
0.040
0.080
0.120
+0.040
-0
1.800-3.200
0.050
0.155
+0.205
+0.155
+0
0.050
0.155
0.205
+0.050
-0
Table 10.1: Gauge Size Limits AT 20C for Ranges of Workpiece Tolerance
Example;
A plug gauge is to be manufactured to inspect a hole size of 50 25
0 . Determine the total
tolerance of the gauge.
Solution:
Minimum value = 50.00 and maximum value = 50.025 mm
Tolerance of hole = 0.025 mm
From the table:
At 0.018 - 0.032 mm; gauge tolerance = 0.002 and wear allowance = 0.001.
Hence, total tolerance of gauge is:
For Go gauge 50 00..003
001
For No Go gauge 50 00..025
023
CHAPTER 11
PROFILE PROJECTOR
INTRODUCTION
Profile projector is a large optical instrument which projects a workpiece
surface or contour on a screen for dimensional measurements (linear and angular
measurements) and observation.
The part to be measured is mounted on a table that can be moves in X and Y
directions by accurate micrometer screws. The profile projector projects the image of
the part on a screen, magnifying it from 5 to more than 100 times. Measurements can
be made directly, either by means of the micrometer dials, digital readouts or on the
magnified image on the screen by means of a n accurate scale or template (chart)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Control panel
Focusing knob
Table fine feed knob
Table core feed knob
Projection lens
Screen rotation knob
Projection screen
Table elevation wheel
Contour illuminator
Table
Surface illuminator
Angle counter
11.2
APPLICATION
Profile projector is a multi-purpose measuring instrument used for checking length,
angle, radius, diameter, thread pitch and gear profiles.
11.3
TEST PROCEDURES
There are three methods of testing :
a. Projection by contour illumination
b. Projection by surface illumination
c. Projection by both the contour and surface illumination
a.
Projection by contour illumination
The surface image of the workpiece is projected onto the screen. Be sure to use the
condenser lens, which corresponds to the magnification of the projection lens to be used
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
PROJECTION
SCREEN
b.
Projection by surface illumination
With the use of a half-reflecting mirror, it is possible to project the workpiece surface
image on the screen. (The surface illuminator is optional for PH350)
When the 5X or 10X projection is used :
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
PROJECTION
SCREEN
c.
Projection by both the contour and surface illumination
Both contour and surface images of a workpiece are projected onto the screen
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
Position the work piece so it intersects the
optical axis of the projection lens. (The
optical axis is collinear with the axis of a
beam that comes from the surface
illuminator and reflects on the half mirror)
PROJECTION
SCREEN
11.5
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
Basically there are two types of measurement that can be operated on a profile
projector.
a.
Length measurement
b.
Angle measurement
Length measurement
PROCEDURE
OPERATION
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
SCREEN
COUNTER
OPERATION/DISPLAY
Step 2
11.6
Angle measurement
OPERATION
SCREEN
COUNTER
OPERATION/DISPLAY
a.
Projection lens and condenser lens
Compared with ordinary hard glass, the optical glass of the projection lens used for the
projection lens or condenser lens are soft and subject to scratches. In order to remove
dust do not use a cloth to wipe the lens, but use a blower brush instead. To remove oil
or fingerprints, dampen a clean gauze with high-grade alcohol and wipe gently using a
circular motion. For lens storage, replace the lens cap and store it in its case.
Replace the lens cap when the projector is not in use, although the lens does not have to
be removed from the projector.
b.
Half-reflecting mirror for surface illuminator
The half mirror for 5X and 10X is coated with a plastic film which, tends to collect
dust. Since the mirror surface is subjected to scratches, take sufficient care when
handling it. Use a blower brush to remove any dust from the mirror.
c.
Mirror {surface reflection mirror}
The mirrors inside the machine are delicate and should never be touched by your hands
or anything else. Take care not to allow dust or oil mist inside the machine. Should the
mirror have to be cleaned, dust must be blown away with a blower, instead of being
wiped off.
d.
Screen glass
Use a soft cloth soaked with dilute neutral detergent and wipe the glass when removing
oil and fingerprints. After wiping, remove the detergent by wiping with a sot' cloth
soaked with water.
CHAPTER 12
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
12.3
12.5
a.
lc
Sampling length and evaluation length is a sampling length used for determining the
surface roughness from a roughness from profile. Generally, the sampling length is
equal to the cut-off value of the filter c. Given that
c = 0.25, 0.8, 2.5, 8 mm
b.
L
Sampling length and evaluation length is a sampling length used for determining the
surface roughness from an unfiltered profile and is equal to the evaluation length lm.
Given that L = 0.25, 0.8, 2.5, 8 mm.
c.
lm
Sampling length and evaluation length is an evaluation length used for evaluation of
surface roughness and includes several sampling lengths.
Given that lm = n x lc
(For evaluation from roughness profile)
Given that lm = n x L
(For evaluation from unfiltered profile, where n = 1)
12.6
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CUT-OFF VALUES
The cut-off value is important in roughness measurement because it affects the
roughness profile, as clearly shown in the diagram below.
Actual profile curve.
lv = start up length
lm = total sampling length
ln = run out length
a.
Roughness length
It is the length of the test surface used for measurement.
b.
Reference line
It is the line running through the highest point of the roughness profile.
c.
Base line
It is the line running through the lowest point of the roughness profile.
d.
Mean line
It is the line that divides up the roughness profile in such a way that the total area of the
parts of the reference profile is equal to those of the base profile.
ii.
Roughness Average, Ra
Ra is the arithmetic average of all the distances between the roughness profile and the
mean profile. All the raised surfaces above this mean line are calculated together with
valley surfaces lying below it, (that is considered as a rectangular surface) and divided
it by the length, the roughness average is obtained. The determination of the mean line
and the calculation of Ra are carried out by the measuring instrument.
Rt is the maximum (vertical) distance between the highest point and the deepest cut or
the vertical distance between base profile and reference profile. This does not say
enough for us to evaluate the surface finish, since a single freak value within the
roughness length 1 could destroy what was otherwise a good surface.
iv.
Maximum single roughness depth, Rmax
Rmax is the maximum individual roughness depth occurring over the total measurement
section lm. In our case Rt5 is equal to Rmax
v.
Average roughness depth, Rz
This is the arithmetic average of the roughness depths of 5 adjacent part sections, equal
in length, of the total measurement section lm.
Example:
R z Rt 1 Rt 2 Rt 3 Rt 4 Rt 5
5m 3m 6 m 4 m 8m
5
R z 5 .2 m
Rz
12.8
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
12.9
12.10
INSTRUMENTS FOR TESTING ROUGHNESS
There are a variety of instruments and methods available for measuring surface
roughness and surface profiles. However, two methods which are commonly used are
a. Finger nail comparator or surface roughness standard plate
b. Electronic instrument such as profilometer, perthometer or surface roughness
tester
c. Adrive/unit
d. A detector unit
f.
A skidless nosepiece
g. A skid-attached nosepiece