CCNA CAPITOLUL 1 ---------------In networking, tehnologiile noi ajuta la indepartarea granitelor

nationale, geografice si fizice sa fie indepartate, astfel incat, in termeni

sociali, comerciali si personali, interactiunile intre oameni sa devina
globale, sporind astfel oportunitatile la o scara globala.
Retelele de azi suporta creearea de camere virtuale, transport video,
invatare mobila etc. Accesul la informatie de calitate nu mai este ingradit,
prin ajutorul e-learning-ului.
De asemenea schimba modul prin care comunicam cu ajutorul :
Instant Messaging(IM)- comunicare cu mesaje instant intre 2 sau mai
multi oameni; ce permite transferul de fisiere, video, sunet etc.
Social Media-Site-uri interactive unde comunitatile creaza si shareuiesc informatii
Collaboration Tools-mai multi oameni lucreaza pe fisiere share-uite in
acelasi timp.
Weblogs(blogs)- pagini usor de updatat si editat; in special pentru
cei fara cunostinte in IT sau de web design
Wikis-pagini cu informatii in care toata lumea poate sa vada si sa
editeze; fara sponsorizarea din partea unor mari companii!
Podcasting-oamenii pot transmite live, prin internet un post de radio,
muzica, etc. da audio
P2P - file sharing
Comunicatia are la baza un set de reguli bine definite. Inainte de
orice fel de comunicatie, se stabilesc niste reguli, in care se identifica
sursa si destinatia, metoda de comunicare, limbajul, viteza de transmitere si
confirmarea mesajului primit.
QoS= quality of Service. Reprezinta calitatea mesajului, a rutei, de
cate ori a trebuit retransmis mesajul, de cate ori trebuie ca mesajul sa ia o
alta ruta, cate alte mesaje mai sunt pe acelasi mediu de comunicatie, si
timpul necesar pentru ca o comunicatie sa aiba loc.
Toate astea depind de marimea mesajului, complexitatea lui si
importanta sa.
Mesajele mari, tind sa se trimita mai greu, sau deloc, pe cand cele
mici si simple, se trimit mai repede si cu o rata de fail mai mica.
Pe vremuri, o retea stia sa transmita un singur tip de date: telefonia
doar voce, televiziunea doar video, retea de data, ghici ce, doar date.
Retelele de azi, trebuie sa faca fata a mai multor tipuri de date, transmise
in acelasi timp. Astea se cheama retele CONVERGENTE!
Cand gandesti o retea, mereu sa ai grija ca ea sa scaleze in
timp( adica daca mai am nevoie de disp sa adau la retea, sa am loc pentru
ele), sa fie FAULT TOLERENCE( adica daca o ruta pica(un cablu) reteaua inca sa
poata functiona), sa imi dea un QoS bun care sa stie sa imi prioritizeze
traficul, si sa fie sigura, impotriva atacatorilor externi sau interni.
Componentele unei retele:
-End divices(calculatoare, telefoane VoIP, imprimante, camere de
securitate, smartphones etc.)
-Intermediary devices
1)Network access( switch-uri, si access points wireless (- alea de
extindere a wi-fi)

2)Internetworking(routerele)
3)securitatea(firewall)
-Network media(cabluri- cupru, fibra optica, sau wireless( dragan ii
zice lu asta eter!)
POTI SA ARANJEZI O RETEA IN 2 FELURI:(janes inglis mo?)
1)Physical topology diagrams - Identify the physical location of intermediary
devices, configured ports, and cable installation.
2)Logical topology diagrams - Identify devices, ports, and IP addressing
scheme.
No bun, daca ai priceput pana aici, sunt sperante :D
Sunt 3 tipuri de retele:
LAN( speri ca nu vrei si explicatie -_- ) o retea ce asigura acces userilor si
end device-urilor intr-o zona geografica mica.
WAN - o retea ce asigura acces userilor si end device-urilor intr-o zona
geografica mai mare
MAN(metropolitan area network0) - o retea cv mai mare ca un LAN da mai mica ca
un WAN - nici cal, nici magar.Le gasesti de obicei in organizatiile mari gen
IBM etc.
WLAN - ca un LAN da wireless
Storage Area Network(SAN) - aici ai servere de stocare a datelor( strabunicu'
cloudului)
INTERNETUL = un conglomerat de retele, ce nu e defapt detinut de nimeni.
Gandeste-te la Pamant. Separat fiecare are o bucatica, dar luat ca un tot,
nimeni nu il detine.
tine minte asta: The term internet (with a lower case i") is used to describe
multiple networks interconnected. When referring to the global system of
interconnected computer networks or the World Wide Web, the term Internet
(with a capital I) is used.
Mai sunt 2 termene similare cu internetu:
INTRANET SI EXTRANET:
intranetu e un termen folosit pt a descrie un LAN privat, detinut de o
companie( poate sa fie si un WAN). e un fel de net, da accesibil doar din
companie.
extranetu e de fapt acces securizat din afara firmei, la datele firmei
No bun, da cum ne conectam concret?
home userii, teleworkerii si birourile mici se conecteaza la net printr-un
ISP(internet service provider). De obicei te conectezi prin DSL(digital
subscriber line) dar se poate si prin broadband, wireles etc.

tipuri de conexiuni:
cablu- folosit de televeziune, batranu' coaxial. Are o banda mare,
mereu pornit, da e nevoie de un modem( da chestie de caraie -_-) pentru a
putea accesa internetul asa.
DSL-are bandwith mare, mereu pornit, e nevoie de un modem de mare
viteza, care sa iti separe semnalul de la telefonie, cu ala de la
net( remmember the '90s ?)
Cellular-prin telefonie mobila, performantele fiind limitate de
telefon, foarte bun cand te misti mereu sau cand n-ai cabluri pe langa tine
Satellite- de la dumniezo din ceruri :)); e bun pentru case si birouri
mici care nu au acces la DSL sau cablu. E nevoie de o antena d-aia gen
farfurie, si au nevoie de o cale libera spre satelit( mai greu in padure, sau
in orase daca ai in fata un bloc de 10 etaje si u stai la casa). e bun pentru
zonele in care chiar nu ai cum sa faci rost de net... sau electricitate -_Dial-up - e dirtcheap, foloseste orice linie telefonica si un modem.
ca sa se conecteze, se formeaza numarul de tel al ISP, are low bandwith.
Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
In trecut, daca te angajai la o firma, astia trebuiau sa iti dea un
calculator sa poti sa te conectezi la retea si sa faci bani. De obicei erau
scumpe si erau folosite doar ca unelete de munca.
Acu', viata-i frumoasa, te costa putin un calculator/laptop/tableta si
nu mai trebuie neapart sa ti-l dea firma, poti sa vii si u cu el de acasa, sa
te conectezi si sa incepi sa faci bani.
BYOD means any device, with any ownership, used anywhere

CCNA CAPITOLUL 2-------------------------------IOS sau internet operating sistem, e ca orice alt sistem de operare,
prin care iti poti configura routerul switchul etc.
IOS e are cativa mega si e stocat intr-o memorie semipermanenta numita
FLASH.(nu se pierde inf cand se da restart, dar se poate modifica.)
Cand dai drumu la device, IOS e copiat din flash in RAM si se lucreaza
cu el de acolo.
IOS stie sa faca routare, adresare ip pt interfete logice si fizice,
securitate, configurari pe interfete, QoS etc.
Pentru configurare, sunt 3 metode de acces: Consola, Telnet/SSH sau
AUX.

Consola: bun pentru out of band access, adica o linie dedicata pt

device. Asta e buna, pt ca, chiar daca nu ai nicio setare pe el, poti sa il
setezi prin portul consola. Sau folosesti consola si cand nu poti sa il
accesezi remote.
Telnet: Accesare remote, dar nesecurizat, folosind o interfata
virtuala.
SSH: Accesare remote, securizat, prin folosirea de parole si de
criptare a datelor, tot printr-o interfata virtuala.
AUX:O metoda mai veche, aux e prin telefonie cu dial-up, e out of
band. Nu e nevoie sa fie configurat dinainte, seamana destul de mult cu
consola, in privinta asta.
Pentru a se configura un router, se foloseste PuTTY sau Tera Term,
etc.

NAVIGAREA PRIN IOS:

USER EXEC: Router>
Are drepturi limitate, dar e util pentru operatii de baza.De
aici poti doar sa vezi anumite setari, fara sa le modifici.
Default, nu e nevoie de o autentificare pentru acest nivel, dar se recomanda
sa se puna o parola.
Privileged EXEC: Router#
De aici se pot observa comenzile
dar si executia configurarilor si managementul comenzilor. Tot aici se face
debugging si testarea, accesul de la distanta si manipularea fisierelor.
Global configuration mode: Router(config)#
De aici se poate configura un router, switch etc, cu drepturi
depline si tot de aici se pot accesa configurari specifice. Pentru a trece din
privileged in global si pt a incepe configurarea se scrie: configure terminal.
Dupa asta, de aici poti incepe configurarea interfetelor, a liniilor,
etc.
Pentru a iesii dintr-un mod, se scrie exit, sau end(asta te arunca
direct in user mode, indiferent de unde esti)
Pentru a vede ce se poate scrie intr-o comanda se va folosi: ?
Ai 3 tipuri de erori:
%Ambiguous command: nu ai scris destule caractere ca acea comanda sa
fie recunoscuta
%Incomplete command: nu ai scris toate keyword-urile sau toate
argumentele
%invalid input detected: comanda a fost introdusa incorect, si iti
arata si unde e eroarea.
HOTKEYS:
cu sagetile chemi comenzile anterioare
cu tab faci autocompletare
ctrl+z : iese de unde esti si te baga in privileged mode
ctrl+c : anuleaza comanda in efect
control+shift+6: intrerupi un proces din IOS( ping, traceroute etc)
end sau disable iesi de oriunde esti si te arunca in user mode

NVRAM.

EXEMPLE DIN COMANDA SHOW:

show startup-config - Displays the saved configuration located in

show running-config - Displays the contents of the currently running

configuration file.
Switch# show interfaces fastethernet 0/1
Prima chestie pe care trebuie sa o faci cand incepi configurarea unui
switch/router etc. este sa ii dai un hostname. Asta pentru a il putea
identifica ulterior pentru alte setari.
Cand denumesti tine minte:
Incepi cu o litera
Sa nu ai spatii
Termina cu o litera sau un numar
Foloseste numai litere, numere sau bara( /)
Mai putin de 64 de caractere
ex:

Switch# configure terminal

Switch(config)# hostname Sw-Floor-1

Asigura securitatea dispozitivului:

Enable password - Limits access to the privileged EXEC mode
Enable secret - Encrypted, limits access to the privileged EXEC mode
Console password - Limits device access using the console connection
VTY password - Limits device access over Telnet
Foloseste parole mai mari de 8 caractere
Folosteste combinatii de litere mari, mici si numere
Foloseste parole diferite pentru diferite device-uri
Nu folosi chestii comune.
Pentru a salva configuratiile se va scrie:
Switch# copy running-config startup-config
Cum sa pui adrese, pe interfete:
interface vlan 1 - Used to navigate to the interface configuration
mode from the global configuration mode
ip address 192.168.10.2 255.255.255.0 - Configures the IP address and
subnet mask for the switch (this is just one of many possible combinations for
an IP address and subnet mask)
no shutdown - Administratively enables the interface to an active
state
Adresa Default Gateway este iesirea ta din retea( de obicei e
routerul!)
Pentru a se obtine o adresa IP automat, se foloseste DHCP ( Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol )
Pentru a se vedea daca stiva de protocoale este corect instalata pe o
masina, se va da ping 127.0.0.1, ce reprezinta adresa de loopback.
show ip interface brief pe router sau pe switch iti arata interfetele
cu ip si alte detalii.
Dupa ce ai terminat de configurat, se va testa conectivitatea end-toend ( de la un capat al celalalt al retelei! )

CCNA CAPITOLUL 3--------------------Asta se ocupa de Protocoale si standardele lor. Mai jos e un exemplu
de cum comunica intre ele protocoalele:
Application Protocol - Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a
protocol that governs the way a web server and a web client interact. HTTP
defines the content and formatting of the requests and responses that are
exchanged between the client and server. Both the client and the web server
software implement HTTP as part of the application. HTTP relies on other
protocols to govern how the messages are transported between the client and
server.

Transport Protocol - Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the

transport protocol that manages the individual conversations between web
servers and web clients. TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces,
called segments. These segments are sent between the web server and client
processes running at the destination host. TCP is also responsible for
controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the
server and the client.
Internet Protocol - IP is responsible for taking the formatted
segments from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning them the
appropriate addresses, and delivering them across the best path to the
destination host.
Network Access Protocols - Network access protocols describe two
primary functions, communication over a data link and the physical
transmission of data on the network media. Data-link management protocols take
the packets from IP and format them to be transmitted over the media. The
standards and protocols for the physical media govern how the signals are sent
and how they are interpreted by the receiving clients. An example of a network
access protocol is Ethernet.
O suita de protocoale e un set de protocoale care lucreaza impreuna
pentru a avea o comunicare peste retea.
IP, HTTP si DHCP fac parte in suita Internet Protocol, cunoscuta ca si
TCP/IP si asta e open source.
DNS: Translates domain names, such as cisco.com, into IP addresses
BOOTP:
the IP address
memory to boot
BOOTP is being

Enables a diskless workstation to discover its own IP address,

of a BOOTP server on the network, and a file to be loaded into
the machine
superseded by DHCP

DHCP: Dynamically assigns IP addresses to client stations at start-up

Allows the addresses to be re-used when no longer needed
SMTP: Enables clients to send email to a mail server
Enables servers to send email to other servers
POP: Enables clients to retrieve email from a mail server
Downloads email from the mail server to the desktop
IMAP: Enables clients to access email stored on a mail server
Maintains email on the server
FTP: Sets rules that enable a user on one host to access and transfer
files to and from another host over a network
A reliable, connection-oriented, and acknowledged file delivery protocol
TFTP: A simple, connectionless file transfer protocol
A best-effort, unacknowledged file delivery protocol
Utilizes less overhead than FTP

HTTP: Set of rules for exchanging text, graphic images, sound, video,
and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web
UDP(USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL): Enables a process running on one host to
send packets to a process running on another host
Does not confirm successful datagram transmission
TCP(TRANSMISSON CONTROL PROTOCOL): Enables reliable communication
between processes running on separate hosts
Reliable, acknowledged transmissions that confirm successful delivery
IP: Receives message segments from the transport layer
Packages messages into packets
Addresses packets for end-to-end delivery over an Internetwork
NAT: Translates IP addresses from a private network into globally
unique public IP addresses
ICMP: Provides feedback from a destination host to a source host about
errors in packet delivery
OSPF: Link-state routing protocol
Hierarchical design based on areas
Open standard interior routing protocol
EIGRP: Cisco proprietary routing protocol
Uses composite metric based on bandwidth, delay, load and reliability
ARP: Provides dynamic address mapping between an IP address and a
hardware address
PPP: Provides a means of encapsulating packets for transmission over a
serial link
ETHERNET: Defines the rules for wiring and signalling standards of the
network access layer
INTERFACE DRIVER: Provides instruction to a machine for the control of
a specific interface on a network device
ORGANIZATIILE CE SE OCUPA CU STANDARDELE:
Standards organizations include:
The
The
The
The
The

Internet Society (ISOC)

Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
IEEE: SUNT AIA CU STANDARDELE:

802.1 Higher Layer LAN Protocols Working Group

802.3 Ethernet Working Group

802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group

802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Working Group
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Working Group
802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
802.19 Wireless Coexistence Working Group
802.21 Media Independent Handover Services Working Group
802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks
802.24 Smart Grid TAG
TINE MINTE ASTA:
In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model.
ALTE ORGANIZATII IMPORTANTE:
EIA - The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), previously known as
the Electronics Industries Association, is an international standards and
trade organization for electronics organizations. The EIA is best known for
its standards related to electrical wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch racks
used to mount networking equipment.
TIA - The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) is responsible
for developing communication standards in a variety of areas including radio
equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite
communications, and more. Many of their standards are produced in
collaboration with the EIA.
ITU-T - The International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the largest and oldest communication
standard organizations. The ITU-T defines standards for video compression,
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, such as a
digital subscriber line (DSL). For example, when dialing another country, ITU
country codes are used to make the connection.
ICANN - The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN) is a non-profit organization based in the United States that
coordinates IP address allocation, the management of domain names used by DNS,
and the protocol identifiers or port numbers used by TCP and UDP protocols.
ICANN creates policies and has overall responsibility for these assignments.
IANA - The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a department
of ICANN responsible for overseeing and managing IP address allocation, domain
name management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.

URMEAZA ACUM COMPARATIA DINTRE TCP/IP SI OSI, PE CARE O GASESTI IN

CAIET, FACUTA DE DRAGAN LA FIECARE NENOROCITA DE ORA :) HAVE FUN ;)
CE-I ALA RFC?
Rfc vine de la Request for comments, si e un document oficial ce
specifica standardul si protocoalele ce se refera la tehnologia respectiva(ex:
ETHERNET)
Exemple:
HTTP
DHCP
IPv4
IPv6

RFC
RFC
RFC
RFC

2616, Hypertext Transfer Protocol - HTTP/1.1

2131, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
791, Internet Protocol
2460, Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification

O buna bucata din IPv4, partea cu impartirea ip-urilor o gasesti in

RFC 1918.
IP-URILE PRIVATE SUNT:
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Cum ia nastere un RFC?
Intai incepe ca un Internet-Draft(I-D). Astea nu au o forma oficiala,
si se pot modifica oricand si oricat.
Dupa se trece la Proposed Standard. Dupa ce se fac review-uri de la
comunitate, si versiunea e considerata stabila, folositoare si e bine
inteleasa. Astea primesc un numar de RFC, dar nu sunt inca un Internet
Standard. Dupa ce mai trece o serie de verificari se trece la urmatoarea
etapa:
Internet Standard - dupa multe teste, si dupa ce tehnologia e stabila,
ajunge in pasu asta. Dupa ce un RFC e publicat ca un Internet Standard, nu mai
poate fi modificat sub nicio forma! Orice alta modificare, apare ca un alt
RFC.
URMEAZA MAI MULTE TIPURI DE RFC( LE LAS IN ENGLEZA PT CA LENE :) )
Internet Standard - Internet standard RFCs are documents defining a
mature, useful, and validated protocol or technology. These are also known as
normative documents. Internet standards have undergone a thorough process from
an (I-D), to a proposed standard and, if approved, to an Internet standard. An
example of an Internet standard RFC is RFC 2460, Internet Protocol, Version 6
(IPv6) Specification.
Best Current Practice (BCP) - Best current practice RFCs describe
official rules or methodologies. The difference between an Internet standard
and a BCP is sometimes unclear. Like an Internet standard RFC, a BCP usually
goes through the same process as Internet standards. RFC 1918, which defines
the use of private IPv4 addresses, is an example of a BCP RFC.
Informational - Information RFCs can be almost anything from
describing a DNS Structure and Delegation, RFC 1591, to jokes, such as
Hypertext Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP/1.0), described in RFC 2324.

Another example of an informational RFC is RFC 1983, Internet Users Glossary

that provides definitions for basic Internet terms and acronyms.
Experimental - Experimental RFCs are documents that are not on the
Internet standards approval track. This includes documents that have been
submitted by an individual and have not yet been approved as an I-D. It may be
that it is not certain that the proposal works as stated, or it is unclear if
the proposal can gain wide acceptance. An experimental RFC may be promoted to
the Internet standards track if it eventually meets those requirements.
Historic - Historic status is given to an RFC when it has been made
obsolete by a newer RFC. RFC numbers are never reused. Any RFC that updates an
existing RFC receives a unique number and the RFC it updates is moved to
Historic status. For example, RFC 1883, IPv6, became a standard in 1995.
Several changes were made to IPv6 and in 1998, RFC 2460, with the same name,
made RFC 1883 obsolete. The header of RFC 2460 includes Obsoletes: 1883.
Mutarea datelor in retea:
Avem nevoie de 3 chestii:
1)Sursa mesajului( oameni, electronice etc)
2)Canalul de comunicare(e media ce ne da ruta prin care sa circule
mesajul)
3)Destinatia mesajului(primirea mesajului si interpretarea lui)
Pentru a transmite un mesaj, exista 2 moduri:
Prin segmentare - adica mesajul este spart in bucati mai mici, pentru
a asigura transmisia cu succes chiar daca o legatura nu mai este valida.
Prin multiplexare - adica mai multe surse pot comunica peste aceeasi
retea si transmite mesaje de tip diferit. (multiplexare inseamna sa se trimita
un sir de mesaje: msjA,msjB,msjA,msjC,msjB etc )
Pe masura ce mesajul trecere prin nivele de protocoale, forma pe care
o bucata de informatie o ia, la oricare nivel, se cheama PDU(protocol data
unit). Pe masura ce trece prin aceste nivele(adica se incapsuleaza), PDU-ul
poate avea alte denumiri:
Data- numele general folosit de application
Segment - Transport layer PDU
Packet - Network layer PDU
Frame - Data link layer PDU
Bits - un PDU fizic, folosit pt transmisia de date peste mediu.
Dupa fiecare incapsulare, noul pachet va avea un header specific.
La network access layer, PDU-ului i se adauga un header, cu sursa si
destinatie, si un trailer cu FCS-ul( frame check sum) ce contine CRC(ciclic
reduntacy check)
Decapsularea se face ca si incapsularea, da invers.
La network layer( 3) in packet o sa ai 2 adrese: source ip si
destination ip( asta e folosita de rutere ca sa trimita mesajul catre
destinatie)
La datalink layer (2) ai 2 adrese:

Source data link address - e adresa fizica a sursei, initial assta e NIC-ul
tau.
Destination data link address - adresa fizica a interfetei de retea a
urmatorului router sau a dispozitivului destinatie.
Pentru a comunica cu alte dispozitive din afara retelei, trebuie setat
pe fiecare dispozitiv DEFAULT GATEWAY, ce reprezinta iesirea ta din retea, si
de obicei e adresa routerului.

CCNA CAPITOLUL 4---------------------------------Application Layer Protocol:

Este cea mai apropriata de utilizator si e interfata dintre aplicatii si
urmatoarele layere.
Exemple de aplicatii: HTTP, FTP, TFTP, IMAP, DNS etc.
PRESENTATION LAYER:
Are 3 roluri mari si late:
1) formateaza, (prezinta) datele de la sursa intr-o forma compatibila
pentru primire de catre destinatie.
2)Comprima datale intr-un mod in care destinatia sa le poata
decomprima
3)Cripteaza datele si decripteaza la destinatie
exemple: MPEG, JPEG, GIF, PNG, QUICK TIME, etc
SESION LAYER:
Asta creaza si mentine dialogurile dintre sursa si destinate. Asta mai
si initiaza sesiunile, le restarteaza pe alea care s-au intrerupt, sau sunt
idle pt o perioada lunga de timp; sau le tine active
sus)

Exemple de protocoale ce ruleaza la nivelul aplicatie ( le ai si mai

Domain Name System (DNS) - This protocol resolves Internet names to IP

addresses.
Telnet - This is used to provide remote access to servers and
networking devices.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - This protocol transfers mail messages
and attachments.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - A protocol used to assign
an IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server addresses to a
host.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - This protocol transfers files
that make up the web pages of the World Wide Web.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - A protocol used for interactive file
transfer between systems.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) - This protocol is used for
connectionless active file transfer.

Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) - This protocol is a precursor to the DHCP

protocol. BOOTP is a network protocol used to obtain IP address information
during bootup.
Post Office Protocol (POP) - A protocol used by email clients to
retrieve email from a remote server.
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) - This is another protocol for
email retrieval.
RETELELE PEER-TO-PEER(P2P)
Astea sunt retelele de calc ce nu necesita un server pentru
transmiterea de date intre dispozitive, aceastea avand rolul de server si de
client.
Un exemplu este o retea mica, de casa, cu 2 calculatoare. Un
calculator are atasat o imprimanta, iar altul e legat la cel cu imprimanta si
vrea sa printeze. O sa trimita informatia prin cel atasat la imprimanta pentru
a printa. P2P e buna pentru ca, pe langa faptul ca iti permite sa share-uiesti
rapid fisiere, se pot face si retele pentru jocuri, sau sa imparta o conexiune
la internet. Dar este foarte nesecurizata!
APLICATII P2P:
O aplicatie P2P ii da voie dispozitivului sa fie atat server cat si
client in aceeasi comuncare. In acest model, fiecare client e server si
fiecare server e client. Atunci cand lansezi o aplicatie P2P, asta v-a lansa
interfara cu utilizatorul corespunzatoarea, si procesele din background; dupa
dispozitivele vor putea comunica direct.
Acestea pot fi folosite in retele P2P, client/server sau peste
internet.
Un exemplu este instant messaging;
Exemple de aplicatii P2P:
eDonkey
eMule
Shareaza
BitTorrent
Bitcoin
LionShare
Well-Known Application Layer Protocols and Services
HTTP: e folosit peste WWW pentru transferul de date si e unul dintre
cele mai folosite aplicatii de protocol folosit azi. A fost folosit pentru a
putea scoate pagini HTML, dar cu flexibilitatea HTTP-ului l-a facut o
aplicatie vitala.
E un protocol request/response.
Cele 3 tipuri de mesaje sunt GET, POST si PUT
GET e un client request for data. Un client trimite GET catre un web
server pt a cere o pagina HTML, si ca raspuns primeste pagina, sau un mesaj de
eroare.
POST si PUT sunt folosite pentru a uploada date si fisiere catre un
web server. Folosite de exemplu cand se completeaza un formular online(aici e
folosit POST)
PUT e folosit pentru fisiere, pentru a fi uploadate pe un server.

Varianta securizata a HTTP este HTTPS. Asta cripteaza datele,

foloseste autentificari, si vine cu reguli noi. Streamul de date e securizat
cu Secure Sochet Layer(SSL) inainte sa fie pus pe mediu de comunicare.
SMTP SI POP:
To receive email messages from an email server, the email client can
use POP. Sending email from either a client or a server uses message formats
and command strings defined by SMTP. Usually an email client provides the
functionality of both protocols within one application,
E format din 2 parti:
1)Mail Transfer Agent
Asta e folosit pentru
la destinatar.
2)Mail Delivery Agent
Asta il trimite catre

(MTA)
a trimite mailurile, in asa fel incat sa ajunga
(MDA)
user, daca este in acel server.

explicat mai bine:

If the mail is addressed to a user whose mailbox is on the local
server, the mail is passed to the MDA. If the mail is for a user not on the
local server, the MTA routes the email to the MTA on the appropriate server.
Clientul are nume de Mail User Agent( MUA)
SMTP e folosit pentru a trimite emailuir de la client la server, si pt
a forwarda mailurile intre servere.
POP e folosit pentru a trimite emailurile
DNS- creat pentru a obtine ip-ul unu Berkeley Internet Name Domain
(BIND) sau daemon
Tipuri de registrii:
A - An end device address
NS - An authoritative name server
CNAME - The canonical name (or Fully Qualified Domain Name) for an alias; used
when multiple services have the single network address, but each service has
its own entry in DNS
MX - Mail exchange record; maps a domain name to a list of mail
exchange servers for that domain
Which statement is true about SMB?
used for sharing files and print services.

SMB is a client/server protocol

Dupa ce gaseste adresa ip a unui site, o mai pastreaza intr-un cache,

pentru accesare mai rapida pe viitor.
Pentru a vedea cache-ul dns pe windows: ipconfig /displaydns
DNS este organizat ierarhic, unde cel mai de sus server stie de
.com,.org, etc iar nivele de mai jos, devin din ce in ce mai specifice.
Poate intelegi mai bine asa:

After top-level domains are second-level domain names, and below them
are other lower level domains. Each domain name is a path down this inverted
tree starting from the root. For example, as shown in the figure, the root DNS
server may not know exactly where the record for the email server,
mail.cisco.com, is located, but it maintains a record for the .com domain
within the top-level domain. Likewise, the servers within the .com domain may
not have a record for mail.cisco.com, but they do have a record for the
domain. The servers within the cisco.com domain have a record (a MX record to
be precise) for mail.cisco.com.
Windowsu are si el un sistem gen dns, se cheama nslookup. Cand
introduci comanda asta, poti sa vezi manual ce adresa are un site anume.
DHCP - asta distribuie adrese IP automat, dintr-un pool de adrese, si
doar le imprumuta, nu le da definitiv.
pasii:
DHCPDISCOVER - message to identify any available DHCP servers on the
network.
DHCPOFFER - A DHCP server replies with a DHCP offer (DHCPOFFER)
message, which offers a lease to the client. The offer message contains the IP
address and subnet mask to be assigned, the IP address of the DNS server, and
the IP address of the default gateway. The lease offer also includes the
duration of the lease.
DHCPREQUEST - The client may receive multiple DHCPOFFER messages if
there is more than one DHCP server on the local network; therefore, it must
choose between them, and send a DHCP request (DHCPREQUEST) message that
identifies the explicit server and lease offer that the client is accepting.
DHCPACK - Assuming that the IP address requested by the client, or
offered by the server, is still available, the server returns a DHCP
acknowledgement (DHCPACK) message that acknowledges to the client that the
lease is finalized.
FTP - un alt protocol folosit des la nivelul aplicatie. A fost creat
pt a permite transferul de date intre client si server.
Clientul FTP foloseste o aplicatie ce foloseste push si pull, pentru a scoate
sau pune informatii pe un server ce ruleaza FTP daemon.
Pentru a putea transmite cu succes date, trebuiesc 2 conexiuni, una
pentru comenzi si reply-uir si alta pentru transferul efectiv de fisiere.
Clientul stabileste prima conexiune catre server pentru controlul
traficului, ce constituie din comenzile clientului si replicile serverului.
Clientul stabilieste o a 2-a conexiune catre server pentru transferul
de fisiere efectiv. Asta e creata de fiecare data cand trebuiesc fisiere
transferate.
Transferul de date se poate intampla in ambele sensuri.

CCNA CAPITOLUL 5-----------------------

ROLUL NIVELULUI TRANSPORT:

Are rolul de a stabili o sesiune de comunicare temporara intre 2 aplicatii si
sa trimita date intre ele.
Tot el accepta date de la mai multe aplicatii si trimite datele la nivelele
inferioare in bucati manevrabile ce se pot multiplexa, sau introduse in alte
packete peste media.
Pentru a putea rearanja in ordinea corecta bucatile de date se folosesc 2
protocoale la nivel transport: TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL(TCP) sau USER
DATAGRAM PROTOCOL(UDP)
Mai structurat:
The primary responsibilities of transport layer protocols are:
Tracking the individual communication between applications on the
source and destination hosts
Segmenting data for manageability and reassembling segmented data into
streams of application data at the destination
Identifying the proper application for each communication stream
TCP VS UDP:
TCP is considered a reliable, full-featured transport layer protocol, which
ensures that all of the data arrives at the destination. In contrast, UDP is a
very simple transport layer protocol that does not provide for any reliability
TCP
- E responsabil pentru urmarirea segmentelor de date
- confirmarea datelor primite
- retransmiterea datelor neconfirmate
- este connection-oriented( adica negociaza si stabileste o conexiune
permanenta(sesiune) intre sursa si destinatie, inainte de a face trafic.)
- are flow control( daca simte ca se ocupa banda, poate cere
aplicatiei sa trimita mai putine date pana se elibereaza)
TCP sparge mesajul in bucati mici, cunoscute ca segmente. Astea sunt
numerotate in segvente si trimise catre IP pentru a fi asamblate in packete.
TCP tine numaratoarea segmentelor ce au fost trimise unui host specific. Daca
nu primeste confirmarea primirii datelor, le mai trimite odata.
EXEMPLE DE APLICATII CE FOLOSEST TCP:
FTP, HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Telnet
UDP
-nu urmareste segmentele de date
-nu are confirmarea datelor primite
-nu retransmite datele pierdute
-are overhead mic(deci mai rapid prin retea)
-este best-effort
-este conectionless(nu stabilieste o conexiune prealabila)
-nu se asigura ca datele au ajuns la destinatie
-nu ordoneaza datele la destinatie
-nu are flow control
EXEMPLE DE APLICATII CE FOLOSESC TCP:
VoIP, video streaming, internet radio, Domain Name System (DNS)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP)
Online games etc.
Headerul tcp:
Sequence number (32 bits) - Used for data reassembly purposes.
Acknowledgement number (32 bits) - Indicates the data that has been
received.
Header length (4 bits) - Known as "data offset". Indicates the length
of the TCP segment header.
Reserved (6 bits) - This field is reserved for the future.
Control bits (6 bits) - Includes bit codes, or flags, that indicate
the purpose and function of the TCP segment.
Window size (16 bits) - Indicates the number of segments that can be accepted
at one time.
data.

Checksum (16 bits) - Used for error checking of the segment header and
Urgent (16 bits) - Indicates if data is urgent.
HEADERUL UDP:
Source port(16 bits)
Destination port(16 bits)
Length(16 bits)
Checksum(16 bits)

Si TCP si UDP, isi transmit datele pe porturi sursa si porturi destinatie.

Porturile sursa si destinatie sunt puse in segment si incapsulate in packetul
IP. Portul sursa este generat aleator, iar cel destinatie este fix.
Combinatia dintre IP-ul sursa si destinatie si porturile sursa si
destinatie se cheama SOCKET!
Socket-ul e folosit pentru a identifica serverul si serviciul
solicitat de client
LISTA PORTURILOR:
0 - 1023: Porturi bine cunoscute
1024 - 49151 : Porturi inregistrate
49152 - 65535 : Porturi private/ alocate dinamic
Cateodata e nevoie sa stim ce conexiuni active TCP avem. Atunci vom
folosi din cmd comanda: netstat. Asta va lista protocolul in folosinta, adresa
locala si portul, adresa straina si portul ei si starea conexiunii.
Daca nu se stie de unde provine o conexiune TCP, asta e o problema de
securitatea, ca poate sa fie cineva conectat la device-ul tau, sau pur si
simplu sunt niste procese care nu au ce cauta acolo.
Netsat il folosesti atunci cand ai conexiuni deschise si performantele
sunt scazute.

THREE WAY HANDSHAKE:

Step 1. The initiating client requests a client-to-server
communication session with the server.
TCP segment in this frame shows:
SYN flag set to validate an Initial Sequence Number
Randomized sequence number valid (relative value is 0)
Random source port 1061
Well-known destination port is 80 (HTTP port) indicates web server (httpd)
Step 2. The server acknowledges the client-to-server communication
session and requests a server-to-client communication session.
ACK flag set to indicate a valid Acknowledgement number
Acknowledgement number response to initial sequence number as relative value
of 1
SYN flag set to indicate the Initial Sequence Number for the server to client
session
Destination port number of 1061 to corresponding to the clients source port
Source port number of 80 (HTTP) indicating the web server service (httpd)
Step 3. The initiating client acknowledges the server-to-client communication
session.
The TCP segment in this frame shows:
ACK flag set to indicate a valid Acknowledgement number
Acknowledgement number response to initial sequence number as relative value
of 1
Source port number of 1061 to corresponding
Destination port number of 80 (HTTP) indicating the web server service (httpd)

URG
ACK
PSH
RST
SYN
FIN

Tipurile de mesaje transmise:

Urgent pointer field significant
Acknowledgement field significant
Push function
Reset the connection
Synchronize sequence numbers
No more data from sender

INCHEIEREA UNEI TRANSMISIUNI DE DATE:

Step 1: When the client has no more data to send in the stream, it
sends a segment with the FIN flag set.

Step 2: The server sends an ACK to acknowledge the receipt of the FIN
to terminate the session from client to server.
Step 3: The server sends a FIN to the client, to terminate the server
to client session.
Step 4: The client responds with an ACK to acknowledge the FIN from
the server.

IN TCP EXISTA O CHESTIE NUMITA WINDOW-SIZE. Asta reprezinta nr de biti

ce se transmit, dupa care se cere un ACK... adica am windowsize de 1000 de
bits. Dupa ce i-am trimis, astept confirmarea, altfel retrimit informatia aia.
For example, starting with a sequence number of 2000, if 10 segments
of 1,000 bytes each were received, an ACK number of 12001 would be returned to
the source.
CCNA CAPITOLUL 6-----------------------------------CARACTERISTICILE IP-ULUI.
Connectionless - No connection with the destination is established
before sending data packets.
ADICA: senderul nu stie:
If the receiver is present
If the letter arrived
If the receiver can read the letter
receiverul nu stie:
When it is coming
Best Effort (unreliable) - Packet delivery is not guaranteed.
El se chinuie sa trimita toate packetele dar daca nu ajung in ordinea
in care trebuie, sau lipsesc packete, e rolul layerului de mai sus( TCP) sa
rezolve problema asta.
Media Independent - Operation is independent of the medium carrying
the data.
Dar este dependent de Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). O parte din
controlul comunicatiei dintre layerul data link si layerul network este
stabilirea size-ului maxim al packetului.
IP-ul incapsuleaza segmentul din layer-ul transport. Acest header este
folosit pentru a trimite packetul catre destinatie.
Un packet IPv4 are 2 parti:

data.

IP Header - Identifies the packet characteristics.

Payload - Contains the Layer 4 segment information and the actual
Significant fields in the IPv4 header include:

Version - Contains a 4-bit binary value identifying the IP packet

version. For IPv4 packets, this field is always set to 0100.
Differentiated Services (DS) - Formerly called the Type of Service
(ToS) field, the DS field is an 8-bit field used to determine the priority of
each packet. The first 6 bits identify the Differentiated Services Code Point
(DSCP) value that is used by a quality of service (QoS) mechanism. The last 2
bits identify the explicit congestion notification (ECN) value that can be
used to prevent dropped packets during times of network congestion.
Time-to-Live (TTL) - Contains an 8-bit binary value that is used to
limit the lifetime of a packet. It is specified in seconds but is commonly
referred to as hop count. The packet sender sets the initial time-to-live
(TTL) value and is decreased by one each time the packet is processed by a
router, or hop. If the TTL field decrements to zero, the router discards the
packet and sends an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Time Exceeded
message to the source IP address. The traceroute command uses this field to
identify the routers used between the source and destination.
Protocol - This 8-bit binary value indicates the data payload type
that the packet is carrying, which enables the network layer to pass the data
to the appropriate upper-layer protocol. Common values include ICMP (1), TCP
(6), and UDP (17).
Source IP Address - Contains a 32-bit binary value that represents the
source IP address of the packet.
Destination IP Address - Contains a 32-bit binary value that
represents the destination IP address of the packet.
Internet Header Length (IHL) identifying the number of 32-bit words
to the Options and Padding fields. The
(i.e., 532 = 160 bits = 20 bytes) and
480 bits = 60 bytes).

Contains a 4-bit binary value

in the header. The IHL value varies due
minimum value for this field is 5
the maximum value is 15 (i.e., 1532 =

Total Length - Sometimes referred to as the Packet Length, this 16-bit

field defines the entire packet (fragment) size, including header and data, in
bytes. The minimum length packet is 20 bytes (20-byte header + 0 bytes data)
and the maximum is 65,535 bytes.
Header Checksum - The 16-bit field is used for error checking of the
IP header. The checksum of the header is recalculated and compared to the
value in the checksum field. If the values do not match, the packet is
discarded.
Identification - This 16-bit field uniquely identifies the fragment of
an original IP packet.
Flags - This 3-bit field identifies how the packet is fragmented. It
is used with the Fragment Offset and Identification fields to help reconstruct
the fragment into the original packet.
Fragment Offset - This 13-bit field identifies the order in which to
place the packet fragment in the reconstruction of the original unfragmented
packet.

PROBLEME CU IPV4:
IP address depletion - IPv4 has a limited number of unique public IP
addresses available. Although there are approximately 4 billion IPv4
addresses, the increasing number of new IP-enabled devices, always-on
connections, and the potential growth of less-developed regions have increased
the need for more addresses.
Internet routing table expansion - As the number of servers (nodes)
connected to the Internet increases, so too does the number of network routes.
These IPv4 routes consume a great deal of memory and processor resources on
Internet routers.
Lack of end-to-end connectivity - Network Address Translation (NAT) is
a technology commonly implemented within IPv4 networks. NAT provides a way for
multiple devices to share a single public IP address. However, because the
public IP address is shared, the IP address of an internal network host is
hidden. This can be problematic for technologies that require end-to-end
connectivity.
AVANTAJELE IPV6:
Increased address space - IPv6 addresses are based on 128-bit
hierarchical addressing as opposed to IPv4 with 32 bits. This dramatically
increases the number of available IP addresses.
Improved packet handling - The IPv6 header has been simplified with
fewer fields. This improves packet handling by intermediate routers and also
provides support for extensions and options for increased
scalability/longevity.
Eliminates the need for NAT - With such a large number of public IPv6
addresses, Network Address Translation (NAT) is not needed. Customer sites,
from the largest enterprises to single households, can get a public IPv6
network address. This avoids some of the NAT-induced application problems
experienced by applications requiring end-to-end connectivity.
Integrated security - IPv6 natively supports authentication and
privacy capabilities. With IPv4, additional features had to be implemented to
do this.
The 32-bit IPv4 address space provides approximately 4,294,967,296
unique addresses. Of these, only 3.7 billion addresses are assignable, because
the IPv4 addressing system separates the addresses into classes, and reserves
addresses for multicasting, testing, and other specific uses.
As shown in the figure, IP version 6 address space provides
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456, or 340 undecillion
addresses, which is roughly equivalent to every grain of sand on Earth.
The IPv6 simplified header offers several advantages over IPv4:
Better routing efficiency for performance and forwarding-rate
scalability
NO requirement for processing checksums

Simplified and more efficient extension header mechanisms (as opposed

to the IPv4 Options field)
A Flow Label field for per-flow processing with no need to open the
transport inner packet to identify the various traffic flows
HEADERUL IPV6:
Version - This field contains a 4-bit binary value identifying the IP
packet version. For IPv6 packets, this field is always set to 0110.
Traffic Class - This 8-bit field is equivalent to the IPv4
Differentiated Services (DS) field. It also contains a 6-bit Differentiated
Services Code Point (DSCP) value used to classify packets and a 2-bit Explicit
Congestion Notification (ECN) used for traffic congestion control.
Flow Label - This 20-bit field provides a special service for realtime applications. It can be used to inform routers and switches to maintain
the same path for the packet flow so that packets are not reordered.
Payload Length - This 16-bit field is equivalent to the Total Length
field in the IPv4 header. It defines the entire packet (fragment) size,
including header and optional extensions.
Next Header - This 8-bit field is equivalent to the IPv4 Protocol
field. It indicates the data payload type that the packet is carrying,
enabling the network layer to pass the data to the appropriate upper-layer
protocol. This field is also used if there are optional extension headers
added to the IPv6 packet.
Hop Limit: - This 8-bit field replaces the IPv4 TTL field. This value
is decremented by one by each router that forwards the packet. When the
counter reaches 0 the packet is discarded and an ICMPv6 message is forwarded
to the sending host, indicating that the packet did not reach its destination.
Source Address - This 128-bit field identifies the IPv6 address of the
sending host.
Destination Address - This 128-bit field identifies the IPv6 address
of the receiving host.
Un alt rol al layerului network este acela de a permite rutarea
packetelor intre hosturi. Exemple de rutari:
Itself - A host can ping itself by sending a packet to a special IPv4
address of 127.0.0.1 which is referred to as the loopback interface. This
loopback address is automatically assigned to a host when TCP/IP is running.
The ability for a host to send a packet to itself using network functionality
is useful for testing purposes. Any IP within the network 127.0.0.0/8 refers
to the local host.
Local host - This is a host on the same network as the sending host.
The hosts share the same network address.
Remote host - This is a host on a remote network. The hosts do not
share the same network address.
Cam ce sa gaseste in tabela de rutare:

Direct connection - This is a route to the loopback interface.

Local network route - The network which the host is connected to is
automatically populated in the host routing table.
Local default route - The default gateway is added to the host routing
table and represents all other routes. The default gateway is either
configured manually or learned dynamically and creates the local default route
netstat -r command can be used to display the host routing table.
Entering the netstat -r command or the equivalent route print command,
displays three sections related to the current TCP/IP network connections:
Interface List - Lists the Media Access Control (MAC) address and
assigned interface number of every network-capable interface on the host
including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth adapters.
IPv4 Route Table - Lists all known IPv4 routes, including direct
connections, local network, and local default routes.
IPv6 Route Table - Lists all known IPv6 routes, including direct
connections, local network, and local default routes.
Ce apare cand bagi netstat -r
Network Destination - Lists the reachable networks.
Netmask - Lists a subnet mask that informs the host how to determine
the network and the host portions of the IP address.
Gateway - Lists the address used by the local computer to get to a
remote network destination. If a destination is directly reachable, it will
show as on-link in this column.
Interface - Lists the address of the physical interface used to send
the packet to the gateway that is used to reach the network destination.
Metric - Lists the cost of each route and is used to determine the
best route to a destination.
0.0.0.0
The local default route; that is, all packets with destinations that do not
match other specified addresses in the routing table are forwarded to the
gateway. Therefore, all non-matching destination routes are sent to the
gateway with IP address 192.168.10.1 (R1) exiting from the interface with IP
address 192.168.10.10
127.0.0.0 127.255.255.255
These loopback addresses all relate to the direct connection and provide
services to the local host.
192.168.10.0 - 192.168.10.255

These addresses all relate to the host and local network. All packets with
destination addresses that fall into this category will exit out of the
192.168.10.10 interface.
192.168.10.0 - The local network route address; represents all computers on
the 192.168.10.x network.
192.168.10.10 - The address of the local host.
192.168.10.255 - The network broadcast address; sends messages to all hosts on
the local network route.
224.0.0.0
These are special multicast class D addresses reserved for use through either
the loopback interface (127.0.0.1) or the host IP address (192.168.10.10).
255.255.255.255
The last two addresses represent the limited broadcast IP address values for
use through either the loopback interface (127.0.0.1) or the host IP address
(192.168.10.10). These addresses can be used to find a DHCP server before the
local IP is determined.
LA IPV6:
If - Lists the interface numbers from the Interface List section of the
netstat r command. The interface numbers correspond to the network capable
interface on the host, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth adapters.
Metric - Lists the cost of each route to a destination. Lower numbers indicate
preferred routes.
Network Destination - Lists the reachable networks.
Gateway - Lists the address used by the local host to forward packets to a
remote network destination. On-link indicates that the host is currently
connected to it.
For example, the figure displays the IPv6 Route section generated by the
netstat r command to reveal the following network destinations:
::/0 - This is the IPv6 equivalent of the local default route.
::1/128 - This is equivalent to the IPv4 loopback address and provides
services to the local host.
2001::/32 - This is the global unicast network prefix.
2001:0:9d38:953c:2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 - This is the global unicast IPv6
address of the local computer.
fe80::/64 - This is the local link network route address and represents all
computers on the local link IPv6 network.
fe80::2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 - This is the link local IPv6 address of the
local computer.
ff00::/8 - These are special reserved multicast class D addresses equivalent
to the IPv4 224.x.x.x addresses.
The routing table of a router stores information about:
Directly-connected routes - These routes come from the active router
interfaces. Routers add a directly connected route when an interface is
configured with an IP address and is activated. Each of the router's
interfaces is connected to a different network segment. Routers maintain
information about the network segments that they are connected to within the
routing table.

Remote routes - These routes come from remote networks connected to

other routers. Routes to these networks can either be manually configured on
the local router by the network administrator or dynamically configured by
enabling the local router to exchange routing information with other routers
using dynamic routing protocols.
The routing table of a router is similar to the routing table of a
host. They both identify the:
Destination network
Metric associated with the destination network
Gateway to get to the destination network
On a Cisco IOS router, the show ip route command can be used to
display the routing table of a router
Route Source
The route source is labeled A in the figure. It identifies how the route was
learned. Directly connected interfaces have two route source codes.
C - Identifies a directly connected network. Directly connected networks are
automatically created when an interface is configured with an IP address and
activated.
L - Identifies that this is a link local route. Link local routes are
automatically created when an interface is configured with an IP address and
activated.
Destination network
The destination network is labeled B in the figure. It identifies the
address of the remote network.
Outgoing interface
The outgoing interface is labeled C in the figure. It identifies the exit
interface to use when forwarding packets to the destination network.
Note: Link local routing table entries did not appear in routing tables prior
to IOS Release 15.
A router typically has multiple interfaces configured. The routing table
stores information about both directly-connected and remote routes. As with
directly connected networks, the route source identifies how the route was
learned. For example, common codes for remote networks include:
S - Identifies that the route was manually created by an administrator to
reach a specific network. This is known as a static route.
D - Identifies that the route was learned dynamically from another router
using the Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).
O - Identifies that the route was learned dynamically from another router
using the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol.
Note: Other codes are beyond the scope of this chapter.
The figure displays a routing table entry on R1 for the route to
remote network 10.1.1.0. The entry identifies the following information:

Route source - Identifies how the route was learned.

Destination network - Identifies the address of the remote network.
Administrative distance - Identifies the trustworthiness of the route source.
Metric - Identifies the value assigned to reach the remote network. Lower
values indicate preferred routes.
Next-hop - Identifies the IP address of the next router to forward the packet.
Route timestamp - Identifies when the route was last heard from.
Outgoing interface - Identifies the exit interface to use to forward a packet
toward the final destination.
TIPURI DE RUTERE:
Branch - Teleworkers, small business, and medium-size branch sites.
Includes Cisco 800, 1900, 2900, and 3900 Integrated Series Routers (ISR) G2
(2nd generation).
WAN - Large businesses, organizations, and enterprises. Includes the
Cisco Catalyst 6500 Series Switches and the Cisco Aggregation Service Router
(ASR) 1000.
Service Provider - Large service providers. Includes Cisco ASR 1000,
Cisco ASR 9000, Cisco XR 12000, Cisco CRS-3 Carrier Routing System, and 7600
Series routers.
Ca orice calculator, si ruteru are un procesor ce executa
instructiunile IOS
Tipuri de memorii intr-un router:
RAM
RAM is used to store various applications and processes including:
Cisco IOS - The IOS is copied into RAM during bootup.
Running configuration file - This is the configuration file that stores the
configuration commands that the router IOS is currently using. It is also
known as the running-config.
IP routing table - This file stores information about directlyconnected and remote networks. It is used to determine the best path to use to
forward packets.
ARP cache - This cache contains the IPv4 address to MAC address
mappings, similar to the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache on a PC. The
ARP cache is used on routers that have LAN interfaces, such as Ethernet
interfaces.
Packet buffer - Packets are temporarily stored in a buffer when
received on an interface or before they exit an interface.
ROM
Cisco routers use ROM to store:
Bootup instructions - Provides the startup instructions.
Basic diagnostic software - Performs the power-on self-test (POST) of
all components.

Limited IOS - Provides a limited backup version of the OS, in case the
router cannot load the full featured IOS.
NVRAM
NVRAM is used by the Cisco IOS as permanent storage for the startup
configuration file (startup-config). Like ROM, NVRAM does not lose its
contents when power is turned off.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is non-volatile computer memory used as permanent storage for the
IOS and other system related files. The IOS is copied from flash into RAM
during the bootup process.
A Cisco 1941 router includes the following connections:
Console ports - Two console ports for the initial configuration and
command-line interface (CLI) management access using a regular RJ-45 port and
a new USB Type-B (mini-B USB) connector.
AUX port - An RJ-45 port for remote management access; this is similar
to the Console port.
Two LAN interfaces - Two Gigabit Ethernet interfaces for LAN access.
Enhanced high-speed WAN interface card (EHWIC) slots - Two slots that
provide modularity and flexibility by enabling the router to support different
types of interface modules, including Serial, digital subscriber line (DSL),
switch port, and wireless.
The connections on a Cisco router can be grouped into two categories:
Management ports - These are the console and auxiliary ports used to
configure, manage, and troubleshoot the router. Unlike LAN and WAN interfaces,
management ports are not used for packet forwarding.
Inband Router interfaces - These are the LAN and WAN interfaces
configured with IP addressing to carry user traffic. Ethernet interfaces are
the most common LAN connections, while common WAN connections include serial
and DSL interfaces.
Similar to a Cisco switch, there are several ways to access the CLI
environment on a Cisco router. The most common methods are:
Console - Uses a low speed serial or USB connection to provide direct
connect, out-of-band management access to a Cisco device.
Telnet or SSH - Two methods for remotely accessing a CLI session
across an active network interface.
AUX port - Used for remote management of the router using a dial-up
telephone line and modem.

Cu ce vine cisco IOS:

Addressing
Interfaces
Routing
Security
QoS
Resources Management
Bootset Files:
IOS image file - The IOS facilitates the basic operation of the
devices hardware components. The IOS image file is stored in flash memory.
Startup configuration file - The startup configuration file contains
commands that are used to initially configure a router and create the running
configuration file stored in in RAM. The startup configuration file is stored
in NVRAM. All configuration changes are stored in the running configuration
file and are implemented immediately by the IOS.
There are three major phases to the bootup process that is shown in
Figure 1:
1. Perform the POST and load the bootstrap program.
2. Locate and load the Cisco IOS software.
3. Locate and load the startup configuration file or enter setup mode.
The output from the show version command includes:
IOS version - Version of the Cisco IOS software in RAM and that is
being used by the router.
ROM Bootstrap Program - Displays the version of the system bootstrap
software, stored in ROM that was initially used to boot up the router.
Location of IOS - Displays where the bootstrap program is located and
loaded the Cisco IOS, and the complete filename of the IOS image.
CPU and Amount of RAM - The first part of this line displays the type
of CPU on this router. The last part of this line displays the amount of DRAM.
Some series of routers, like the Cisco 1941 ISR, use a fraction of DRAM as
packet memory. Packet memory is used for buffering packets. To determine the
total amount of DRAM on the router, add both numbers.
Interfaces - Displays the physical interfaces on the router. In this
example, the Cisco 1941 ISR has two Gigabit Ethernet interfaces and two lowspeed serial interfaces.
Amount of NVRAM and Flash - This is the amount of NVRAM and the amount
of flash memory on the router. NVRAM is used to store the startup-config file
and flash is used to permanently store the Cisco IOS.
INITIAL CONFIG:
1. Assign a device name using the hostname global configuration command.
(Figure 1)
2. Set passwords. (Figure 2)

Secure privileged EXEC mode access using the enable secret command.
Secure EXEC mode access using the logincommand on the console port, and the
password command to set the password.
Secure virtual access similar to securing EXEC access mode, except on the
Virtual Teletype (VTY) port.
Use the service password-encryption global configuration command to prevent
passwords from displaying as plain text in the configuration file.
3. Provide legal notification using the banner motd (message of the day
[MOTD]) global configuration command. (Figure 3)
4. Save the configuration using the copy run start command. (Figure 4)
5. Verify the configuration using the show run command.
For routers to be reachable, router interfaces must be configured.
Therefore, to enable a specific interface, enter interface configuration mode
using the interface type-and-number global configuration mode command.
There are many different types of interfaces available on Cisco routers. In
this example, the Cisco 1941 router is equipped with two Gigabit Ethernet
interfaces and a serial WAN interface card (WIC) consisting of two interfaces;
the interfaces are named as follows:
Gigabit Ethernet 0/0 (G0/0)
Gigabit Ethernet 0/1 (G0/1)
Serial 0/0/0 (S0/0/0)
Serial 0/0/1 (S0/0/1)
To enable a router interface, configure the following:
IPv4 address and subnet mask - Configures the IP address and subnet mask using
the ip address ip-address subnet-mask interface configuration command.
Activate the interface - By default, LAN and WAN interfaces are not activated.
The interface must be activated using the no shutdown command. This is similar
to powering on the interface. The interface must also be connected to another
device (a hub, a switch, or another router) for the physical layer to be
active.
Although not required, it is good practice to configure a description on each
interface to help document the network information.
NU UITA DE FAZA CU DESCRIPTION, DUPA CE AI PUS IP-URILE PE INTERFETE.
O PUI ASA: interface f0/0
DESCRIPTION link to LAN1
SI ASTA O SA ITI DEA O DESCRIERE A INTERFETEI, GEN UNDE SE CONECTEAZA
EA.
COMENZI UTILE PENTRU A TE VERIFICA:
show ip route - Displays the contents of the IPv4 routing table stored
in RAM.
device.

show interfaces - Displays statistics for all interfaces on the

show ip interface - Displays the IPv4 statistics for all interfaces on

a router.
show ip interface brief

CE E ALA DEFAULT GATEWAY:

A default gateway is used by all devices that require the use of a router to
determine the best path to a remote destination.
ASA SE PUNE PE SWITCH:(ps asta e un exemplu, adresele pot fi mereu
altele)
S1(config)# interface vlan1
S1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.10.50 255.255.255.0
S1(config-if )# no shut
S1(config)# ip default-gateway 192.168.10.1

SUMMARY:
The network layer, or OSI Layer 3, provides services to allow end devices to
exchange data across the network. To accomplish this end-to-end transport, the
network layer uses four basic processes: IP addressing for end devices,
encapsulation, routing, and de-encapsulation.
The Internet is largely based on IPv4, which is still the most widely-used
network layer protocol. An IPv4 packet contains the IP header and the payload.
However, IPv4 has a limited number of unique public IP addresses available.
This led to the development of IP version 6 (IPv6). The IPv6 simplified header
offers several advantages over IPv4, including better routing efficiency,
simplified extension headers, and capability for per-flow processing. Plus,
IPv6 addresses are based on 128-bit hierarchical addressing as opposed to IPv4
with 32 bits. This dramatically increases the number of available IP
addresses.
In addition to hierarchical addressing, the network layer is also responsible
for routing.
Hosts require a local routing table to ensure that packets are directed to the
correct destination network. The local table of a host typically contains the
direct connection, the local network route and the local default route. The
local default route is the route to the default gateway.
The default gateway is the IP address of a router interface connected to the
local network. When a host needs to forward a packet to a destination address
that is not on the same network as the host, the packet is sent to the default
gateway for further processing.
When a router, such as the default gateway, receives a packet, it examines the
destination IP address to determine the destination network. The routing table
of a router stores information about directly-connected routes and remote
routes to IP networks. If the router has an entry in its routing table for the
destination network, the router forwards the packet. If no routing entry
exists, the router may forward the packet to its own default route, if one is
configured, or it will drop the packet.
Routing table entries can be configured manually on each router to provide
static routing or the routers may communicate route information dynamically
between each other using a routing protocol.

In order for routers to be reachable, the router interface must be configured.

To enable a specific interface, enter interface configuration mode using the
interface type-and-number global configuration mode command.