Modeling and Similarity

Example 1: You have been commissioned to

conduct a series of experiments to determine
the drag on a supersonic aircraft. More
particularly, your client would like for you to
tell him which system parameters affect drag
and whether they increase or decrease the
drag.
How do we determine whats really important?

Buckingham Pi Theorem
An equation involving k independent variables
and r reference dimensions can be reduced to
a relationship in k-r independent parameters.
In other words, instead of having to worry
about k variables, whats really important in
describing the physical phenomena are the k-r
parameters.
The k-r parameters are called pi terms.

Buckingham Pi Theorem
The k variables are things like density, pressure,
temperature, velocity, viscosity, etc.
The r reference dimensions are either
Length L, Mass M, and Time T, or
Length L, Force F, and Time T.
Pick one system (M, L, T) or (F, L, T) and be consistent.

The number of reference dimensions for a

particular problem depends on the dimensions in
the relevant variables.

Buckingham Pi Theorem
Example: we are interested in the drag over a
submerged sphere.
The relevant variables would be density, velocity,
viscosity, diameter, and drag.
Therefore, k=5.
Reference dimensions

Density = kg/m3 or M/L3.

Drag = N or kg(m/s2) or ML/T2.
Velocity = m/s or L/T.
Viscosity = Ns/m2 or FT/L2 or (ML/T2)(T/L2) or M/LT.
Diameter = m or L.
Therefore, r=3.

The minimum number of relevant parameters is

k-r = 5-3 = 2

Determination of PI terms
List all independent variables involved in the
problem
Geometry - size, length, etc.
Fluid properties density, viscosity, temperature
External effects pressure, forces

Express each variable in terms of the basic

dimensions (either LMT or LFT)
Choose whichever is simplest for the particular
problem.

Determine the number of required PI terms

from the Buckingham PI theorem

Determination of PI terms
Select a number of repeating variables
The number of repeating variables will be equal to the
number of relevant dimensions
The repeating variables should be dimensionally
independent
i.e., you cant express the dimensions of one repeating variable in
terms of the dimensions of the others.

The repeating variables will be used to express the

remaining variables as groups of dimensionless PI terms.
Since we usually want to see how one variable is
influenced by another, dont choose either as a repeating
variable. (For example, we might wish to see how drag is
influenced by velocity.)
For convenience, choose variables having the simplest
dimensions.

Determination of PI terms
Form PI terms:
1

u1

u2

etc.

where the us are non-repeating variables.

Express final form as relationship between PI
terms:
1
1, 2 ,..., i

Example
Newtonian fluid flows through a long, smoothwalled pipe. We are interested in what factors
affect the pressure drop per unit length?
1. List variables of interest: pressure drop per unit
length, viscosity, density, diameter, fluid velocity.

pl

f D, , ,V

2. Write variables in terms of their basic

dimensions

Example
F 1
L2 L

pl
D

F
L3

L
M FT 2
L3
L4
FT
L2
L
T

Example
Determine the number of PI terms
k=5, r=3

we need 2 PI terms

Select the repeating variables

D, V, are simple, have all relevant dimensions,
are dimensionally independent, and dont use the
dependent variable.

Find the required PI terms

Example
pl D aV b

F a L
L
3
T
L

FT 2
L2

DaV b

L: 0

3 a

T: 0

L: 0

4c

2 a

T: 0 1 b

2c

a 1

F: 0 1 c

F: 0 1 c

pl D1V

FT a L
L
T
L2

pl

D
V2

pl

D
V2

D 1V

VD

b 4c
2c

VD

FT 2
L2

Notes
Form of the function must be theoretically or
empirically determined.
A crude theory may be needed to determine
the relevant variables.
Be sure to include all physically important
quantities even if they are not variable, e.g.,
gravity.
Make sure that all variables are independent.

Common Dimensionless Groups

V 2L

We
M
St

inertial forces
viscous forces

VD

Re

V
c
L
V

inertial forces
surface tension
inertial forces
compressibility

Reynolds number
Weber number
Mach number

local inertial forces

Strouhal number
convective inertial forces

Modeling
If a problem has only 1 PI term, the PI term
should be held constant between the
experiment and real situation.
If a problem involves 2 or more PI terms, then
one PI term at a time should be varied in the
experiment while holding the others constant.
Using this method, the functional dependence
between the PI terms can be determined.

Similarity and Modeling

Model
a lab device used to obtain information about a
real/proposed device.
Typically, the model will be reduced scale.
How do we design the model/experiment so that the
results will be applicable to the real/proposed device?
Similarity.

Kinematic Similarity Model needs to be the

same shape, have the same angle of attack, etc.
as the actual device.
Dynamic Similarity Flow phenomena (e.g.,
turbulent/laminar, supersonic/subsonic, etc.)
should be the same.

Similarity and Modeling

Validation predictions using model results
should be verified, if possible, using the
prototype.
If the model and the prototype results agree for a few
test cases, the model results can be safely used.
This might be done with a variety of models to see if
one model predicts the results for another.

Distorted models sometimes similarity cant be

completely achieved.
Better than nothing, but
Interpret results carefully!

Modeling and Similarity

Assuming that the functional dependence
between PI terms is the same for the model
and prototype, the following modeling laws
apply
2,

2m ,

1m

if

2m ,

then

3 ,...,

k r 1

3 m ,...,
3

1m .

3m ,

for the prototype

k r 1m

for the model

k r 1

k r 1m

Example
Consider the aerodynamic drag on a thin,
rectangular plate having dimensions w x h.
The Buckingham PI theorem yields the
following relationship between PI terms
D
w2 V 2

w Vw
,
h

We would like to design an experiment that

uses a model to represent the actual situation.
We might want to use water instead of air, or
We might wish to use a different size plate.

Example
Similarity between the model and the
prototype requires that
wm
hm
wm

w
and
h

mVmw m

w
hm and Vm
h

Vw

m
m

w
wm

V
m

So, we can choose the height of the model

plate, but its width must scale proportionally,
and
We can choose the working fluid, but we must
increase or decrease the velocity accordingly.

Example
Finally, how is the drag measured in the model
experiment related to the drag for the
prototype?
D
D
m

D=

wm

w
wm

2
V
m m

Dm
2

wm

or

mVm

V
Vm

Dm