Geologic time scale

230-65 Ma:
Dinosaurs

2 Ma:
First Hominids

1 Terminology

4550 Ma:
Hominids
Mammals
Land plants
Animals
Multicellular life
4527 Ma:
Eukaryotes
Formation of the Moon
Prokaryotes

ca. 380 Ma:

First vertebrate land animals
ca. 530 Ma:
Cambrian explosion
251

Ma

a
M
2
54

4.6 Ga

The largest dened unit of time is the supereon, composed of eons. Eons are divided into eras, which are in
turn divided into periods, epochs and ages. The terms
eonothem, erathem, system, series, and stage are used to
refer to the layers of rock that correspond to these periods
of geologic time in Earths history.

ca. 4000 Ma: End of the

Late Heavy Bombardment;
first life

Ha
de
an

4 Ga

3.8

ca. 3500 Ma:

Photosynthesis starts

Ga

ic

zo

leo

ozoic

Mes

Pa

Cenozoic

750-635 Ma:
Two Snowball Earths

65 Ma

1 Ga

oic

oz

ter

Arc
hea

Pro

Geologists qualify these units as Early, Mid, and Late

when referring to time, and Lower, Middle, and Upper
when referring to the corresponding rocks. For example, the Lower Jurassic Series in chronostratigraphy corresponds to the Early Jurassic Epoch in geochronology.[3]
The adjectives are capitalized when the subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus early
Miocene but Early Jurassic.

3 Ga

2 Ga

a
2.5 G

ca. 2300 Ma:

Atmosphere becomes oxygen-rich;
first Snowball Earth

Geologic units from the same time but dierent parts

of the world often look dierent and contain dierent
fossils, so the same period was historically given dierent
names in dierent locales. For example, in North America the Lower Cambrian is called the Waucoban series
that is then subdivided into zones based on succession of
trilobites. In East Asia and Siberia, the same unit is split
into Alexian, Atdabanian, and Botomian stages. A key
aspect of the work of the International Commission on
Stratigraphy is to reconcile this conicting terminology
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of and dene universal horizons that can be used around
chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to the world.[4]
time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other
Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships
between events that have occurred throughout Earths
history. The table of geologic time spans presented 2 History and nomenclature of the
here agrees with the nomenclature, dates and standard
time scale
color codes set forth by the International Commission on
Stratigraphy.
Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is Main articles: History of geology and History of paleonabout 4.54 billion years old. The geology or deep time tology
of Earths past has been organized into various units ac- In Ancient Greece, Aristotle saw that fossil seashells
cording to events which took place in each period. Dif- from rocks were similar to those found on the beach
ferent spans of time on the GTS are usually delimited by and inferred that the fossils were once part of living anichanges in the composition of strata which correspond mals. He reasoned that the positions of land and sea had
to them, indicating major geological or paleontological changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci
view that fossils were the reevents, such as mass extinctions. For example, the bound- concurred with Aristotles
[5]
mains
of
ancient
life.
ary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene
This clock representation shows some of the major units of geological time and denitive events of Earth history. The Hadean
eon represents the time before fossil record of life on Earth; its
upper boundary is now regarded as 4.0 Ga (billion years ago).[1]
Other subdivisions reect the evolution of life; the Archean and
Proterozoic are both eons, the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
are eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The two million year Quaternary period, the time of recognizable humans, is too small to be
visible at this scale.

period is dened by the CretaceousPaleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian
dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time
spans which predate the reliable fossil record (before the
Proterozoic Eon) are dened by the absolute age.

The 11th-century Persian geologist Avicenna (Ibn Sina)

and the 13th century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (Albert of Saxony) extended Aristotles explanation
into a theory of a petrifying uid.[6] Avicenna also rst
proposed one of the principles underlying geologic time
1

2 HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE OF THE TIME SCALE

in the late 18th century. The most inuential of those
early attempts (championed by Abraham Werner, among
others) divided the rocks of Earths crust into four types:
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each
type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a
specic period in Earth history. It was thus possible
to speak of a Tertiary Period as well as of Tertiary
Rocks. Indeed, Tertiary (now Paleogene and Neogene) and Quaternary (now Pleistocene and Holocene)
remained in use as names of geological periods well into
the 20th century.

Graphical representation of Earths history as a spiral

A comparative geological timescale

scales, the law of superposition of strata, while discussing

the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing in
1027.[7][8] The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (10311095)
also recognized the concept of deep time.[9]
The principles underlying geologic (geological) time
scales were later laid down by Nicholas Steno in the late
17th century. Steno argued that rock layers (or strata)
are laid down in succession, and that each represents a
slice of time. He also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is probably
older than those above it and younger than those below it.
While Stenos principles were simple, applying them to
real rocks proved complex. Over the course of the 18th
century geologists realized that:
1. Sequences of strata were often eroded, distorted,
tilted, or even inverted after deposition;
2. Strata laid down at the same time in dierent areas
could have entirely dierent appearances;
3. The strata of any given area represented only part of
Earths long history.
The rst serious attempts to formulate a geological time
scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made

The Neptunist theories popular at this time (expounded

by Werner) proposed that all rocks had precipitated out of
a single enormous ood. A major shift in thinking came
when James Hutton presented his Theory of the Earth;
or, an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the
Globe before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March
and April 1785. It has been said that as things appear from the perspective of the 20th century, James
Hutton in those readings became the founder of modern
geology.[10] Hutton proposed that the interior of Earth
was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove
the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new
lands. This theory was called Plutonist in contrast to
the Neptunist ood-oriented theory.
The identication of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier,
Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brogniart in the
early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely. It also enabled them to correlate
strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If
two strata (however distant in space or dierent in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good
that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed
studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils
of Europe produced the sequence of geological periods
still used today.
The process was dominated by British geologists, and the
names of the periods reect that dominance. The Cambrian, (the classical name for Wales) and the Ordovician, and Silurian, named after ancient Welsh tribes,
were periods dened using stratigraphic sequences from
Wales.[11] The Devonian was named for the English
county of Devon, and the name Carboniferous was simply an adaptation of the Coal Measures, the old British
geologists term for the same set of strata. The Permian was named after Perm, Russia, because it was
dened using strata in that region by Scottish geologist
Roderick Murchison. However, some periods were dened by geologists from other countries. The Triassic was named in 1834 by a German geologist Friedrich
Von Alberti from the three distinct layers (Latin trias
meaning triad) red beds, capped by chalk, followed
by black shales that are found throughout Germany

3
and Northwest Europe, called the Trias. The Jurassic
was named by a French geologist Alexandre Brogniart
for the extensive marine limestone exposures of the Jura
Mountains. The Cretaceous (from Latin creta meaning
chalk) as a separate period was rst dened by Belgian
geologist Jean dOmalius dHalloy in 1822, using strata
in the Paris basin[12] and named for the extensive beds of
chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates).
British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into Eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In 1841 John
Phillips published the rst global geological time scale
based on the types of fossils found in each era. Phillips
scale helped standardize the use of terms like Paleozoic
(old life) which he extended to cover a larger period
than it had in previous usage, and Mesozoic (middle life)
which he invented.[13]
When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell rst recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, time scales could be estimated only very imprecisely
since various kinds of rates of change used in estimation were highly variable. While creationists had been
proposing dates of around six or seven thousand years
for the age of Earth based on the Bible, early geologists were suggesting millions of years for geologic periods with some even suggesting a virtually innite age
for Earth. Geologists and paleontologists constructed the
geologic table based on the relative positions of dierent strata and fossils, and estimated the time scales based
on studying rates of various kinds of weathering, erosion,
sedimentation, and lithication. Until the discovery of
radioactivity in 1896 and the development of its geological applications through radiometric dating during the
rst half of the 20th century (pioneered by such geologists as Arthur Holmes) which allowed for more precise
absolute dating of rocks, the ages of various rock strata
and the age of Earth were the subject of considerable debate.

3 Condensed graphical timelines

The following four timelines show the geologic time scale.
The rst shows the entire time from the formation of the
Earth to the present, but this compresses the most recent
eon. Therefore the second scale shows the most recent
eon with an expanded scale. The second scale compresses
the most recent era, so the most recent era is expanded
in the third scale. Since the Quaternary is a very short
period with short epochs, it is further expanded in the
fourth scale. The second, third, and fourth timelines are
therefore each subsections of their preceding timeline as
indicated by asterisks. The Holocene (the latest epoch)
is too small to be shown clearly on the third timeline on
the right, another reason for expanding the fourth scale.
The Pleistocene (P) epoch. Q stands for the Quaternary
period.
Millions of Years

4 Table of geologic time

The following table summarizes the major events and
characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. As above, this time scale is based on
the International Commission on Stratigraphy. (See lunar
geologic timescale for a discussion of the geologic subdivisions of Earths moon.) This table is arranged with
the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the most
ancient at the bottom. The height of each table entry
does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision
of time.

The content of the table is based on the current ocial geologic time scale of the International Commission
on Stratigraphy,[18] with the epoch names altered to the
early/late format from lower/upper as recommended by
[3]
The rst geologic time scale that included absolute the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.
dates was published in 1913 by the British geologist A service providing a Resource Description FrameArthur Holmes.[14] He greatly furthered the newly cre- work/Web Ontology Language representation of the
ated discipline of geochronology and published the world timescale is available through the Commission for the
renowned book The Age of the Earth in which he esti- Management and Application of Geoscience Information
mated Earths age to be at least 1.6 billion years.[15]
GeoSciML project as a service[19] and at a SPARQL end[20][21]
In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the point.
International Commission on Stratigraphy) started an effort to dene global references known as GSSP (Global
Boundary Stratotype Sections and Point)s for geologic
periods and faunal stages. The commissions most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of
Gradstein et al.[16] A UML model for how the timescale
is structured, relating it to the GSSP, is also available.[17]

v
t
e
Geologic time scale

5 SEE ALSO

4.1

Proposed Precambrian timeline

The ICSs Geologic Time Scale 2012 book which includes

the new approved time scale also displays a proposal to
substantially revise the Precambrian time scale to reect
important events such as the formation of the Earth or
the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the
same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.[39]

Mesoproterozoic Era 1780850 MYA

Rodinian Period 1780850 MYA
named after the supercontinent Rodinia,
stable environment[39]
Neoproterozoic Era 850541 MYA
Cryogenian Period 850635 MYA
named for the occurrence of several
glaciations[39]
Ediacaran Period 635541 MYA

Hadean Eon 46004030 MYA

Chaotian Era 46004404 MYA the name Shown to scale:

alluding both to the mythological Chaos and Compare with the current ocial one:
the chaotic phase of planet formation[39][40][41]
Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era 44044030
MYA both names allude to the Jack Hills
Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest
mineral grains on Earth, zircons[39][40]
Archean Eon 40302420 MYA
Paleoarchean Era 40303490 MYA
Acastan Period 40303810 MYA
named after the Acasta Gneiss[39][40]
Isuan Period 38103490 MYA named
after the Isua Greenstone Belt[39]
Mesoarchean Era 34902780 MYA
Vaalbaran Period 34903020 MYA a
portmanteau based on the names of the
Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara
(Western Australia) cratons[39]
Pongolan Period 30202780 MYA
named after the Pongola Supergroup[39]
Neoarchean Era 27802420 MYA
Methanian Period 27802630 MYA
named for the inferred predominance of
methanotrophic prokaryotes[39]
Siderian Period 26302420 MYA
named for the voluminous banded iron
formations formed within its duration[39]
Proterozoic Eon 2420541 MYA
Paleoproterozoic Era 24201780 MYA
Oxygenian Period 24202250 MYA
named for displaying the rst evidence for
a global oxidizing atmosphere[39]
Jatulian or Eukaryian Period 2250
2060 MYA names are respectively
for the LomagundiJatuli 13 C isotopic
excursion event spanning its duration,
and for the rst fossil appearance of
eukaryotes[39]
Columbian Period 20601780 MYA
named after the supercontinent
Columbia[39]

5 See also
Age of the Earth
Anthropocene
Bubno unit
Deep time
Evolutionary history of life
Geological history of Earth
Geology of Mars/areology
Geon
Graphical timeline of the universe
History of the Earth
History of geology
History of paleontology
List of fossil sites
Logarithmic timeline
Lunar geologic timescale
Natural history
New Zealand geologic time scale
Prehistoric life
Timeline of the Big Bang
Timeline of evolution
Timeline of the geologic history of the United States
Timeline of human evolution
Timeline of natural history
Timeline of paleontology

Notes and references

[1] International Commission on Stratigraphy

stratigraphy.org, retrieved 9 March 2009.

[20] Simon J. D. Cox. SPARQL endpoint for CGI timescale

service. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
2008:

[2] Cohen, K.M., Finney, S., Gibbard, P.L. (2013),

International Chronostratigraphic Chart, International
Commission on Stratigraphy.
[3] International Commission on Stratigraphy. Chronostratigraphic Units. International Stratigraphic Guide. Accessed 14 December 2009. stratigraphy.org
[4] Statutes of the International Commission on Stratigraphy,
retrieved 26 November 2009
[5] Correlating Earths History, Paul R. Janke
[6] Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985). The Meaning of Fossils:
Episodes in the History of Palaeontology. University of
Chicago Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-226-73103-0.
[7] Fischer, Alfred G.; Garrison, Robert E. (2009). The
role of the Mediterranean region in the development of sedimentary geology: A historical overview.
Sedimentology 56: 3. Bibcode:2009Sedim..56....3F.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01009.x.
[8] Quoted in The contribution of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to the
development of the Earth Sciences, among other sources
[9] Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reections. Brookeld, Vermont: Ashgate
Publishing Variorum series. III, 2324.
[10] John McPhee, Basin and Range, New York:Farrar, Straus
and Giroux, 1981, pp. 95100.
[11] John McPhee, Basin and Range, pp. 113114.
[12] Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow:
Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. 1974. vol. 16, p. 50.
[13] Rudwick, Martin Worlds Before Adam: The Reconstruction of Geohistory in the Age of Reform (2008) pp. 539
545
[14] Geologic Time Scale
[15] How the discovery of geologic time changed our view of
the world, Bristol University
[16] Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, Alan G. Smith (Editors); A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University
Press, 2005, (ISBN 0-521-78673-8)

[21] Simon J. D. Cox, Stephen M. Richard. A geologic

timescale ontology and service. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
[22] Paleontologists often refer to faunal stages rather than geologic (geological) periods. The stage nomenclature is
quite complex. For an excellent time-ordered list of faunal stages, see The Paleobiology Database. Retrieved
2006-03-19.
[23] Dates are slightly uncertain with dierences of a few percent between various sources being common. This is
largely due to uncertainties in radiometric dating and the
problem that deposits suitable for radiometric dating seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column
where they would be most useful. The dates and errors
quoted above are according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy 2012 time scale. Where errors are
not quoted, errors are less than the precision of the age
given. Dates labeled with a * indicate boundaries where
a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point has been
internationally agreed upon: see List of Global Boundary
Stratotype Sections and Points for a complete list.
[24] References to the Post-Cambrian Supereon are not universally accepted, and therefore must be considered unofcial.
[25] Historically, the Cenozoic has been divided up into the
Quaternary and Tertiary sub-eras, as well as the Neogene
and Paleogene periods. The 2009 version of the ICS time
chart recognizes a slightly extended Quaternary as well as
the Paleogene and a truncated Neogene, the Tertiary having been demoted to informal status.
[26] NASA Scientists React to 400 ppm Carbon Milestone.
Retrieved 2014-01-15
[27] Royer, Dana L. (2006). CO
2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic (PDF). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70
(23): 566575.
Bibcode:2006GeCoA..70.5665R.
doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.11.031.
[28] For more information on this, see Atmosphere of
Earth#Evolution of Earths atmosphere, Carbon dioxide
in the Earths atmosphere, and climate change. Specic graphs of reconstructed CO2 levels over the past
~550, 65, and 5 million years can be seen at Image:
Phanerozoic_Carbon_Dioxide.png, Image:65 Myr Climate Change.png, Image:Five Myr Climate Change.png,
respectively.

[17] Cox, Simon J. D.; Richard, Stephen M. (2005). A formal

model for the geologic time scale and global stratotype
section and point, compatible with geospatial information
transfer standards. Geosphere (The Geological Society
of America) 1 (3): 119137. doi:10.1130/GES00022.1.
Retrieved 31 December 2012.

[29] The start time for the Holocene epoch is here given as
11,700 years ago. For further discussion of the dating of
this epoch, see Holocene.

[18] International Stratigraphic Chart. International Commission on Stratigraphy. Retrieved 2009-09-25.

[31] The Precambrian is also known as Cryptozoic.

[19] Geologic Timescale Elements in the International

Chronostratigraphic Chart. Retrieved 2014-08-03.

[30] In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into

Mississippian and Pennsylvanian Periods.

[32] The Proterozoic, Archean and Hadean are often collectively referred to as the Precambrian Time or sometimes,
also the Cryptozoic.

[33] Dened by absolute age (Global Standard Stratigraphic

Age).
[34] The age of the oldest measurable craton, or continental
crust, is dated to 36003800 Ma
[35] Though commonly used, the Hadean is not a formal eon
and no lower bound for the Archean and Eoarchean have
been agreed upon. The Hadean has also sometimes been
called the Priscoan or the Azoic. Sometimes, the Hadean
can be found to be subdivided according to the lunar geologic time scale. These eras include the Cryptic and Basin
Groups (which are subdivisions of the Pre-Nectarian era),
Nectarian, and Early Imbrian units.
[36] These unit names were taken from the Lunar geologic
timescale and refer to geologic events that did not occur on
Earth. Their use for Earth geology is unocial. Note that
their start times do not dovetail perfectly with the later,
terrestrially dened boundaries.
[37] Bowring, Samuel A.; Williams, Ian S. (1999). Priscoan
(4.004.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern
Canada.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 134 (1): 3.
Bibcode:1999CoMP..134....3B.
doi:10.1007/s004100050465. The oldest rock on Earth
is the Acasta Gneiss, and it dates to 4.03 Ga, located in
the Northwest Territories of Canada.

EXTERNAL LINKS

York; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 0-521-78142-6. Retrieved 18 November
2011 Paperback ISBN 0-521-78673-8
Gradstein, Felix M., Ogg, James G., Smith, Alan G.,
Bleeker, Wouter & Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004).
A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference
to Precambrian and Neogene. Episodes 27 (2): 83
100. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Knoll, Andrew H., Walter, Malcolm R., Narbonne, Guy M., Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30
July 2004). A New Period for the Geologic
Time Scale. Science 305 (5684): 621622.
doi:10.1126/science.1098803. PMID 15286353.
Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Levin, Harold L. (2010). Time and Geology. The
Earth Through Time. Hoboken, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

8 External links
NASA: Geologic Time

[38] Geology.wisc.edu

GSA: Geologic Time Scale

[39] Van Kranendonk, Martin J. (2012). 16: A Chronostratigraphic Division of the Precambrian: Possibilities and
Challenges. In Felix M. Gradstein, James G. Ogg, Mark
D. Schmitz and Gabi M. Ogg. The geologic time scale
2012 (1st ed. ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 359365.
ISBN 978-0-44-459425-9.

British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart

[40] Goldblatt, C.; K. J. Zahnle; N. H. Sleep; E. G. Nisbet

(2010). The Eons of Chaos and Hades. Solid Earth
(Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union) 1: 13.

Chronos.org

[41] Chambers, John E. (July 2004).

Planetary accretion in the inner Solar System.
Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 223 (34):
241252.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.031.

SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems Information

model for the geologic time scale

Episodes, Gradstein, Felix M. et al. (2004) A new

Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene, Episodes, Vol. 27, no. 2
June 2004 (pdf)

Further reading
Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A;
Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian
R; Owen, Donald E; & Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard. Stratigraphy
6 (2): 100105. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (2004). A Geologic
Time scale 2004 Why, How and Where Next!. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Gradstein, Felix M., Ogg, James G. & Smith, Alan
G. (2004). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. New

GeoWhen Database
International Commission on Stratigraphy Time
Scale

National Museum of Natural History Geologic

Time

Exploring Time from Planck Time to the lifespan of

the universe

Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937.

Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time
Lessons for Children on Geologic Time
Deep Time A History of the Earth : Interactive
Infographic

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Geologic time scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic%20time%20scale?oldid=644790804 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Vicki

Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tarquin, Sjc, Andre Engels, Scipius, William Avery, Rcingham, Dwheeler, Modemac,
Bignose, Quercusrobur, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Erik Zachte, Menchi, Ixfd64, Looxix, Mac, Glenn, Andres, Rob Hooft, Ec5618, Dixi,
RickK, Andrewman327, The Anomebot, Dragons ight, SEWilco, EikwaR, Slawojarek, Shantavira, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Altenmann,
Dittaeva, Nurg, Lowellian, Casito, Pengo, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Jyril, Kenny sh, Waltpohl, Gilgamesh, Guanaco, Just Another Dan, John
Abbe, Wmahan, Pgan002, Keith Edkins, Antandrus, Garth 187, Williamb, Beland, Gauss, GeoGreg, Karl-Henner, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, ZZyXx, Urhixidur, Kjv31, Pinnerup, Spiy sperry, DanielCD, Moverton, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Lejean2000, Vsmith, Martpol, Paul August, Bender235, RJHall, MBisanz, Cedders, Marcok, Triona, NickW, Bobo192, Evolauxia, Brim, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc,
Sam Korn, Orangemarlin, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Grutness, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Mitchowen, 119, Antman, Monado, Lightdarkness, Bart133, Burwellian, Samohyl Jan, EagleFalconn, Wtmitchell, KingTT, Peter B., Knowledge Seeker, Dinoguy2, Cmapm, Alaudo,
Stemonitis, Nicklott, Woohookitty, Yansa, Matijap, MONGO, Eleassar777, Karmosin, M Alan Kazlev, Mekong Bluesman, Stevey7788,
Graham87, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, JCHYSK, Koavf, DeadlyAssassin, Kalogeropoulos, Plastictv, Sango123, Dracontes, Jamesmusik, CarolGray, Gurch, Chobot, Mordicai, DVdm, Gdrbot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Fabartus, Splash, Bergsten,
Yamara, Dr Shorthair, Amcguire, Chaos, Rsrikanth05, Abarry, Wimt, Thane, Lusanaherandraton, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf,
Dialectric, Phoenix79, Fradeve11, Mccready, Sir48, Botteville, Genjix, FF2010, Closedmouth, Fang Aili, Sairjohn, GraemeL, Bluezy,
Mmcannis, JDspeeder1, Mejor Los Indios, Eog1916, Snalwibma, Attilios, RupertMillard, SmackBot, MattieTK, Enlil Ninlil, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jagged 85, Geo.powers, Delldot, Hardyplants, RobotJcb, Onebravemonkey, SmartGuy Old, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, JAn Dudk,
Persian Poet Gal, Ben.c.roberts, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Sirex98, Thumperward, SchftyThree, Dlohcierekims sock, Viva-Verdi, Colonies
Chris, Chendy, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Timothy Clemans, Erzahler, Xiner, Stevenmitchell, Nameless pl, Nakon, alyosha, Newsmare, Mwtoews, Daniel.Cardenas, Springnuts, Bejnar, Ollj, Bcasterline, Reformist, Scientizzle, JoshuaZ, Minna Sora no Shita, Scetoaux,
Railsmart, Smith609, Ghelae, Geologyguy, LaMenta3, Hu12, Lucid, JeW, Iridescent, Bdusel, IvanLanin, Menswear, Tawkerbot2, Dia^,
Ale jrb, Lavateraguy, Agathman, Dr.Bastedo, Lentower, Yopienso, Karenjc, Chris83, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Alan clayton, Longhornsg, Chasingsol, Codetiger, JoshHolloway, Optimist on the run, Daven200520, Greeneto, Daniel Olsen, Ventifact, Maziotis, Likearock, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Parsa, Tsogo3, Selyabd, Najro, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, The Obento Musubi, Luna Santin, Seaphoto,
QuiteUnusual, Dr. Blofeld, TimVickers, Dylan Lake, Tim Shuba, Leuqarte, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Husond, DuncanHill, MER-C, Dozla, Instinct, Arch dude, Somarinoa, Acroterion, Magioladitis, EvilPizza, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MartinDK, Sushant gupta, Hasek is
the best, Shythylacine, Rusty Cashman, Cgingold, Nubula, Deadly lava2006, NatureA16, MartinBot, Rettetast, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Timvireo, Rrostrom, Hans Dunkelberg, Athaenara, GeoWriter, Shawn in Montreal, McSly, Lunokhod,
GaborLajos, Nwbeeson, MKoltnow, Jorfer, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, RB972, Treisijs, Wae411, ThePointblank, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Pannydragon, VolkovBot, RingtailedFox, Nburden, Bacchus87, Philip Trueman, Zamphuor, Scilit, 2002champs, Qxz, Steven J.
Anderson, Dendodge, Canaima, Jackfork, ^demonBot2, BotKung, Autodidactyl, Eubulides, Peter ja shaw, Jpeeling, Synthebot, Thisisverywierd3465, Twooars, Quantpole, W4chris, Hrafn, SieBot, Triwbe, Piplz, Keilana, Toddst1, Flyer22, Ihateduncan, Wilson44691,
Lightmouse, Unifyer, Orcoteuthis, Spotty11222, CP2002, Ptr123, Babakathy, ClueBot, NickCT, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Arakunem, Der Golem, CounterVandalismBot, Okay12, Awickert, Excirial, Alexbot, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, AbJ32, 1ForTheMoney,
James.mcd.nz, NJGW, Katanada, Qwfp, BodhisattvaBot, Dthomsen8, Nepenthes, Anturiaethwr, WikHead, Nicolae Coman, NellieBly,
Thankyousir8, Aunt Entropy, Eveilaje, Anktuman, Addbot, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, GargoyleBot, Fieldday-sunday,
Cst17, Download, CarsracBot, Glane23, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, J. Johnson, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81,
II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Sanyi4, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, QueenCake, Untrue Believer, Azcolvin429, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT,
Marioguy124, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Mel 23, Jntg4Games, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Poetaris,
Jmundo, IAMSka, J04n, Abce2, Dirrival, Benny 919, Omnipaedista, Mathonius, Geopersona, Legobot III, FrescoBot, Micheletb, Tobby72,
EmilTyf, Devonta1213, Killian441, DrilBot, Pinethicket, Edderso, Abductive, 10metreh, Tom.Reding, Jschnur, VinnyXY, Dude1818,
Hardwigg, , Wotnow, Fama Clamosa, ItsZippy, Lotje, Seahorseruler, Tyvynain, Weedwhacker128, Suusion of Yellow,
Sideways713, Whisky drinker, RjwilmsiBot, Nessynessy1, Ntsloan, Byron.goodman, Look2See1, Looteras, Nachosan, Syncategoremata,
GoingBatty, RA0808, Chermundy, RenamedUser01302013, Jrc494, EWikist, Amish 01, Wayne Slam, L1A1 FAL, Keephappyheyheyhey, Orange Suede Sofa, MikaelFen, Kleopatra, Teaktl17, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Mountainguyspeaks, Gilderien, PaleCloudedWhite,
ScottSteiner, Marechal Ney, Widr, Sophia geo, Vladdy321, Alireza1984e, Helpful Pixie Bot, Doctorwho123456, Titodutta, Bibcode Bot,
2001:db8, WNYY98, Kinaro, BG19bot, Kevo1cat, Chrisjohnston24, Cadiomals, Gorthian, Harizotoh9, Hibob101, Mooooodddddd, Soldier9221, Zacharyjgray, Pseudofusulina, Cobenv, Gooklayfritoss, ChrisGualtieri, Bobwillom, Mediran, Soulbust, Kelvinsong, Dexbot,
Mogism, Ivanpogi, Sriharsh1234, Godzilliafreak, Johnsmith1826, Bill gates22, Gia Amelie, DavidLeighEllis, BigCat82, Br'er rabbitons,
Quenhitran, Stoprightnow, Monkbot, Vieque, Davidnelson1999, IAreC4, Dylan59buick, Dylanvernon, CapnBellamy and Anonymous: 561

9.2

Images

File:Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Geologic_Clock_

with_events_and_periods.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Geologic_clock.jpg Original artist:
Woudloper
File:Geological_Time_Scale.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/72/Geological_Time_Scale.png License: PD Contributors:
Created by the contributor.
Original artist:
Richard S. Murphy, Jr.
File:Geological_time_spiral.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Geological_time_spiral.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Graham, Joseph, Newman, William, and Stacy, John, 2008, The geologic time spiralA path to the past
(ver. 1.1): U.S. Geological Survey General Information Product 58, poster, 1 sheet. Available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/2008/58/
Original artist: United States Geological Survey

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:MontreGousset001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/MontreGousset001.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Self-published work by ZA Original artist: Isabelle Grosjean ZA
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:S Sepp

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0