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6.5
1.1
1.2
1.3
DAMPING
1.4
1.5
Characteristic equation
1.6
1.7
2.1
MEASUREMENT
The log decrement method
2.1.1
Under damped system
2.1.2
Measurement over more than one cycle.
2.2 Added mass method
3
3.1
STIFFNESS
Combination of springs
5
5
5
10
11
5
6
6
6
5.1
STABILITY
Stable
5.2
Unstable, divergent
5.3
Flutter
6.1
HARMONIC EXCITATION
Equation of motion
6.2
6.3
6.4
Resonance
10
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6.5.1
Equation of motion
6.5.2
Particular Solution
6.5.3
The Complementary Solution
6.5.4
The Complete Solution
6.5.5
Transient and steady state responses
7
RESONANCE IN DAMPED SYSTEMS
8
ALTERNATIVE solution methods
8.1 The geometrical method.
3.1.1
Springs in parallel
3.1.2
Springs in series
4
MODELLING AND ENERGY METHODS
4.1 A vertical spring-mass system
12
6
6
7
13
14
15
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
8.2
12
8.3
12
13
9.1
13
ROTATING IMBALANCE
MEASUREMENT
11.1 Transducers
14
14
11.2 Accelerometers
14
15
15
15
16
FOURIER TRASFORM
13.1 Fourier Series
16
17
17
18
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14
15
16
18
Mass, m
Friction-free surface
Equilibrium
x(t ) = n2 x(t )
(1)
is
the
acceleration
(m/s2),
x(t)
is
the
displacement
(m)
and
wn
x(t )
is the angular natural frequency (rads/s) and the negative sign indicates
that the acceleration is always directed towards the fixed point.
-kx
( )
2
F = ma = m n x = -( constant) x
(2)
mx(t ) = kx(t )
(4)
x(t ) +
(3)
where is the phase angle and is the natural frequency. Remember
thee are other forms of the solution.
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n =
k
x(t ) = 0
m
(5)
k
then equation of motion is:
m
x(t ) + x(t ) = 0
2
(6)
If the mass is displaced from equilibrium and then released from rest,
the initial conditions are:
x(0) = x #
t =0
"
Using
v(0) = v !
x(t ) = A sin( t + )
(7)
and substituting for the initial conditions gives:
0
A=
x +v
& x
% v
= tan $$
1
#
!!
"
Mounting point
Seal
Mounting point
Piston
(8)
Oil
&
x +v
sin % t + tan
$
2
T=
, x
**
+ v
n
)#
''"
(!
Orifice
(9)
2
(10)
1.3 DAMPING
Equation of motion
(13)
x(t ) = ae t
(11)
The constant c is the damping coefficient and has units Ns/m or kg/s
and the damping force is:
f c (t ) = cx (t )
(12)
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x(t)
(14)
m2 + c + k = 0
which and has two solutions:
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(15)
1,2 =
c
c 2 4mk
2m
2m
(16)
The roots will be either real or complex depending on the value of the
discriminant, c2 - 4mk.
Underdamped
x(t ) = Ae nt sin( d t + )
k
c cr = 2m
= 2m n
m
And the non-dimensional damping ratio, , is defined as:
c
c
c
=
=
=
c cr 2 km 2m n
(21)
d = n (1 2 )
(17)
(22)
Critically damped
= 1 c 2 4mk = 0
1,2 = n n 1
(19)
Overdamped
n .
(23)
x(t ) = a1e 1t + a2 e 2t
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(20)
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the critical value of damping given by: and the damping coefficient c is
2 MEASUREMENT
Mass and stiffness are measured statically but damping must be
measured from a dynamic test. Hence, damping measurements are often
the least reliable coefficient in the equations of motion.
c = 2
&
x(t ) #
!!
= ln$$
% x(t + T ) "
2.1.1 Under damped system
(24)
(25)
Mass and stiffness are usually measured from static tests, but
occasionally this is not possible. In such cases the frequency of the
system is measured before and after an additional mass m2 has been
applied
Given two values of frequency 1 and
1 =
k
m1
and 2 =
2, then:
k
m1 + m2
(30)
4 +
(27)
ccr = 2 km
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(28)
km
4 2 + 2
c = ccr
3 STIFFNESS
The stiffness of a body is directly related to the geometry and material
properties of the body. Youngs modulus, E, commonly called the
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elastic modulus, units pascal (Pa), i.e. newtons per square metre, N/m2,
as does G, the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
k
Mass,
keq = i =1 ki
- static equilibrium
x(t)
- rest position
mg
(31)
1
1
=
k eq i =1 k i
(32)
The PE of the system is due to gravity and the spring. From above:
1
2
(34)
U grav = mgx
U spring = k ( + x )
2
where is the static equilibrium position and x is the displacement
from equilibrium. The negative sign for gravity PE indicates that the
mass is below the reference point.
The KE of the system is:
T=
Substituting in equation (33)gives:
1 2
1
2
mx mgx + k ( + x ) = constant
2
2
1 2
mx
2
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(35)
(36)
unstable
(37)
k = mg
(38)
x(mx + kx) = 0
(39)
stable
hence
asymptotically stable
mx + kx = 0
(40)
5 STABILITY
A system may be either:
Figure 5 Response
Lim
Asymptotically stable t (x(t ) 0)
x(t ) = e 2t sin(t )
()
Unstable, x t divergent, grows without bound
Asymptotically stable
Unstable, divergent
Flutter
x(t ) = e 2t sin(t )
Lim
t
(x(t ) 0)
5.1 Stable
For the undamped case
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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(41)
x(t ) = A sin(t + ) = A
Hence
(42)
In the damped case the motion may be unstable in one of two ways
x(t)
k
F(t)
fk
c
Friction-free surface
fc
The motion may grow without bound and does not oscillate, i.e.
divergent instability
mg
Free body diagram
5.3 Flutter
The motion may grow without bound oscillates, i.e. flutter. or selfexcited vibration. In all such cases a source of energy is required to
maintain the instability
6 HARMONIC EXCITATION
mx + cx + kx = F (t )
(43)
(44)
mx + cx + kx = 0
represents the free vibration of the system, and dies out due to the effect
of damping, i.e. underdamped, overdamped or critically damped
Thus the general solution to equation (43)eventually reduces over time
to particular solution, xp (t), i.e. to the steady state vibration.
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mx + kx = F0 cos(t )
(45)
x + n2 x = f 0 cos(t )
where f 0 = F0 m and n2 = k m
x + x = 0
(46)
then consider the right hand side of equation. The particular solution
will be of the form:
x p = X cos(t )
(47)
where X is the amplitude of the forced response, since the system is
undamped .
f
X = 2 0 2
n
if n :
(48)
x p (t ) =
f0
cos(t )
2
2
n
(49)
x(t ) =
(
%
f
f
sin( n t ) + && x0 2 0 2 ## cos( n t ) + 2 0 2 cos(t )
n
n $
n
'
f
x(t ) = 2 0 2 (cos(t ) cos(nt ))
n
& #
small and (n + ) is large so that sin$ n
t ! has a much longer
% 2
"
& + #
period than sin$ n
t ! i.e. phenomenon of BEATS
% 2
"
The beat frequency is the time between two successive maximums, i.e.
half the time for one complete oscillation.:
v0
(50)
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(51)
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beat = n
Tbeat = 2 (n )
(53)
(54)
2 f0
& #
sin$ n
t!
2
% 2
"
2
n
(n )
6.4
Resonance
2
The type of response given by equation (57) for a spring-mass system is
shown in Figure 8
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Figure 8 shows that the response x(t) grows without bound, which is the
definition of resonance. For the spring-mass system this occurs if
k
, in which case the spring would fail
= n =
m
6.5
x(t)
F(t)
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fk
f
c
F
ig
u
r
e
Friction-free
9
surface
D
a
m
Figure
9 Damped SDOF system
p
e
d
S
D
O
F
N
m
Freegbody
diagram
mx + cx + kx = F (t )
Dividing by m gives
c
k
x + x + x = f 0 cos(t )
m
m
x(t ) = Ae t sin(d t + )
n
(60)
(61)
The phase shift is due to the effect of the damping force
The particular solution is given by:
f0
x p (t ) =
cos(t )
2
2
n2 2 + 2n
The forcing term amplitude is given by:
X=
f0
2
n
2 2
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(66)
(67)
x(t ) = Ae nt sin(d t + ) +
X cos(t )
, which
n
(62)
(63)
) + (2 )
) (
(65)
(59)
F0
where f 0 =
. Equation (59) may be written in terms of the natural
m
2 2
(1 r ) + (2r )
(64)
& 2r #
The forcing term phase angle as = tan 1 $
2 !
%1 r "
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(69)
If the system is lightly damped, i.e. very small, the transient term may
last a sufficiently long time that it may be significant.
F0
2 2
(1 r ) + (2r )
(72)
mx + cx + kx = F0e jt
But the excitation is real, so the response will also be the real part of
x(t), where x(t) is a complex function that by definition must satisfy the
equation of motion (72) and the particular solution must also be a
complex number
(73)
x p (t ) = Xe jt
The solution proceeds using the complementary function and the
particular solution using complex algebra to give:
F0
(cos(t ) + j sin(t )) (74)
x p (t ) =
2
2
k m 2 + (c )
Comparing the real part of equation (74) with equation (62), both
methods yield the same result
X ( s ) = L( x( t )) = x( t )e st dt
(76)
F0 s
:
(77)
( ms + cs + k )( s 2 + 2 )
Then an inverse transformation must be performed to obtain the
solution in the time domain
To give
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X( s ) =
X
=
Y
+
x
+
y
y(t)=
Ysin(t)
k (x y )
c(x y )
The base is moving under harmonic motion such that y(t ) = Y sin(t )
then equation (78) gives:
mx + cx + kx = kY sin(t ) + cY cos(t )
(79)
x p (t ) = X sin(t )
X
=
Y
mc 3
1 + (2r )
2 2
(1 r ) + (2r )
(83)
X Y = Td is the displacement transmissibility. Describes how motion
is transmitted from the base to the mass of the system. is the
frequency of the base and r = n is frequency ratio
F (t ) = k (x y ) + c(x y ) = mx
(84)
Fp (t ) = FT sin(t )
(85)
where FT is the amplitude or maximum value of the force transmitted
and is given by:
(80)
where
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!
= tan $
2 !
2
% k k m + (c ) "
+
x
mx + c(x y ) + k (x y ) = 0
(81)
(k m ) + (c )
1 &
$
+ x
2 2
(82)
Equation (81)may be expressed as the ratio of the maximum response
amplitude and the input displacement amplitude:
m
k
and
k 2 + (c )
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FT
= r2
kY
The ratio
1 + (2r )
2 2
X=
(1 r ) + (2r )
(86)
mo e
r2
m ( 1 r 2 )2 + (2 r )2
& 2 r #
and = tan 1 $
2 !
%1 r "
(89)
11 MEASUREMENT
10 ROTATING IMBALANCE
11.1 Transducers
11.2 Accelerometers
Accelerometers are based on piezoelectric elements and are springmass-damper systems. Convert the acceleration into an electric signal
Figure 11Free body diagram of the imbalance (a), and machine (b)
Considering the forces for the rotating imbalance and the machine
gives:
(87)
mx + m0 xr + cx + kx = 0
The particular solution is:
(88)
x p ( t ) = X sin( r t )
The magnitude and the phase of the steady state motion of the mass m
due to the rotating imbalance of mass m0
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E = Fd dx
$ N
!
f c ( x ) = # 0
! N
"
(90)
E
2U max
(91)
mx + mg sgn( x ) + kx = 0
Evisc = cx 2 dt
(94)
If resonance then
U max =
(92)
(%
Evisc = 2 X 2 c& # = X 2 c
' $
(93)
1
kX 2
2
Evisc
c
=
visc =so
=
n 2U max
k
c
visc =
= 2
k
sgn ( y ) = 1 for
y<0
sgn ( y ) = 0
y=0
for
(98)
sgn ( y ) = 1 for y > 0
fc always opposes the direction of motion therefore equation of motion
is nonlinear which may be solved as piecewise linear.
Harmonic motion
Eclmb = mgX cos tsgn(cos t )dt
(99)
Eclmb = 4 mgX
2
The change in energy for viscous damper is Evisc = X c and
the equivalent damping coefficient for Coulomb damping as:
(95)
X 2ceq = 4 m gX
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(97)
(96)
x (t ) < 0
x (t ) > 0
x (t ) = 0
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ceq =
4 m g
X
(100)
The equivalent damping ratio for a system with Coulomb damping is:
2 g
eq =
(101)
n X
If driving force is large with respect to the friction force, Coulomb
damping can be approximated by viscous damping, using the effective
relationships
mx + k (1 + i )x = F0 eit
(106)
12 FOURIER TRASFORM
Estruc = (k )X 2
(102)
The equivalent damping ratio for a system with structural damping is:
f (t ) =
ao
+ an cos(nT t ) + bn sin(nT t )
2 n =1
n =1
(107)
where :
eq =
k
2mn2
= 2 eq
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2 T
f (t ) dt
T 0
2 T
an = f (t ) cos(mT t ) dt m = 1,2,3,..............
T 0
2 T
bn = f (t ) sin (mT t ) dt m = 1,2,3...............
T 0
ao =
(104)
(105)
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(108)
(109)
(110)
m1
k1
k2
m2
Mx + Kx = 0
(113)
&m
M=$ 1
%0
(114)
0#
m2 !"
&k + k
K=$ 1 2
% k2
k2 #
k 2 !"
det 2 M + K = 0
Figure 12 MDOF example
k1
x1
k2(x2 - x1)
k2(x2 x1)
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(116)
( M + K )u
( M + K )u
(115)
(111)
(112)
2
1
=0
(117)
2
2
=0
(118)
14 LAGRANGES METHOD
Lagrangian methods use an energy approach to obtain the equations of
motion in terms of generalised co-ordinates. The equation of motion in
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terms of the kinetic energy (T), potential energy (U) and generalised
co-ordinated qi for an n degree of freedom system is given by:
d ( T % T U
&&
##
+
= Qi(n ) i = 1,2,.......n
dt ' qi $ qi qi
where qi = q
(119)
'
x
y
z $
Qi(n ) = %% Fxk k + Fyk k + Fzk k ""
qi
qi
qi #
&
(120)
where xk, yk, zk are the displacements of the kth. mass in the x , y and z
directions, respectively.
For a torsional system the force Fxk is replaced by the moment Mxk
about the x axis and the displacement xk is replaced by the angular
displacement qxk about the x axis
If the Lagrangian, L, is defined as L = T- U, then equation (119) may
be expressed as:
d ( L
&
dt &' q i
% L
##
= Qi
$ qi
(121)
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