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an exploration of time sequencing as a way to explain the use of infinitives and gerunds,
and
an introduction to their typically different features and the information they carry.
Introduction
When, in March this year, I started learning how to teach ESL, I had little real appreciation of the
subtleties of the English language. Now it fascinates me, mainly because teaching English to speakers
of other languages, is the mapping of communicative processes used by different cultures. Im finding
that languages may differ not just at the word level, but in the way information is structured in
sentences and, in higher structures building discourse. What I find interesting is how this reflects the
way people actually think. These ways of thinking differ between cultures, very much in some
comparisons. Surely this contributes to the difficulties experienced by ESL learners. However perhaps
these differences can be used in constructive opportunities to make learning easier.
This workshop explores the way infinitives and gerunds reflect how English speakers think. ESL
learners would find this quite helpful to choose the correct form to articulate their idea and decode the
utterances they hear. Much like the prediction phase of a classroom listening activity, we are trying to
boost the probability of success by seeding a level of understanding (extracted from structure and
pattern) prior to the last resort of word-level translation.
a.
b.
c.
INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE
bare INFINITIVE
2.
a.
b.
c.
GERUND
possessive? GERUND
possessive GERUND
a.
b.
V
V
V
V
V
V
NP object
NP object
NP object
NP possessive
Complement verb
to V
to V
V
V ing
V ing
V ing
Examples
I want to sing.
I want Joe/him to sing.
I heard Joe/him sing.
I hate singing.
I hate Joe/him singing.
I hate Joes/his singing.
Basic Meanings
It is possible to classify each verb according to its possible complements as in Table 2.
Table 2 - Verb categories according to infinitive and gerund complements
Finite complements
1 Only
that
argue
assume
believe
contend
guess
know
realize
say
state
suppose
think
wonder
Non-finite complements
2 Only
to V
agree
allow
arrange
beg
choose
decide
decline
hope
offer
promise
tell
want
3 Only
V ing
avoid
consider
detest
enjoy
fancy
finish
keep
postpone
practice
resent
resist
suggest
4 Both
to V / V ing
begin
cease
continue
dread
forget
hate
like
love
prefer
regret
remember
stop
In some texts this represents all the learner is supplied with. However we can help a little more by
illustrative examples which typify these categories.
Mike Smith ACE
-2Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press
a.
b.
These meanings cannot be expressed using the other non-finite complements. Sentences like *He
knew her to see someone else and *He knew her seeing someone else are ungrammatical.
a.
b.
These meanings are not expressed via gerund complements For example *He hoped changing her
mind. When expressed as a finite clause the complement verb is usually marked by a modal indicating
non-fact: He hoped that he could change her mind.
a.
b.
These meanings are not expressed via infinitive complements For example *She detested him to spy
on her. When expressed as a finite clause they often contain nouns: She detested the fact that he
spied on her.
a.
b.
The infinitive form indicates non-factual status - we know he didnt take his medicine.
The gerund form indicates factual status - we know he did.
From another perspective, the infinitive form represents an action which follows the main verb in time
(chronologically), whereas in the gerund form this chronological sequence is reversed.
8.
a.
b.
c.
9.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
601.
a.
b.
701.
b.
901.
a.
b.
c.
already possessive?
This doesnt work so well with the infinitive forms *You must remember your/the to pay of the bills.
The apparent affinity between gerunds and articles or possessive determiners suggests that gerunds are
more noun-like than verb-like.
The information expressed in gerunds is generally more event-like and feels more like a thing. It has
a greater feeling of reality. Something happened which is of interest. By contrast the information
expressed in infinitives is more act-like and feels more like a do. It feels less tangible. Somebody
does something and this act and/or its performer is of interest
This distinction in carried meaning is more fundamental than a simple analysis of time sequence, but it
still works for those situations. Something which is in the future cannot be real so we would expect an
infinitive complement. Whereas something in the past, even an action, can be considered an event with
fact-like status, favouring a gerund complement.
Meanings in Context
Both infinitives and gerunds are derived from verbs, but have a syntactic function normally associated
with nouns. We could expect them to retain some verb-like characteristics, but also perhaps to adopt
some noun-like characteristics. We can use these characteristics to distinguish between infinitive and
gerund complements, in terms of what meaning is carried, and therefore make appropriate choices
about which to use. Hopefully this can be taught to language learners more effectively than the
memorising of lists like Table 2.
Noun-like Events
The go element in both sentences of 10 is presented as a specific kind of event rather than as the
performance of an act.
10.
a.
b.
It is the definite sense of the going there (note the article) that conveys actually happened or
established activity. Often we can substitute a simple noun phrase for the gerund - We enjoyed the
walk to town or We enjoyed walking to town.
(Does this explain the choice of the gerund in the function of Present Continuous for future
arrangements, and Past and Future Continuous for established background information?)
With this perspective we can make better sense of:
11.
a.
b.
In terms of time sequence the verbs consider or suggest would come before the go action, but these
main verbs dont take infinitive complements. Their object in each of these sentences is better thought
of as an event (something more noun-like) rather than the performance of an act. Also there is some
conceptual distance between the act/event and the performer in 11b. It is possible that she is not the
only person going, or even that she isnt going at all but that others might.
Verb-like Actions
With infinitive complements, it is the association with performing an action that creates implied
meanings. In the examples 12, the focus is on the go act, and not on the event. The agency or
performer of the act, is also mentioned in each case. There are no markers of definiteness (articles or
possessive determiners) possible.
12.
a.
b.
a.
b.
Deny in 13a takes a complement which is presented as not true and must therefore be a statement of
fact or proposition. This could also be expressed as a finite (that) clause - He denied that he went
to the party.
Refuse in 13b is presented as the performance of an act which can be either done or not done, but an
act cannot be true or not true. This could not be expressed as a finite (that) clause - *He refused
that he went/goes/will go to the party.
Table 3 - Information carried by Infinitives versus Gerunds
Features
Meanings
to V
more verb-like
no possessive modifier
specified agent likely
V ing
more noun-like
possessive modifier possible
specified agent less likely
acts
more performance-like
performer assumed
less definite
possibly happens
events
more proposition-like
performer not assumed
more definite
actually happens
We can apply these characteristics to the previous examples and correctly predict which type of
complement is appropriate to the meaning.
8.
a.
b.
c.
9.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
In 14a the speaker is mentioned and must be the performer of the action, whereas this is not necessary
in 14b. In 14a the act is in focus, whereas in 14b the event is in focus.
Also so, when the situation is current, the gerund seems more appropriate. For example when two
people are dancing together, one is more likely to ask Do you like dancing? rather than Do you like
to dance?
Types of Verbs
The range of verbs which can take complements can be described as:
commitment
self directed (eg decide)
other directed (eg allow)
aspectual (eg. start, stop, continue)
sensory-perception (eg. see, hear, smell)
Commitment Verbs
The largest group of verbs to take infinitive complements may best be described as involving some
form of commitment to future action. Conceptually the commitment is to perform an act. Also that
commitment comes before the act in time. So these verbs usually take infinitive complements.
15.
a.
b.
16.
a.
b.
17.
a.
b.
agree
consent
offer
decline
refuse
decide
aim
hope
want
wish
apply
attempt
prepare
plan
struggle
NP V NP to-V
order
tell
persuade
advise
permit
command
convince
urge
ask
beg
Sometimes we use verbs such as come and go in patterns similar to self directed commitment verbs.
They can also be thought as aspectual verbs (indicating beginning and concluding for example)
18.
a.
b.
The little boy went to open the door, but decided not to.
He had come to realize that the monster wanted to get him.
Perhaps this is the origin of going to for future arrangements, which often creates confusion with go
(travel).
1801. a.
b.
Aspectual Verbs
Situations can be described from perspectives that focus on their beginning, their continuing or their
ending. Aspectual verbs are used to indicate this, and consequently these situations dont denote
separate actions sequenced in time. Instead there is one event in focus, described from three different
perspectives.
19.
a.
b.
c.
There is a strong preference for gerund complements, with many aspectual verbs taking only gerunds
(particularly phrasal verbs).
20.
a.
b.
c.
In the examples 20, infinitive complements are not possible. Activities and processes seem to have
their starts, continuing and ends within an overall perspective that is ongoing. They have duration in
time for which the gerund is preferred.
Infinitives can be used with some aspectual verbs (eg begin, cease, continue and start) in examples
where a point in time is being referred to.
21.
a.
b.
I turned the key and the engine suddenly started to splutter into life.
Just as suddenly it died and ceased to make a sound.
The reference point in time can be the start of a possible series as in 22a, but if the series is perceived
as an ongoing event then the gerund is preferred as in 22b. Repeated action over time can be perceived
much like a continuous activity having duration.
22.
a.
b.
The infinitive is also preferred when the complement indicates a state, using non-dynamic verbs. You
could think of examples 23 as being similar in concept to 22a.
23.
a.
b.
c.
Both
point in time
single act
state
V-ing only
period of time
ongoing event (s)
activity process
begin
cease
commence
continue
start
discontinue
end up
complete
finish
give up
come out
burst out
carry on
go on
keep (on)
quit
remain
resume
stay
stop
If the aspectual verb is in the progressive the infinitive is preferred, possible on the grounds that it just
sounds better.
24.
a.
b.
a.
b.
a.
b.
In the examples 26, the difference in meaning seems to be whether the event is ongoing at the time of
perception.
27.
Sunday morning in England. We could smell breakfast cooking as we lay in bed and listened
to the church bells ringing.
The gerund tends to express an event not having a time limit, and so favours the concept of noncompletion. The bare infinitive tends to express a perception completed.
28.
a.
b.
look at
notice
observe
overhear
see
sense
With complements
Bare infinitive (V)
Gerund (V-ing)
limited in time
completed
single act
unlimited in time
incomplete
series of acts
smell
spot
watch