PHY 100

THE PHYSICS OF COLLISIONS

In this lab we will investigate the physics of collisions. The two measurable quantities
which we consider in collisions are linear (translational) momentum and energy.
Collisions can occur elastically or inelastically; collisions which occur elastically are called
elastic collisions and those which occur inelastically are called inelastic collisions. The
difference between the two types of collisions is the effect the collision has on the total energy of
the system, where the system is defined as the collection of objects involved in the collision.
Theory and Experimental Formulae:
Linear (Translational) Momentum:
Momentum is one of the most important and pervasive concepts in all of physics. There
are two general types of momentum: linear (translational) momentum and angular momentum.
We will only consider linear momentum in this lab and leave the topic of angular momentum for
later in the class. There are several ways to interpret momentum, but there is one interpretation
which helps justify the form of the equation which defines it.
If you get hit by a baseball traveling at a certain speed, it will hurt more than a Ping-Pong
ball traveling at the same speed or a baseball traveling at a slower speed. This is because the
faster moving baseball has more of something we call linear (translational) momentum. Since the
main difference between the baseball and the Ping-Pong ball is mass, momentum must depend
on mass; on the other hand, gently tossing a baseball does not hurt, so momentum must also
depend on velocity. It should then seem reasonable that momentum is defined as:

(1)

Notice that since velocity is a vector, so too is linear momentum. Recall that a vector has
a magnitude and a direction and can also be expressed as a summation of its components in each
direction of the coordinate system. The component form of linear momentum can then be found
by decomposing the velocity and momentum vectors in (1) into their constituent components in
the desired coordinate system, typically the Cartesian coordinate system. For a rigid body in
motion in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the component form of linear
momentum is then given by:
(2)

Comparing both sides of (2) we see that, as one might expect given the form of equation
(1), the components of linear momentum in each direction are given by:

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We can also interpret linear momentum as a measure of how difficult it is to stop an
object from moving. Newtons Second Law of Motion states that the time rate of change
of an objects linear momentum () is equal to, and in the same direction as, the constant net force
() acting on it, or symbolically (do not forget that momentum is a vector quantity!):
(3)

In other words, applying a constant force () to an object causes the objects momentum to
change in the direction of the force () and at a rate proportional to its magnitude. Therefore, if we
want to change the momentum of an object by an amount in a specific time period, we can then
use Newtons Second Law to determine the required force ().
Now consider applying a constant force () to an object continuously for some amount of
time (). A natural question to ask is what effect this will have on the objects momentum and,
consequently, its velocity? We can answer these questions by first rearranging Newtons Second
Law and then using equation (1) to determine what effect a change in an objects momentum has
on its velocity.

(4)

(5)

As an example, imagine you are driving your car on the freeway at some initial velocity
(). Consider the amount of time () it takes to bring your car to a stop (by slamming on the
brakes. Since the brakes on your car can only exert some maximum force () *, we see from
equation (5) that:

(6)

** More precisely, the brakes exert a force () on the wheel and the resulting torque () opposes
the rotation of the wheels, slowing the car down. However, the ultimate effect is equivalent to a
force () opposing the forward motion of the car, so ignoring the details, it is this effective force
which we will consider here.

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As one would expect, we see that the faster you are going and/or the heavier your car is
(and hence the more momentum you possess), the longer it takes for you to come to a stop. We
also see that the larger the force () (i.e. the stronger your brakes are), the faster you can stop your
car. Notice that since the time () and the mass () must both be positive, either or must be
negative. In either case, this means that the forcemust be in the opposite direction as the initial
velocity (). Although it is obvious in this simple example that the force must oppose the velocity
of the car to slow it down, in more complicated situations, facts such as these may not be so
obvious. This highlights an important aspect of physics: if you use the correct equations and are
careful with the math, you need not have an intuitive expectation about the result.
Energy:
An objects energy is a measure of how much work it can do on an external physical
system and is defined as the sum of both its potential energy (U) and its kinetic energy
(KE). Potential energy exists in many forms, such as gravitational, elastic, chemical, and
electrostatic, among others. Kinetic energy is energy associated with movement and can arise
from translational, rotational, and/or vibrational motion. The total energy of an object is then
given by:
Conservation of Linear Momentum:
Conservation of linear momentum requires the momentum of the system to
remain the same before and after the collision. Calling and the initial and final momentum of the
system, respectively, conservation of linear momentum for a system of n objects can be
expressed mathematically as:

(7)

Notice that the velocities of the objects, and hence their momentum, are vectors. Recall
that when dealing with vectors, we must consider the component in each direction separately.
Therefore, conservation of linear momentum, as expressed in equation (7), requires the following
three equations to each be true simultaneously:

In other words, for conservation of linear momentum to be satisfied, linear momentum

must be conserved in each direction separately.
Conservation of energy:

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Conservation of energy means that the total energy of the system (i.e., the
combined energy of all n objects) remains constant before and after the collision. However, this
does not mean that all, or even any, of the objects will individually possess the same amount of
energy before and after the collision. An object may transfer some or all of its energy to another
object in the system during a collision, but if energy is conserved, the sum of their energies will
be unaffected by the collision. Calling and the initial and final energy of the system, respectively,
conservation of energy for a system of n objects is expressed mathematically as:

(8)

Elastic and Inelastic Collisions:

Collisions in which the objects bounce off each other without deforming or losing energy
are called elastic. In an elastic collision, both linear momentum and energy are conserved.
Collisions in which the total energy of the system is not conserved are called inelastic. Of
course, energy is neither created nor destroyed in an inelastic collision, some is simply lost to the
surrounding environment. This typically occurs if the collision produces sound, generates heat,
or causes the objects to stick together and/or deform. We will experimentally verify this by
calculating the initial and final energy of the system, using the same equations derived for elastic
collisions, and showing that energy was lost in the collision. However, like elastic collisions,
linear momentum is still conserved in an inelastic collision. Therefore, the equations derived for
conservation of linear momentum in an elastic collision apply also to inelastic collisions and
need not be derived again.
Although it is nearly impossible to produce a perfectly elastic collision and nearly all
collisions produce at least some sound or heat, we will perform collisions that lose such a small
amount of energy that they are indistinguishable from elastic collisions. Therefore, we will
consider these collisions to be perfectly elastic for our purposes.
Experimental Apparatus:
To experimentally verify the properties of collisions, we will perform various collisions
on the PASCO Dynamics Track. For simplicity, we will perform collisions between only two
objects and restrict their motion to one-dimension, since the same principles apply. Our two
objects will be PASCars and we will vary their mass using the PASCar weights (one has a blue
dot and one has a red dot to distinguish them from each other). Each cart will be attached to a
rotary motion sensor (RMS) so we can measure its velocity before and after the collision (i.e. the
initial and final velocities of each cart). We can then calculate the momentum and energy of the
two carts before and after the collision and determine if momentum and/or energy were
conserved.
A cart-string adapter is used to attach each cart to an RMS and each RMS is mounted to
the same end of the track on an IDS Mount Accessory (as shown in the diagram below). Make
sure that the RMS attached to the cart closest to the RMSs (cart 1 in the diagram) has its yellow

PHY 100
cable connected to Input #1 and its black cable connected to Input #4 of the PASCO 850
Interface. The RMS attached to the other cart (cart 2) should have its yellow cable connected to
Input #3 and its black cable connected to Input #2 of the interface. There should also be two
pulleys mounted on IDS Track Pulley
Brackets at the opposite end of the track
as the RMSs, one on each side (as
shown in the diagram).

To attach a cart to an RMS, first place the slot of a cart-string adapter over the top lip of
the cart and tighten the bottom screw. If not already connected, wrap string around the rotary
motion sensors largest pulley and the pulley at the other end of the track. Then wrap both ends
of the string around the top screw on the adapter and tighten it. As you tighten the screw, the
strings will tend to rotate, so try to hold them in place so the string appears to be a straight line,
as shown in the diagram on the left. Adjust the
height of the rotary motion sensor and pulley so
that the top string is parallel to the track and free
from obstruction (i.e. it does not rub on
anything).
If the string is attached too tightly, the
pulleys will add substantial friction and the cart
will not move freely. If it is too loose, the string
may either slip on the pulley as the cart moves,
or even worse, not rotate the pulleys at all. The
easiest way to produce the proper tension in the
string is to adjust the horizontal location of the IDS Track Pulley Bracket until the string is just
tight enough to prevent the pulley from slipping.
Experiment:
To experimentally verify the properties of collisions, we will perform various collisions
on the PASCO Dynamics Track. For simplicity, we only perform collisions between two objects
moving in one-dimension, since the same principles apply. Since there are only two objects,
equation (7) describing conservation of linear momentum reduces to:

(9)

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Since we are restricting motion of the two objects to one-dimension, we need not
consider linear momentum as a full three-dimensional vector; we only need to consider the
magnitude of the velocity and whether it is positive or negative. Therefore, we can drop the
vector notation in (9) and the equation we will use to determine if linear momentum is conserved
is (remember the velocities can be positive or negative!):
(10)

Similarly for energy, because there are only two objects, the equation for conservation of
energy reduces to:

With movement confined to a horizontal track, neither cart will experience a change in
gravitational potential energy during a collision. Since there is no other type of potential energy
to consider in our system, the initial and final potential energy of each cart will be the same (i.e.
and), causing these terms to cancel out. Another consequence of restricting the motion of the
carts to one dimension is that the only type of kinetic energy present in our system will be from
linear motion, which is given by. Inserting this in for the kinetic energy of each cart and
canceling the potential energy terms from both sides yields the following equation for
conservation of energy:

(11)

We will use equations (10) and (11) for both elastic and inelastic collisions when
considering the momentum and energy of the system, respectively.
Experimental Procedure:
The collisions we will perform will essentially be the same for both elastic and inelastic
collisions; we will simply change the orientation of the carts to cause the desired type of
collision. Collisions will occur between two PASCars on the Dynamics Track and each cart will
be attached to a rotary motion sensor to record its velocity before and after the collision. Each
cart has one end with three small magnets (each with the same polarity) and one end with a strip
of Velcro. The blue carts have one side of the Velcro and the red carts have the other. Therefore,
two blue carts will not stick together, nor will two red carts. Only a red cart and a blue cart can
be made to stick together, which is why you have one of each.
At each station you will find two weights, one for each cart, which weigh approximately
250g each; the one with a blue dot is for the blue cart and the one with a red dot is for the red
cart. We will adjust the weight of the carts throughout the course of the experiment by adding or

PHY 100
removing these weights. Once we have the apparatus arranged for a particular type of collision
and have adjusted the tension in the string, we want to avoid detaching the carts from the
apparatus each time we add or remove a weight and need to know their new mass. The easiest
way to accomplish this is to measure and record the mass of the carts, the two weights, and the
cartstring adapter separately before beginning the experiment and simply add the appropriate
masses together for a particular arrangement.
We will perform three distinct elastic collisions by varying the mass and initial velocity
of the two carts. The first collision will be between a moving cart and a stationary cart of equal
mass. The collisions in the next two trials will be between a moving cart and a stationary cart of
unequal mass; the stationary cart will be the heavier cart in one trial and the lighter cart in the
other. The last three trials will follow the same arrangement of masses, but both carts will now be
given a nonzero initial velocity.
To perform an elastic collision, we arrange the carts so that the ends with magnets face
each other, as shown in the diagram to the left. Since the magnets in both carts have the same
polarity, a repulsive magnetic force is produced, preventing the carts from making contact during
the collision and resulting in a nearly
perfect elastic collision*.
The inelastic collisions we will
perform will essentially be the same three
distinct collisions we did for elastic
collisions, only this time with the carts
reversed. To perform an inelastic collision,
we simply arrange the carts so that the ends with Velcro face each other, as shown in the diagram
above. To reverse the orientation of the carts, simply detach the cart-string adapters from both
carts and reattach them with the carts in the proper orientation. Although the carts can be
reversed by passing them over each other, please do not do this! This puts a considerable amount
of tension in the strings and can damage the pulleys. Once the carts have been reattached
appropriately, check to make sure that the strings
have retained the proper tension and remain free
from obstruction.
When the carts collide, they will stick
together and move as one object. Since the two
carts will now be moving at the same rate, both
rotary motion sensors should theoretically measure
the same velocity. In reality, however, each rotary motion sensor will measure a slightly different
velocity. We could obtain a more accurate value by taking the average of the two measurements,
but we will naively assume the final velocities to be different and determine the final velocity for
each cart independently (as we did for elastic collisions).

** Magnetic field interactions are nearly, but not perfectly, conservative. However, the energy
lost in such interactions is so small that, even if we wanted to account for it, we could not
measure it with our equipment.

PHY 100
Data Collection using PASCOs Capstone Software:
As velocity measurements are taken, they are displayed graphically in Capstone. The
graph below shows the velocities of the two cars for a collision between a moving car and a
stationary cart. Notice that the rotary motion sensors do not directly record the velocity of the
carts before or after the collision, they measure the velocity continuously. The moving cart is set
in motion by giving it a light push, causing it to accelerate until it reaches some maximum
velocity. Once the cart reaches this maximum velocity, its velocity will remain approximately
constant until the collision, decreasing only slightly due to friction from the track and pulleys.
You may want to change the scale of the horizontal axis so you can see the graph in more detail
and determine the time of the collision more accurately. You can change the scale of an axis by
placing the cursor over one of the numbers on the axis (the cursor will turn into arrows while
placed over the axis) and dragging to the right (zoom in) or
to the left (zoom out). You can also zoom in or out using the
mouse wheel.
When the carts collide, their velocities will change
abruptly, shown in the graph between and on the top graph
and between and on the bottom graph. After a moment, the
velocities of the carts will stabilize at some final velocity.
We are interested in the velocity of each cart immediately
before and immediately after the collision, shown selected
and labeled in the graph above. These velocities are what
we will record as our initial and final velocities,
respectively.
Notice that the velocity of each cart is fairly constant before and after the collision (i.e.
the graph of their velocity is flat). The data points you should select for your initial velocities are
therefore the last data points on the flat portion of each graph before the collision (i.e. the abrupt
change in velocity). Likewise, the data points you should select for your final velocities should
be the first data points on the flat portion of the graph after the collision. The RMSs are not
necessarily perfectly synchronized and each cart may take a different amount of time to reach its
final velocity, so do not worry if the initial velocities or the final velocities you select for the two
carts do not occur at the same time (notice that the final velocities selected on the graph above do
not occur at the same time). Just select the data points which appear to lie on the straight line
immediately before and after the collision.
To determine the velocity of the carts at these times, first click on the graph and then
click the button to use the selection tool. This will bring up a small box which you can move
around to select the desired data point. As you move the box, an arrow will appear that points to
the data point which is currently selected. Select a data point from just before the abrupt change
in velocity and record this as the initial velocity for this cart. Then click the button again to
select a data point right after the abrupt change in velocity on the same graph and record this as
the final velocity for this cart. Once you have selected these two data points, click on the other
graph and select the initial and final velocity for this cart in the same way.
Legend:

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Elastic Collisions

Inelastic Collisions

Trial

Mass (Motion) Mass (Motion)

Trial

Mass (Motion) Mass (Motion)

Light (Moving) Light (Stationary)

Light (Moving) Light (Stationary)

Light (Moving) Heavy (Stationary)

Light (Moving) Heavy (Stationary)

Heavy (Moving) Light (Stationary)

Heavy (Moving) Light (Stationary)

Table I: Mass of Each Cart With/Without Adapter and Weights

Mass [g]

Cart

Adapter

Blue

12.5

Red

12.5

Weight

Cart with
Adapter

Cart with
Adapter &
Weight

1. Elastic Collisions:
NOTE: One of the biggest sources of error in this lab is not having a level track. If
your track is not level, there will be an external force on your carts, which will cause
them to accelerate. The next biggest source of error is having the string too tight. The
string should be just loose enough to still turn the RMS pulley without slipping.

PHY 100
1. Assemble the experimental apparatus as described above for elastic collisions. Adjust the
tension in the strings so the carts move smoothly. Make sure the strings are free from
obstructions (e.g. they do not rub on anything) as well.
2. Using a digital scale, measure and record the mass of each cart in Table I. You may need to
unscrew the cart-string adapter to remove the cart from the track. Measure and record the
mass of the two weights, one with a blue dot and one with a red dot, in Table I as well and
then fill in the rest of the table.
3. If it is not already running, open the Capstone file named Elastic_Collisions.cap.
4. Click Record and gently push the cart closest to the Rotary Motion Sensors toward the
other cart. Make sure the carts do not hit the Rotary Motion Sensors. After the collision is
over, click Stop to stop recording.
5. Determine the time at which the collision occurred using the graphical representation of the
data, adjusting the scale as necessary as described above. Click inside the graph and then use
the selection tool by clicking the button. Select a data point representing the initial
velocity on one of the graphs. Repeat this process until you have data for both carts, just
before and just after the collision (four data points total). Record the data in Table II.
6. Repeat steps 4-5, but this time, add a weight ( 250g) to the stationary cart and push the cart
hard enough so that the heavy cart moves with a reasonable (not extremely slow) velocity
after the collision. Record these measurements as Trial 2 in Table I.
7. Repeat steps 4-5, but this time, add a weight ( 250g) to the moving cart and push the cart
gently enough so that the stationary cart moves with a reasonable (not extremely fast) velocity
after the collision. Record these measurements as Trial 3 in Table I.
8. Now that you have completed all three collisions, use the data you have recorded to complete
the other columns in Table II and Table III for Trials 1-3.
9. Once you have completed Table II and Table III and verified that the data is accurate enough
and you do not need to repeat any trials, reverse the order of the carts so that the apparatus is
now setup to perform inelastic collisions, as explained in the Experimental Apparatus section
earlier in the handout.
2. Inelastic Collisions:
10. Repeat steps 4-8 with the carts now switched for inelastic collisions and record these as Trials
4-6 in Table I. When you finish, complete Table II and Table III.
QUESTION 1: What does it mean to say that some physical quantity (like energy or momentum)
is conserved? How is conservation of energy different from conservation of momentum?
QUESTION 2: In this lab, we could define an internal force as one shared by the two carts and
an external force as one shared by one cart (or the other) and its surroundings. Would we
consider an internal force as one that would conserve momentum? Would we consider an
external force as one that would conserve momentum? Explain.
QUESTION 3: What would be you most likely sources of error in your data? (Hint: Consider the
external forces.)
QUESTION 4: From your experimental data, do you agree that elastic collisions conserve both
momentum and energy? From your experimental data, do you agree that inelastic
collisions conserve momentum but not energy? Explain.

10

PHY 100
QUESTION 5: If the change in energy () of a system due to a collision is negative, does this
mean the system lost or gained energy?
EQUIPMENT:

11

PHY 100
(8) 2 IDS Mount Accessories
(9) 2 IDS Track Pulley Brackets
(10) Scales, AE Digital (600g/0.1g)
(11) String
(12) Excel File: "Momentum.xlsx"
(13) Capstone Software File: Elastic_Collisions.cap

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

12

Computer
PASCO 850 Interface
PASCO Dynamics Track
2 PASCars
2 PASCar Weights (Blue Dot & Red Dot)
2 Rotary Motion Sensors
2 Cart-String Adapters

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13

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14

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Table II: Experimental Data
Cart Information

Trial

I
n
e

Total mass
[g]

Velocity
[cm/s]

Momentum
[gm/s]

Blue

E
l
a
s
t
i
c

C
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
s

PASCar

Initial

Red

Total

Blue

Red

Total

Blue

Red

Total
4

Blue

15

Final
Kinetic Energy
[mJ]

Velocity
[cm/s]

Momentum
[gm/s]

Kinetic Energy
[mJ]

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Red

Total

l
a
s
t
i
c

C
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
s

Blue

Red

Total

Blue

Red

Total

Table III: Experimental Data Analysis

Initial

Trial

Total
Moment
um

Total
Kinetic
Energy

Final
Total
Moment
um

Total
Kinetic
Energy

Errors

Momentum

16

Energy

Conserved?
Momentum
Conserved?

Energy
Conserved?

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1
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

I
n
e
l
a
s
t
i
c

17