Ground improvement techniques and lining systems 109

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINING BEHAVIOUR

A list of common characteristics that pervade all lining systems are (after
Kuesel and King 1996):

The processes of ground pre-treatment (e.g. grouting), excavation and

ground stabilization (e.g. rock bolting) alter the pre-existing state of stress
in the ground, before the lining comes into contact with the ground.
A tunnel lining is not an independent structure acted upon by well-defined
loads. The loads acting on a tunnel are not well defined, and its
behaviour is governed by the properties of the surrounding ground.
Design of a tunnel lining is not a structural problem, but a groundstructure interaction problem, with the emphasis on the ground. Defining
the loads on the tunnel lining is one of the most challenging aspects for
a civil engineer on a tunnel project.
Tunnel lining is a four-dimensional problem. During construction, the
ground conditions at the tunnel heading involve both transverse and
longitudinal arching, or cantilevering from the excavated face. All the
ground properties are time-dependent, particularly in the short-term,
which leads to the commonly observed phenomenon of stand-up time,
without which most practical tunnel construction methods would be
impossible. The timing of the lining installation is an important variable.
In addition, some tunnel linings such as sprayed concrete lining (shotcrete) can itself have time-dependent characteristics. In the case of
sprayed concrete lining the stiffness is extremely time-dependent and
the effects of early creep have to be taken into account before the lining
reaches its full strength.
The most serious structural problems encountered with actual lining
behaviour are related to the absence of support rather than to the
intensity and distribution of the load, for example inadvertent voids
left behind the lining. However, exceptions exist and poor ground
conditions could result in additional, unexpected loading on the lining.
In most cases in hard rock, the bending strength and stiffness of
structural linings are small compared with those of the surrounding
ground. The properties of the ground therefore control the deformation
of the lining, and changing the properties of the lining will not
significantly change this deformation. It is important that the lining
has adequate ductility to conform to the imposed deformations, and
adequate strength to resist bending stresses is therefore secondary. The
lining therefore forms a flexible ring confined by the ground.

4.3.2 Sprayed concrete (shotcrete)

Sprayed concrete is concrete which is conveyed under high pressure through
a pneumatic hose and projected into place at high velocity, with simultaneous compaction (DIN 2005). Sprayed concrete can also be called
shotcrete and both terms are used in this book.