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buberam:c uocaun.
\ VII J IM .\ H I AKJ

Contents

Preface
PA IlI" UN I

III H "lIt HI C A I I I'.I HO D II C lI O N

-/ he .llr n fliTl8 of Geflem/l:coTlom}

t.o..
rwo

of General f conv my

27

I H I- H IS 1 0 IUCA L n ,\l ,\ I

SOcrIJU::I!: I and H'o r:\,

oj the

A l tcO'

The Gifr oj &'-(l !ry: "Por/me-h"

I H REF

63

I H E HI ST O RIC Al n AT II II

The COIlC/ lJeriflfj Soc;erl': Mam

The Unarmed .'lacier I': Lamaism
lO U R

19

8 1

93

I H I Il lS TO R le A I D ATA III

The Onflim oj Cvpi/<llisUl <Jnd Ilj /! RefomJ< J/rOIl

The IJourlJCois ll orM

rtv t;

1 29

T il l: PRFSFl"T DA TA

So>';ff l"dllS!r;al17lJl;OTl

rhe llartbatt Ptan

Nau ..

1 '" 1

169

1., I

1 I t,

Prefa ce

r'Or some years. being o b liged o n .x;, ;\.\i o n 10 answe r th e

" ' Vha r a rt" you wo rk ing on?" I Wd:>
10 h.n e 10
"A book o f poBIN:,,1 f'CDnom)." Comi!'\!. from me. wi!. n ;llt llrt" W;K
llisconcc rtl ng. ill !cm to t11QSf' who di . I nol know me well. (The:
ilUt"rtlI that is
confcrn-ll Ull Ill) books is of a lire rar) \OM
a nd thi s wor.
10 be expec ted- O ne Cil n110l as a maltl'"r
o(f<tct c lass them in a pn--dcfina l !,>t'fue.) I ;u n \Till llnllO)cd "hen
, recall the sU J*rfk ilil aston ish menl 111111 g reet oo
re pl)'; I h'll!
to explain m)'k lf; .. nd what I was abl e 10 !>a) in a r....... worrh \ \,1'
neither precise ncr i nid Iigiblc. lurle t,.l, I 1,;wI 10 arid that the boo k
I was w ritilllol (whidl ! am now
(lid Illl i constdcr the

,i."

fact s the Ilia) <Jua li fito<l economists <1 0. rhat I had" potru <If
from which a hu man sec nfice, t he tflmr n .etinn o f a c hurch or

the gift o f a jewel we re no less intL"Tcsti ng than tilt' "" Il" uf w 11(',)1 .
In short. l had to II) in , din ro ITIolk clear the nol ion of a "b'Clleral
economy" in which the Ke.xpc ndiltlt,... (l he "eonsumptlOn"j of
rarher tNn prod uction. w""' the pr ima, ) o b jece. My rlifoculi)
ill was Hoo thr bock's ti tle. Thr An l.101f'd !lhmr:
II
be i nnifo(Lli'll' but it
fer I soouKt han:
gone fun. he r. Ibe n, "n<! .affinnctl t he
to lift t he CUDf' t hal
t his nrlc COl lis inw (Illotion. O &!rI). m r project ...as too > a<;( ;mtl
9

t Ilt"' olIl11 0 UllLt"m t' llt of J '- J' f prujtT{ i,

c an

'N!}

its bet ra yal. t\u one

w ithou t being <;",,,; <:,,1 th ,t h.. i, !,f' n ing re.l d y In '"... f-

l um th ing " H e m us t ",crL u no. ami tlldL i, "II .

ToeJ<lY the book is the re . But a book is nothi ng if iLis n o t .'i/ualcd. if c riticism has not d et e rm in e d the place t be t
to it
in the co mmo n mcae m eru o fideas , ;\gain.l find my.elff<lCcd with

rho !><Ime d iffic ulu '. lhc' book is there. hut at th e m o me nt 01 "riling in
I cannot ... n '"
rha r it he
th e attention 01
'1Je<:iali st s in a ,ci" "l:e. rhi, fiT'it ..
"d rh .." ..,. fmm Ollt"clc
t ilt' s"p<i ratt: rli ",:ipl i".." .. p ro b le m rhar still h1., rKl t I).... n fr., m ..'"
<IS it shou ld 1Jf'. one Ih..11 rnilY hold the kev to all the problem'
po sed
'$Cr; discipline concerned \\ ith th.. movement
0 11 the eart h - [rom gn.Jph}sln 10 polirical
b}
01
<>uI; io logy,
<uul uio l,'g).
neither psyd lO log '
in general, p hiloso phc ca n be considered fret' of dlis
{jtte.tio n o f economy- b vcu what may' b e said 0 1 an. o f litcr aunc . of
h as all essent ial c onn e ction w ith the mo\"Cmcn t I 'Iudy:
that o f excess
transla ted into the dlen'escenc e 01 life. T he
re'ul r is th J( such a boo k, b d ng o f interest to cvc eyo ne, could
wd l b t' " I illt..rt'SI 10 no o ne.
Ce rTain!>', it is
ill
t h.. fri).! irl r" ' t'J rlh of
t he s<:i.. IK ..S, to co m .. to iI po inl wh..,n, 0""" o bjt'C1 no
lea ve s o ne unaffected, " hu e . on the Cllnlr,]r;; it i5 wha t illllamt"'.
I nd e ed , the eb ulhuon I cons ider, wh ich animates the g lo ue. is
research can nu t be
also my e bull it io n. Thus. the objec t o f
ti ng ttish ed JroIlllhe 5uLp'-1 al it, Lvilm8 poilll _ rn Ih is way, even ue fu rc
RrKling a
in receiving its pla c e in rhc c o m mon movem e n l of ideav, my ente rprl \e cemc up ag ainst the m ost perso na l
obstacle , w hic h moreover gh'e,s rhe boo k its fi m
d amenral mea ning.
As I
..rM t ilt' object
I could not personally
till' d Tc.-vt:st -"11(;" in w hi<"h I disc o....roo 1h..
.. pu rpo St', the val ue 01 th.. cohl an d cak u l'lted " 1)t:rdlilJll. IVI) rnt;;lr< ;h

,"

aimed at the acq uisi t ion o f a

it demaoded coldness
cak u lOilion, but the lJIoo.ICf\,O(: acqui red "'"as tha t of an error.
MI error impl it'C1 in t he coldness lha t i:. inhere nt 111 .11 u ku l.lti "n. In o ther WOI...tS. Ill} worL. tended li....[ of all to 'IlCtroSit' lhesum ol'bema n rcsot.llCC\. but irs 1I1l1IirJf..>!>
me that this ;)LLUffiub t io n was onl) a rlela}. a
back Irom t he ;1lC\-iuLle
t"rm , " he re ttw acc urn ulared weal th ha s ' aim: onl) in the in' tant .
Wri l ing t11i s ho" L. in wh ic h I was saying tha t " " e rg) lin<t ll ) can
o nl)' be wasted, I m) sdl W ;lS
my e ne rg)', m) ume, worL.illJ.!; m y rCSC<l rc h ans we red in a funda me-nral wa} the
10 Ml'"
10 t he amo un t ol" we.alt h acq uired for llI;lIlkin' l. Shou ld I 5.1) Il,,,"[
under
condirions I scmcu mcs could o nl} respond to t he
tru t h of m) 1>001; anll co uld not go on
it ?
A book thaI 110 o ne- a"'3;ts. th at answcrs no fo rm ulated
li on. t hoi t t ho: a uthor wou kl nor h;rH wri tten if he hMI 100I u"'I'II
k s..<oon to t he le tt e r - suc h h li",..lI) thl' odd it ) that t ooa) I
" Ifer thr rradt-r. Tbts im1tes d i,trUl>t at the ' xJ ll>c[, and ,..... w hal
if it were- br u rr nCJ4 to meet an ) ex pc.'CLilt lo n Olmi to o llt-r preCiM:l) w al w hic h re pels, tha t "hie h pe ople dclil>t"r..t<::I) a\IJ id ,
fo r lack of st n' ngt h:: that viok-n r rnovcrncn t , surld e n a nd choc king, w hielt jostlc!> th e m imI, lakinlo( aw,, ) its tranq uillit) ; " k inrl
ofbold reve rsal IMt subst itutes a
in harmony wi th the
of Isolai cd Ideas, ofs rubbom I'rob lrms
world , fo r th e
born of an all l'o iet ) th at
to 1. I low, withou t t urning Ill)
back o n cxpcc t"l iQHS. c"ul,1 1 h<tve harl thc ext reme freedo m 01
tha t places conce pu; o n a It"\ r l w ith the \,orkl 's frced041l
of moo.emen t ? It wo uld SCI'\"C I1lJ PU'l JOOM'" 10 IICJ!.lcc[ the ro les o f
whic h pcoccl'd s !>Io-. I) and llIt'thod iGII II}.
But how can we
rhe enigml, hO\.\ can we measure up 10
uni\'t:r.\C if we cOlll e nt oo rodu:!; w ith tIl(' slum ber of corl" cnc iOf\ol1
If one ha!i the patience, a ud tbrt o :.rI Ill)
I>< K.k, one- " ill ..ec thou it contain) studies <:undueuxl

we"o('

"

TI

r:

to the rules o f a rcas< >n lha t ..I, >t'!i

" .. APF

001

re l..n t, dno

t" FKlii h -

ca l probl ems ..Ie riving ho rn a turli tiollal wisdo m , but om" will also
fin d in it thi s affirm atio n: II"' l lIre SLIlKll 0(1 if. ill (jm" " hu t the lill"r
in space, The c o m pa ris on foll ow s hom considerations o f e lll'rg\
t'(;ono rny t har le ave n o room fo r poe tic
but it requi res
thi nking on a level w ith a play o f forccs rhar ruus counrcr to o rd inary calcu lations, a pb y of Ioeccs based on the law s rhar b>()\'u n
III , h"rl. th e flNSp.,c ti\,e_\ w llt're suc h tru ths ,' p pea r are d-ose
in wh ich m o re genNal pr oposnjons reveal their meaning, propoto rrs "cc or..ling to which it is not ocassitv but irs rotItran; "IILwn;"
that
This
is an

IMnfj mot/erand rrwnhnd "ith theirJundo mrnt<!1 probkm<.

said , I w i/] urg.. critics to b..
.."uti "l" . It
ga me 10 raise irrefu ta l,l.. o bjKtiom 10 n ew \ i.."",. G..n-

e rally. tha t which is new is dlsconc..rt ing

dril l

"ot "",W\;tly "",I.. r-

stood : T he obje ctions arc dir ected a r Sim p lified aspecb that 11lt'
auth o r does no t g rant an ) m o re than a would-be con tradic tor, o r

nnlv with in the limi ts o f a provisional s imp lificatio n. There

i, littl .. chan c e in th e pres e n t case th at th e se perempt o r, diffic u lt i..,;, w l'id l st;lIld Ol lt at tl 'e first reading , have escape d my etten ti "n in th.. IS y..ars this wo rk h." de manded o f m e . Bur, ro b q! jn
with, I co n fin e
to a (/uick (J\'f'n 'it'w, in w h ich I cannot I;'\'I;'/l
co nsider !JwaelliJll1 t l1e mu lt il tld c o f quesrjons t hat are im plieel.
In parucnlar, I have forego ne ti le id ea 01 g iving , ill a lirst \'01umc, a detailed analvsis ofa ll o f life's action s from th e point of
\ ' jl'W th at I introd uc e . Th is is rcg.-..ttabl.. in th at tI,.. n Olio n s of
" pr oduct ive ex pcnd in uu" and "nonprod uctiv.....xpe nditu rc" ha,..,
a bask ,,,lue in all th e dcvc ioprncnrs o f m,. book. Hut rcal Itfc,
co m posed o f all sorts o r ex pen d itures, kn ow s n othi ng of pu rely
producrtve ex pendi tu re; in actu alil}', it kn ow s noth ing o f pu rel y
""nprndur:ti\'" "xl'.. "..Ii tuTt: d lher. H..nee a first ru d imentary e tassifica t.ion wi ll l,a, .. 10 I,.. r..p la".. <1 hy a
<I" s" ";l't;o "
"I pri\ ile gt'd
o f e,'e r) as pe<:t o f Iif... I wanlt..I first 10 ofT..r a

"

PR fF A CF

Iacts rha t wou ld all ow In) ' th inking to be graspe<1. But tlns th in king co uld n o t haec shalX'o itse lf if it had no t also consil lf'r e<! t h e
toraliry o f smnnoccurrences, wrungly' SU[-'lxm to

be insig niflC,ull .

I im agine that it wo u ld be equally fu ti le to d raw d es t ruc tiv e

conclusio ns fro m the fact that eco no mic crises, which necessa rily
h ave in m)' work a

in ",h id , tI, ey are <1 t:t.e b in events. arc

o n l y represe nted t herein ill a su mmary, superficial fash io n. If th e

truth m ust be told , I had to c hoose r cou ld no t at t he , arne time
Illy t h ink ing a gene ra l o u t line, ",,,:1 lose m yseH in " ",a'l.e o f
interferences, "here rhe trees cons tamly prevent om: fro m seei ng
ti le fore st . I wall ted to avoi.\
the work o f t he economist s,
and I c o nfi ned m ysel f to rd at ing tl 'e I'mb le m rha r is pc"..,d in e COn o m ic crises

to

t h e general p rob le m of nature . I wanted 10 caSl a

ne w light o n it , but to sta n w ith, I d e cided ag ain st ilna lp ing t he

complexi ties o f a crisis o f over produc tion , jllst
I .Ie fe rre<! calc ul ating in detail t he sha re of growth and the sha n: o f w.L,le t:lllering in to the ma nufac une 0 1 a ha t o r a ch a ir. I preferred to gi \e,
in ge n e ral. rhc re aso ns t hM acco unt ror th e m yste ry of Keene s's
Imttl e s , t ra c:ing t h t: ex h au st ing d t:t oll rs " I' ex u be ranco' LI lt o ug[,
e at ing, d e ath 'mel se xu al reprod u ction,
I co n fine mysclf at p re se nt to t hi s su m ma r)
not m..... n that I a m

T his does

it at t h:.t : r .u n o lll}' p" stp<J ni ng mot<:

exre mive wo rk unullater.! I am also

for a \hu rt ti me ,

t he ex pos it ion o f m)' an.,l ys is ofanxi et y.

AntI y....r rha r b the erne.ta l allal)'sh . Ita! alone c all adeq uarelj

cucu mscrtbe till: opposi t ion o l two political m ethod s: thaL u J leu
and tile anx io us sea rc h lor a sol u rion, com bin ing the p ursui t o f
free d o m w ith the im pe rat ives that are the most opposed to free d o m: an ,l t hat o f frt:t':dom ,)1' m,"<1, wh ich issu es fro m the g loba l
reso u rces 0 1 life , a fre ed o m fo r whi c h , in stantl y,

is

resolved , CWrythinfili rich - in o ther wo rds, eVCfythi ng rha r is co mlIl' :nSlirale w ith tilt' u n iw r..t" I

on tilt:: Ian rhat , Lo free do m

' HE

>;H .. IlI:

olmtnd, the search for a soluuon

an exul,.'r;m, .. , a su pc rfl u ity;

th is gi\'es it an ujc omparabl e t<m: ... To solve pol itical problem'
becom e. d illk ult fur those who al]',,,, anxiety alom,
pose the m .
It is necessary f(K an xk t)' 10 pose them. Hut their solution ,h.'"mar\(h

'0

at a c er tain po in t rhc

rC II I()val

o f thi s a" xi..ty. T Il('

o f thl;

pol i tica l propo sals to which thi s book 1"-<l'Is, and rha r I fOrm ulate at the "'''', oft\w \ olu",.. , is lin kc d

10

'his lucid anitude.?

PART ONE

T heo reti cal Introduction

The MeO\nin g o f Ge nera l Eco nomy

The Dependen ce oj' tlre Economy

EnerDyon th e Earth
When it is nec essary to chan",..

0 11

th e Circula tion of

anromoblle ti n: . open

all

abccvs

o r p low a v ineyar<l, it is ..
I" "'...nag " a (Illite limned operation. T h e d ements o n w hich tile actio n i\ brought to bear arc
not complete ly Isolarc d from the rest of th e world. but it h pmssblc to act o n t hO'", as iftht}' ,W rO': O"e can complete the ope rat io n withou t once neetling to cons ider the " hole, o f which the
tire. the abccss Ot the " ine}'a1 is ne...ertheless OIn in1to!l:ra! [JOIrt.
T he changes brough t abou t ti n not perceptibly alter the other
Ih ings, nor d oes the ceaseless ...ction from Wllhout howe a n appn.''''

clable etlecr on the c onduct of til(' operation. But things are di fferent when we conslrlcr a substan tia l economic Jetivit) such a\

the prod ucrion " f.,u t",nol>il..s in tin' U"il..t1 Slates, o r, a forUm!,
whe n it is a <j ue st io n of cconom rc activi t}' in gene ral.
Bet ween th e prod uction of au tomobiles aTKI the [JCncraJ movemcnr of the economy, tl,.. int.....J..pnt<I'''Kc" iv rather dear, bur
the ecooornv taken as a w hole h usually stucl ictl as if it were a
ma tter ofan isol atabl e s}'slem ofoperarion. Production and c o nsurnprion are linkt',,] rogO' th.-r, IKlL, consu l..red jo in tly, it does

mJI

see m J itlicult to stu d}' the m as one might st lltl} an d emenlar}'

o pctarion rc latively independent of rhat w h ieh it is not.

.,

This mcth...d is It'giLi mah". anil scit-nu' never pnx"t'cds dif'frrend)- 11",,'{"\cr. n:onllmic ",dt"1'X.C docs nut bh" usulu ul thf- SlIme
'lrllcr
ph ystcs MlKI}ing. first. a I'r..cisc phenomenon, then all
sh ld ia b le phl'nOmCN as a coo u lin"It".1 \\ hu ll' . fc"nurn io;: I,llt'" are ' 'K1t
10 isolate . .1;..... , thr,T
c....,.,.dioation
nut
In
So it is
to raise tlu s <Jut>St ion concern ing them: Sh"u!<1n'T pnxluct i\'t' act i\l l) a.' a w hu le be comi,\
..red in 1t"1Tll!i . 1( the r...." liflC.\tiOffi if reccocs lru m in surro,mdinp
IIr
abou t in ns !>lIrrouuiings ? In other words. isn't then' '"
' loC...I to stud) ti lt" s)slem urhu rnan I'ruth ll:tion ,lnl! consumpliun
w it hin a m uch la'!,,""TIr.lmc" . ...l t
[n t he ..cieJ'lCC'; such problems .m.lioaril) I"', c ,ln <lC<Idclllil: c harector, but L"t-T....IOIll'C ani--ie)
s" lar-reach ing thllt TtU onr will

be
if a
'Ill''''lion foIlO\\ed by (It her, II" a!J.;t raet
ones: In ove ral l ind uvtrial .... velopmeru, ,Ht" the n' nO! social ..onlhccs 01....1 planctJIj I\M'i? III the g l,,ool dLlivit) o f men , in shun.
are there not c.tw;e\ and ellt"n s that" til

OIlI) I'r""i,kd

t hat tb.: nrnerol dato oj the

ar.. srud i...l? \\il l we be able to
mal e
the maM.."" of
a
a" ,i\-ity (a nd n,lf'
thaI we could not aba ndo n in all)'
w ithout M\ iOj:l j!rasl'.. ,1
its gmaoJl COIl5C<jUt:ncCS! Sboukl W1; no l. j!h'i'"n lhe u ,.,>tant dc velopmc nf J ecoOOtnic fOTm. po'><' the fJCN"U1I'robkrru. that art"
liflkcd to the mO\'cnl<' llt o f enc rgy on the glu l... ?
These
alluw 01'\1 ' ' 0 glimpse borh thc tl..or ct jcal n lO'aning ancl the prat.lica1 importara.e o r lhe princip lC'i the) in trorllk"-,

Th,. N,.,,..uity Df
Call1lD t be Ust:d Jor (J

t he f ..'C('ss [",.rBY ' hilt

GroW "1

III fi....-l >ight. it

t"
in t he ceOrlUffi} - ..., lhe pro-ducl;on or>tJ U\r tJ ..mhh - ,1 panicul... as pect of terrestrial acti\ i f )
..s a CI,lSflIi<" phcfl{,mt"oon . A moe.. mc nt prt" luccd o n
the sur/a... o trhc gloh.. t11<\1 results hor n thc' circulation of cnerg)

" I. th is

point in the universe. The econom ic acuvuy of men appro-

possibihttcs
prtarc s rhts movement, maki ng use 01 th e
for certain e nds . But t his rue.
has <1 pa ll.e lTI and laws with
w hic h, as a ru le, those

Ihl;l11 and depend on t hem are u n-

acquaint ed . Th us tile <j"esti nn arises: Is t he gene ral de te nn inat ion

o f energy dn;u lat ing in d w biosphere al te red by man's ac tivity?
Or
isn' t Llw latte r's in t en tio n vitiated hJ. a dcrcrm i....ui on
o f wllid , it is ig n. ,mn t, w hich it o verlooks and can no t
\'lithou! "ait ing, I Wi ll g he an inescapable
Man's ,li src ga nl fo r t he materia l basis o f h is lil" rn causes
material
hi m to e rr in a se rio us way. l lum;,n ity
reso urces, b ut by re s tri c ting th e m ;,s it <lot's lO a rcsoluuon of
lhe immediate , lifficultiC!'> it e nc oun ters (a resolution which it
has hastily ba, l to define "5 an Meal ), it

to tile forces it

e m p loys all e m l whic h the)' can not have. Beyom l ou r imrncdi arc
in fact pursUf:S the lJ M: le5S and infi nit e fule nds , man's
fillmen r o f th e uotve rs... l
Of co urse , the error tlldL
fro m so co mp le te " d isregard
ma n's cl aim to lucidity, It is not e<lsy 10
d oes not just
if ' If'Ie musr, in trying to d o so, carry out <I
re alize one's own
..nt t hat surpasses t he m . No doubt these e nds and rhis
rna) no t be en tirely irreconc ilable; b ur if

two

te rm s arc to be reconciled we m ust cease t o ign " rt' o ne ,,[ th..m;

o t herw ise , o ur wo rks q uicklj turn to cat ast""r"" .
I w ill begin with a basic tacr: Tht' li\'ing n'l;ani sm , in a situalio n detc rrnsncd by t he play 01

nn the surface oflhe

" ...Iina.!"il} re ceives mort' e nergy than is n"'c c5.\.3ry fo r m aintainitlg life: the excess e ne rgy (wea lth ) can be IIS"" I for Ih", g rowth o f
a system
an of}:!anism); il'
can no longer grow,
or it t he excess ca nn ot be comple tely absorbed in its llrowt h, it
must

be I" H wuhour profit; it must be spen t..... ill-

in!!:/) o r nol , gl , ' ri, ",si) ur ca tastro phically,

"

The P'Jl'"rl) o{ OrgoniHlI,f or l.imitM 5'$",m$ a nd th l'

oem lVl'O lIh 0/ !ivins Na l u rt'
'1.iIH15
10
l ilt" d......eiopmeet o f I' md IK l i\(:'
lon:n ;r; tht" iI.I"AI end o f oX- Ii- il} refuse to rcaJg0l7c l MI
which comt itlllt"'i "'''al th. mU<;1 ultin lMely be spcoe la, .!IIII) ("illlOUI return ). a .....1 lhat a scrtcs o( profitable ope,..tiOl't'i ha' .Jll'loOlutcl } "'0 o l h.., ,.Ilea " u.n the sqUilntkri og 01 pfn fl ,s- Tn .lOirn>
t N t it is .........

to d lss ipatr

5.. lllila nt ial port.on 0 1 Ctl..

produced, lot" nd in l< it I,p In smoke, 10 go <IIg'Ai ns l JuJgllle .lu

Iha l foml tilt' b."" 0 1a raoonal economy. " to LrJO\\ USb ' \ ht" rr
we alth has hMI t<l llt' .1"' II"Q)erl [co ffee thrm \ n into the sNI. but
1I't"<;(>
ean n,,1 r".lsonabl ) be o ffe...<1 a... e xam ples to filllow, '1tll') arc ti le 31 k'Il" , I"llgmenl o f an irnpot.. nee, and no ' lIW
" JUI.1 fo nd in the m lilt" im.lgc a nd essence n f w".llt h. l'lI le,t],
in", luntary dcsu'l Kti'm (,m:Il:o., th e disposal " f ",ufft:<'lIwrboa n-I)
h as ill t"\'t" ry CilSC lilt' mt'an inF 0 1 failure. it
m isfort UlIt': in nc w a ) ",.m n I,.. pn-senecd as

np, ' ri' OCId

a
And
it is th e lypt' 01 operation withour which (here i" nIl -o lullon .
\ Vilen on.. conside rs the totolit. 0 1 prud llet h t> wcalrf on th .. surface o f th.. glollt". il ts e vident 111<\1 the producrs o l t h h wealth
c <ll n be

o nly
d ... 1",1'll!
th.ol b econonuc manki nd u n incrc<1Se iUl elJo il'mt"nf,
T h is is nOI e ntirt l, - fl(' ilhe r 111"'''>5 nOir inrl .. fm i,c h
...
,
A '\llrplos mOSI b- ,lh.., i p.lIl.'11 throu(:h deficil Oflt'rarions: The li' l;I[
tli!>Sip.u i on cannQI b , t lU CillT) ou t the ffiO\t'llIt'nt d u.l
te-rre-vrrial

u'>U<ll1 l} i1(l p"...... Ior th e rcason thar IhI'

is l'It'..... r ,'on<idcrcd ill
The human mind red uc e-s oper..
noos, in ....it'occ as in I,f.. In :loll .... based On I) l'i....1 POltioJlnr
S)-stems (' I1.....i""ls or COItrpr-i!lO). [ conomjc act;' it), t,,_id.,ret.l
U 11 " hole, is uJIll ..in:cl in te-rms o f p....r ieolar opel1l"''''' ...ilh
composing t he
lim iterl e nds. T Ill' m ind
n , .. COrtlT.lry

"

of these oper.ll iOO\. r co nl)m ic (:icrl('(' m":fcl)

rbc eobl:cd
it
it!. objl"Ct to
carried OUI "ilh
a vlew to a limited e nd. that of f'<unom ic man. II does ....... uk
infO conside rat ion. pl ay o f
t hai no pantcutar entl lmllu:
t he pia} o f li""W matur in fJ"fWroJ. imohcd in the
of
light of "hkh il b Ih.., n::ult. On the surface 01 the glob.., lor
li.inn "Illflf, III tJOI!rnl, encrg} is al "':I)s in excess: th e q Ul:.. t ion is
dh ,al ' po sc el ill u-rrns of
... n... choice is Hmncd tc
how the wc.hh is to be Ml lla",l.. r...1. II to t he p<J" 1ClJI"r Ihinl-:
be ing, or to limiled populatio n.. of li.i l'!!. beinp, that IIIf' problern o f nCa'Mil} prc lienc. il,df. But man i.. not JUSt tile "" 1),lta l ..
bt'i rlf t hai co n rcods " ,t h the li'ing wo rM anti " iii. mher men
fo r hi5 ,Jlare o f TC5OtIr<:C"i. The
m"" ' m cnl o f exuda tion
(of
of li\it'lf;! matte r impc k Mill. and Ill' unnot ....op i l :
OHT. bciJlf! 'It d w ' Ullllni l, hi, SO'\
ignll in the
iOt'ntifies him " ilh
rflU\'cmcnt: it deseines him, in a prh ilt"J..>t:ll
" "), to lhal gloriou..
to u""le, ' o.JnSUmlll i"". If he
d e nie.. th is, as he i.!> con.stant l, u ....
"0
th e COI'lSl iQUSllCSS
o f a IICu IDt"h 01";10\ ind igt'no' in llc n:n l in se parate beinl-:s (w hic h
are (;onstaJlll) ....lOft llf n-,,>U t(t'S. \\ hich arc nOlhing but elcmal l}
incH. illll.!],.,). his denial docs nol aher t he glubalmo"'nll'n l
of
in Ih., lcaeu T he larr... ""l1m,1 accumula te
in t he productive
t'wntlJ" II), like a river into the
il is
bou nd 10 escape U\ antl lw losl In us.

War Considered os 0 Cetostrophic E"pl'lldirurl'

of Excess Ilergy
does ncx (;hange tho- final l)llll.ume in
s li)lluest. '\'1' ca n il!nor<.: or lUl"get the filll.l thu the gro...lIlll wt'
on
is IItd e ud ....r lhan a field of mu ltiple desreocnoos. Our ignlll'lllt e
on l) "as lhis IJl('OntNitabie efIect: II (;,luSt'S U.. III Ilfltkrao \\ hat we
l Ollld briny "boot in cu r own \\a). if ,..' U....
It dcprhc..
, I

...... ...ccu .. .. u ......... n ..

us "f tl w c hoke 01 an

that m il/:ht suit us. Abo...., al l. it

c o ns igm men and thei r " orl!; to Qlta.\trophic

l'or

it we do I10l I"" .. the jorcc 10 dl:'>l:I1') (he 'ilJrplus cnt>rgl ocrsejves,

it (annot be U'it'(I, aod, like: an unhroken anima l t llllt cannot be
uained , it is t hi s Clle'll) tlMt GCSI Wp
it Is we ,-Ill) p<l) t he
pr ice o f l Ilt' inc. uablc c1Iplos ion,
These
of lifc lOree. "hich
block the ,,'H""'-"St
I"t;onomi cs. an" In fact the m"..r ,I.l.'-.gc rous lao o rs of ru inahon.
He nce relie\iog t.... blockage "it!> " lw;api. if o nl} in the d arkes t
",'gion of r-onsciouvness, the objet;t 01 a few-ish pu rsuit , Am. iCnt
sccicn ..\ k amd rc licf in to"tl" als; sc me e ree h,.1 admi rable ll1onurnenrs that hao:1l1o useful purpose; "C use lilt" excess to mu ltiply
anrl " .. an- led to rc;;>[)';(w1}
"servtces" tI,,,t mJk life
part of it b) inc tl' ni nf1; lei su re ti mc . Hut rbcse ,Jj, ersion.. h..,e
al wJp 1I..en in a,lcq uat<:: Their exhtCllCt' in ( xu "'
.. (in
ce rratn respects] has perpe tua lly doomed multitudes o f h uman
h.. illgS and J;teal
o f useful goo<h W f he dcslTUeti. ,n ..r
..'ars. In OUr tim.., tho: ru lar ive irnpoerancc of M!11t'O c nnflkL\ has
.......,
it
l<IllTl on the .k<,.;o..\ trous proport ions of \' hit:h
w .. .. re '''''<In'.

Rece nt history is till'

()f the S03ring
of indu!>t rial
aeth it). At 6 ..... th is pro lil;" mocerncne rot r.tincd martial "'1hit)
I') absorb ing til" ma in part o r t he " Il'CCSS: The
... lop rnet1l (Jf
modern i(l(lusu) )irl. lw th t" peri...1 nl rdati.... pral" feo rn 1815
to 1914 .J o.-.doping in
"ay. irll: rcasillg the R:..'>OUfU"lo , rhe productivc lim e ' made posst bl .. ill the same I,,' rind thc rapid demogr.tphlC expansion (Jf the a<.!,......... rfl countrio.:\ (tlli.!. is lhe
a:;,pecr o( the
l>roliferation of t he fact o"").. But in the lonJ:;
run IIw 1/:""'"1:h lhal tilt (t'(;. hn ical ol ""'l,'CS rnede p'",...iUle became
diflicuh til sestain. It becarn.. p rodecriv e ..1 an ine re- .a.';t:(l surp lus
its.,If. -, h,' First World War broke out before i ts limits "ere Tl'ally

reache d , e 'e n lox..<lll). ' Inc Scn lfl(l did not it wll

'.

tha i til"

COil I,I

not

'I' furtlwt

vel) or in 'I n}

G'St'

of a hail in ,In-d-

But it wdl;hctl II ...

o p me n t and ceased 10 e njoy t he opportunities of a gro" , h lha '

ncoI hing " I'IK,st><I. I t is
that t I...
p ld ho ra was

'I I

the o rigin of

recen t wars. particularly the fir!>!.

it ""as th is
rh,u [,()lh wa'"
d",m li,.. ir ..xt r"" n linarx int.. nsity.
to be

ern l p rinc i ple o fan excess o f

irs s ize was "h"l

t h.. g.. ncons jde red

t' K>n" rrow 'Il"Jpt'

'" t he effect o f"
m O\-'.. n \('n, tI'''1
it, t rag ica lly illllm inat..,,,
o f f",:t,;
mo reove r, il lake s on a
tha t no one can deny. \ Ve can

(bCY' K"K1

tilt' h ll llt' Ilf a\'Ilid ing 'I wa r t hat " Irea,') t h reate n s. Bu t in
o rdoor 10 d o

SO

we m ust <live n the surp lus produc ti on, either into

t h<;- rational eXlem ion of a drfllc ul r industria l growth, ell' into

Ilnl'T< Kl u ctive \mrks tloat w ill , Ii,;.s i..... tc an e nergy rhar can not be
accumula ted in a ny case. This raises numerous p roblems, which
cx h'llIsnngl)
One can be skep tical ofarriving easily
" I the pracrtcxl sol u tion, they de mand, bu t
interes t thq ho ld
<I tt'

is u nq ue sti onab le .
I w ill Mmp ly sta te, with out wa it ing lu rt hcr, that the exte nsio n of econ o m ic growt h itself requires the overturning o f econo mic p rinci ples - t he o ve rtur ning of th e et hics tha t
t he m . Chimg ing fro m til(' pcrspccnvcs of re5Irict;", economy to
those o f yeolcrol economy actually accompli shes a Co pernica n transformatioo: a reversa l o f thi nk ing - an" 01e thics. If a p.1rl of wealth
to a lUugh es ti mate) is doomed to de struc ti o n ur 'II least
to u nproduc tive usc " ithout any poss jblc profit, i\ i' logical, even
jn5<::fJfK' H e, to surre nder commcd iucs withou t return . l-lc oocforrh ,

lea ving aside pu re a nd

(Iissi pation. analogous to the con-

struc tion 0 1 t he Pyramid s, th e poss ib ilit> o f pursu ing grow th is

T h c industrial developme nt of th e
Its elf su bo rd ina ted to
e n tire wo rM d e man d s o f Ame ricans tha t t he) lucitlly grasp t he

'<

eecessny. Ii,r.ln .-conomy such

11,.,;1"<, 0 1 h.wing a l1Iar/<in o r
pmntles!. opc rauo....\. An immense
c;an"l11 be
managed in Ihe Q I1IC " " ) (hal o ne c hanl-,'<:\ a lire.... h

a circuit 01 ccsnuc CIIt'I}O" o n "hich it

which II (:a nnOI
Iimir, and " hO'i<' I,J,\\ i I u nn O( igllOf'C \\ uhour l-on!I'C II IlCIX t o' .
\\0.- 10 mo'o(' "00, In lhe ,....") .. nod, in,l;W on
(ftc rt1U""Cmcm rhar <"xu:c:ds d ,e-Ill " j(h rbe nar1"U" miuJ o f the mec,. l,ank
" ho d,ol"l.'C!i a tlT'C'.

Laws of Ge ne ra l Economy

Th e Supcratnmdoncc O( lIi ochc micClI f.ncroy

and Growth
T hOll OIS 01 ru le OIn o rganism h as 011 its di s po sal g rea te r .. nng y r.. -

sou rces th an arc nccc\''><' T)' fOr Ih.. opc ra t.ions du n sustain life (fu ncdonal

eod , in

esse n tia l muscu lar e xe rcises. the

s..a rch for food] is evident frlJm Inn c n o ns li ke g T(Jw tl , OI l',,1 r" prodUL,t io n. Neither !<'T(Jwth n or repro d uction wo uld be po saibl.. if
plants a nd ani m aL, d ie1 tloI lt no rma n)'
01 an excess. T he very
pri nci ple lJfli l' ing ma ile r re q ui res t hat th " chemical
u fl ite. o.htch dem and an expe nd it ure of ene rl,'Y, be gai nful, IJru duc rive o f slirp lus..s,
Let us conside r d
animal . a calf. (In o rder not 10 go
100 d e eply into th e ma tter, I wi l] first I\,a\'e nstd.. t l,.. d incrOO lll
co ntribut io ns o f OI n ima.1o r h u ma n ..n.. rgy that enable
be p rodu c..d ; t'\'c ry

100J

10

d epe n d s o n t h e c o n t rib u t io n o f

cont rib ut io n is favo rable, it .. "tracb the n..cessary energy fmm it , b ut "il hoUI it th e organ b m wou ld soo n
elie. ) h1l1<;l i" n,,1 "t:l iviLy
jJdl1 o f th e available e nergy. b ut
the anim al com mands an ex cess d' ar e
it s g rowlh. Llndc r
normal co nd il io ns , a jJdrt 01 this
is
in l:u mi ngs and
go ing;, h ut if th e croc k g nm t:r
to k cp it inacti ve, th e
r uhc rs, and if

'7

volu me o f tho- c.all llt'"..fil.'i; t he

II tbe calf i.s nOl

growth no lo ngtt

'la,

in IOC loem Ilf f;ll .

ing

the mome n t cernes w hen rhe Tnluct"(1

all o f an increascd

C1(Cf'SS;

lilt' u l f

tllt'n "'ache!. wx ual m aruri l}: i h vita l fon: e. an' d e voted m.;u n l)
t o tilt' t urhuIO'nc" o f tht bu ll in the case 01 a malt , 0 1 to prq!-

I""

pr" d uc t l()ll o f m il l in the m o f a f..ma ll'. In a

q.nw. rl' prod uct ion .sig n ilil".'i a
fro m ind i' i(lual glU" rh

1loUlC}

tv

and

Thill o f a group.

If the male l.s

Irs iodi, iduol volume

again iocrc.:JSe'5 for a lilllC and" con"'drra M.. amou n l o f

extracted lra m il .

,\,0 ,""

il;

[fl nat ur e Ihr.... i\ ,..1l arTific ial (an efling o f th.. nl""ht,rn. nor
is the re c;utr.lt i(lIl. II " , con venie n t for rn e to choose a (Io m" llt ic animal

<IS

an cxampl

hilI rh .. moveme nts o f "nimal m au..r

are ba.sicallr rbc semc In all e.tl.t'.s. ()n the who le. the ceccse
provide s [or rllt' growth o r th e t urbule nc e of im !ivjd uills. ' rhe (.,llf
and th t' C'l\\ . th.. IJull and the Ox merely erld a nd'lt'r anc' I1IOl"e
familiar ill u.st rat iun o f thi ' gre at m ovemen t .
p hlllt.s m a n if..,.s t the same excess. b ut it i.s m uc h r nor.. pronounced in rhctr
T ht:} a.... not hing Lilt jZlo" t h and rcproduc rinn ( t hc CIll'rg) nec:.CSSMy IOr tht-ir fUlICl ill"..1 ec...h; ry is rq:liblc),
Rut
indd'inil e e xu bera ncc m ust h.. cun..
1 in rd at ion 10

i.,..,...

the concI ilions that rnake it l)()S5ible - and Ih at limit il .

Th e Li m its 0/ Grolt'th
I w; 1I speak briefl} Wuut th e ffiO.'it

co nclit jons o f life.

n n o n e cruci,dl) iml'0rrant fac r, So lar (OfWTE!-) Is t he

loOU YCe o l li...s cx ul..",m o C\e!o p mc n l. The
and I"SSt"nCf"

of ocr
f"nI"'R)' -

iIfl'

in , he ooiarioll o f the SUIl. which

wealth - " ithout all) m um. !he sun gi\"O " itho ut cw r

rece iving. " k n "ere conSdOllS of Ihis lo ng he l0....

rncasurcd I hat c...asclcss

tJ>e}

sa\1

it ripe n 11M' hal"\'t"51S

and thry :lS.IOCwt t'(! ill> "l>lend or \1Irh t he 'let of sorllt'Ol M' who gi""1>

"

LA WS OF G E N E " " " . C O" OMY

without recei\'inli' It n..' ;...." ")' "I

point to l1<)t.. a d"al o riliin
of mo ral
In form.. r times val"e was
to un p'-o'
duct ive gJol)'. "hereas in o ur dar it is measured in terms of production: Precede nce is given to cnergy acq uisitio n over <.'ne rgy

by' rhe CO!1Se<Ju..ncex 0 1a glonous deed in the sphere o f utili ty. But , d orninared lh o ug h it is
by practical judg rn<.' nt and Christian m orality, the a rchaic sensibiljty is st il l alive: In particula r it reappears in the ro m ant ic protest against th e bo urgeois wo rld; anI)' in t he classical conceptions
o f the econo my does it lose irs
e nr ird r
So lar radi atio n r..sulrs in a superabu ndance of energy o n t he
, urfact' o f tilt' g lohe. Rut , first , li \'ing me ucr rc cclccs thi s energy
an d accum ulates il " it hin the li", its g i\'en b}' the space that is
availa ble to it . It then radia tes o r squa nders it. bur befo re decoriog an a p preciable share to t his rad iation it mak.." lIIaxirrm m use

expenditure. Glory itsel f is

Onl y t h.. impossihilit y "I' co n rinu in g gro" lh

o f it to r
mak"" wa}' fur squande r. He nce lhl: rl"al
d ocs not beg in until
thl" growth of the individual or g rou p has reac hed its lim its.
Th c immedia te limi tati o n. for eac h indi vidual or each group.
is g h'C/) b}' the o ther inrlh-idua]s o r e ther jl;roups. 8m the t ..rrt>swhich corresponds to the

trial sphere [to be exact, t he

spaa' available co lile, Is the only real lirni l. The indMdual or group
CJl1 be reduced by a not he r Indi vidual o r anot he r g ro up, but th e
t otal volume of li \ing nature is not changed; in short, ir is the
size o f th e terrestrial _space rh ar limi ts o\'eralljl;lO\Ylh.

Prcuutc
a m l.. lh<: 5urface o f the g lob..: is invested by life t o rbe ex tent
possible. By and Lily<:' the
01 life adapt it to tht' a\Jilable reso urc es. so that sp;w t' is i ts
limi t . C" rl:,in ,lisa/lvan w h..,,, th" ch..rnical OI lt'rali o ns essential to IiI'" cannot
lali"(]
lake place, seem 10 have no n;<lll"..istence. Llut taki ng int o acco unt
'9

to ex uberance, it is no rlo ub r p"",ihk

t he problem raised precludes

any grow th po,",iI, I... wh3 r
rh.1r
"to

l ...

ha\'t'

If '

me 1t fi,r g row t h , Rllt

SUl'p", ing rh.. n- is no lo ngt'T

to I)t' done with I h.. "...,thing ..nt'Tgy

nollo """ il. And y.. t, whol t

\Va.,t.. it

a d rain ing.a""y, a pun: and stmple loss,

IYhi<h OC<un

in

any cao;c: Fro m t he firs t, the excess e nergy'. it it cannot be

fo r growth,
lo st . Moreover, in 110 "ay can th is
loss
be accounted woe ful. lt only a matter o f an acce ptable lo ss, prefe rab le to a nol he r that is reg'lrd ed as un ac ce pt abl e: a questio n of
<luepwbili1r, no t utility. It s consequences arc decisive, howe\er,

The
Effec.l of Pressure: Ext ension
11 is ha rd 10 d e fine and prec rsr-ly rf'prf',enr rh.. pre','u r.. 11,,,,
exerte d. It both co mplex and e lus tve, bUI one l'an .!..
its
..11.. c t " An illlag.. "om"s to m in,], rh..n, b ut 1 1T1llSt sa) in "IT"ring il l.holl u illuslr;, ln Ill., n'lIsc' lllell ccs yel <J ot's n o l gj"c a Conc re te idea o f the ,-ails".
I magi ne an im m e nse crowd assembled in t he expectat ion o f
wi t nf.'5sing a bu llfigh t that w ill ta ke pla c e in a bu llring that is too
small. The c ro"d "ants bad ly to e nter bu t ca nnot b e e n ti rely
accomm o da ted. r,'lany people must wait outs ide. Similarly, the
possibili ries o f life ca nnot be realiz ed in dcf nite JY'; they arc nrn-

ir ed by the space, just as t he co rry of t he c rowd lim itcr] L,-' the

n u m ber 0 f s.,;,r,; in t he bu Ilring .
A first e ffect o f li lt'
wi ll be In incre.;\<;c rhe. numbe-r
01 seats in th e b u llri ng.
rr t he sec uri ry service is " e1 I'o rgani/e<1. rhi s nu mb.. r is li m
il.nII Jr" ci st'J)". R il l outsi,k l.h"re IlL"}" 1)(, tree s ami lamppost.., from
th <; to p o f which th" .Jr<;"" is vistbl.. , If tl lt; .: is nO I'<;g ulac.i o n
against it , the re " ill be p e op le w ho w jl] cl im b the se tree s an d
lamppost.". Similarly, the ea rth flrsr opens to ljfc the pri mar)' space
o f the wa terv and the surface o f the ground. Rut li fe (Iuic kl y ta kes
l'

' ..... ,, <:0:: ........ 0::0

possession o f the air. '10 s ta rr w it h, it ,,-as impo n ant to

the surface of , he g r.....n

.. of plants, "h>ch a bsor)l<; the

rad ia nt ene'll} o f lig ht. 1 he supcrpostnoo <11 I..

in th.. air

e xtends the colc me o l rhis subst aece c.m, icl.. r.tM, : In panic ular,
the structure o f Irt"'E"S rlnd op!i mi, p"", illlh ,} "ell bc)ond the-

It"'-d of the gr.l'a:S. l or tho'ir P"" tho.. " ingnl tosec es mel th e
in the " ili of lhe> pollen:.. in- Ilk the air.

The Second qferr of Pressure: Sq uander or Luxur}

But tht' lad : o f morn can hacr- ano the r d 1-1: A fight rna} brc...k
o ut al the c nlnnet'. Irl h -cs a rt' lost the e xcess o rimli\ i(II1,,15 crer

the "" ",b..r

.,f \rat;. " ill d ec-case. 1 his e Dect \\"01'1... in a een....

the pressure re suhs in Ih.

co" t",'1' to tIlt' first o "e.

clearing 01 a new space. o t her rim e;" in th e erasing lJf \>o...., il." I,ncs in excess of th e ,wailnbl.. roo m . This last effc c t o pe rates in
na ture in

ti lt:'

most \,;) ri.d

fi ln TlS,

Th.. tm '" re markablc is death. As we krx m , dl' ;)rh i' n n t neet'3o"Sa l), 'I he sill1 pll klm 'lS o l'l ill: are im mo""I: 'nit' !>irtll of ;" 1 o rgan"
ism rcprotl uc <-od rhroug h schsil'a ril) i,lo\l in th.. ru in s of rim e.
Indeed, il Ulnnot be !>Clid 10 h.H .. had peo-r us. ral... lor exam ple
the doubles A' ancl A", w..."lting f. o m thoc
in t" () of A; A
tw. nol ceased Ih ing " ith the c.om i"i! into
A'; A' i.. " il l
A (and tfw g mc t rue o f A" ). llul le t us S111'lX>M' (Ih is is pur..l)
th..o rchcal , for thto pu tpose' of derncresrrari on] tha t IlIth.. beginning o f Iir.. t ..... re """ j llst o m: of t hese infi ni lninW creatures.: It
"-OlIlel nont'th.-l t'M h", .. qllicl.l) (lo pu latcJ the- ea lth wit h Its S()Cci e-s. Afln a short umc. in t heory, reprod uc t io n wo uld han '
I,...o::-om" impossi bl" for J",,'" of mom , and th t' t'11C'rg) it ut
could have
g. in Ih t fo rm of hea r, "-\olt'()\cr. this
is " ha t happees to
o f ,h.. 'iO'
dllcl. ....ced ,
which co,t'n. a po n ti " im a llrcen film , afte r wh tc h it rrma tnv in
eq ui librium. f or lilt' tlud,,, ecd, sp.JCc is
" ithin Ihe 11.1Tm'1vl)
l'

L " "' S O F G ENE" " L E C O N O "',

de tcnnmed lirmrs o f a pond. But the stilgn;lt io l\ 01 ti ,e

is not c onceivable o n th e scale of the entire globe.

in an y

case the n ecessa ry e q u ilibri um is lackinj.!. It can be j.!ranced (theort'tically) thilt a

P,...SSUlT

e veryw he re equal to itself would result

in a state of rest. in a general substituti on of he ar lo ss K)J" repro

ducri on. Bu t re al pr e ssure ha-, diffe ren t re su lts: It pUIS u ne q u al

OIgan imls in co mp e titi o n" ith o ne ano the r; and although we cann ot say h m ' t he species take IMI1: in t he dance , we Can say what
the da nce is.

Be vides t hp pl' (" rna l an ion o f lif" (cl imatic o r volcan ic p henom e na), the uneve n ness o f P I"CS.'iIJlC in Ii , ing m atter contin ually
makes avail able t o grow t h the p lace le ft vacant by death. lt is no t
a new sp ace, amI if nne c o nsid ers I a<, a \\
the re is n ot reall y
growth b u t a main tenanc e o f vo lume in b'Cne raL [n o ther ...o rds.
the po ssib le g rowth is reduc ed to a c o mpe nsa tion fo r the destructi ons t hat <I re brought a bou t.
I insist o n the fac t that there is ge ne"'lIy no grov\l h Lu t (JlIly
a luxurious squand ering o f energy in c\'el)' rorm! ., he h istory o f
life on eart h is m ain ly t he e ffec t o f J wild exuberance; t he d o minant event is the dewlopment ol lu xur j; th e production o fi nc rea\ingl) bu rde nsome fo rms o f li fe .

The Three Luxuries of Nature:

Eali no . Death and Sexual Reprodu ction
T h e cating o f on e "pedes by an other i<, the
u ry. T h..

f(>rrn of lu x-

rhar
trapp.. ,1 " y th .. (;er",,, n aT"'y
th o: 100.-1 sho rtage . a , u Jg <trI7ed kno\\"lcdgo: o f

aC'1uin_.<:J. tha" ks to
thi s burdenso me c ha rac te r o f the indi rec t d evelo pmen t ofl ivi,,!<:

matl..r. If on.. c u ll i\'JI .. po tato..s o r wh..at, rh.. lal1,l\ y i..I,I in n msuma b le c alo ries b mu ch g reater than th at o f llv e stoc k in m ilk
and m eat for an equivalent acreag e 01 pasture . T h e least b urde llS() ' n ..

limn of Iif.. h rhar o f a gtt't'n micro..orga n im l (i1],mr],ing t he

B

sun's ene'R) thrHIII-oil l"'" <lCll., n o f d1l.oroph}lIl. bur J.'I'llm ll) 'r-gelation is less burdensome than ani m",l lir... ' 't'J..''lat ion q uidJ )
the a'etil",H ..
An;ma b male it a
of
and exrend
..\ In th is y,-a) '; the}" thJnSf:h't"'> t1t",..ln(>
rnoee slo I). I" thi s respect, the wil d beast at the :>I.mun it: Its
continual dcpredll t lons of dep ....,b ton. r .. pr-Cstnl an im m en..e
W ill iam Rbok asle.:l the
"I n \\ hal
S<juanderirtg elf
decpe o r sl.ics burned rh.. II..., o f lhi nt:
Whal , tru<. l
hi m in thi s \\-') ,,-as (h e cru cl
"t the li mits n f pn....ihi llt).
the riJ!Cr's im m t>mo< powe r of
o rlife . In t he
..ra l
eArneo.c....... ,. uf lili.:, the tib>er h a poinr 01extreme ill( aralesce-ncc,
inc a1lCl('S(;cncc did in lac r hum lin.t in the remote 1.II' pths
c f thc
in th"
I,ari ng !,ri ngs dc.lLh. but in an acc identa l lorlll. V/ tlll cflf1 ...able luxurie. , delilli, Wit Slaud and tnexorabte form, ufl<Joub'cdJ.
I},e mmt wst1r. '1 he fragili l)'. the .,mpl.,x il), of the an imal hod}'
alr..ally t'xl'ibib
lu xurio us (]ualit). but thi , fr.lgilir)' .\J1l1 lux Ill) (-ulmmatc in death , JIl\t aJ; in spael' t h e rru nk s ancllmmchcs
o r t he n-e e raise.' the..
...1 sta/,,>Cs o llhr lolilljtC to the
ligh r. dearh ,I rihlll cs tho; p;.-..,.;,go.: of t ht.:
()\l' r ri m...
It (:o llstan tl )
Ihe necessary room lo r I....
of 1tM:

nc" born . and" .. a....

'> ronS! 10 CUBe 1M

om " ,' /wut .. !>om ' <C'

,.-..uId flOC ".XI"I.

In rt'alit). " hc:n "e curse death W<" Ofll) k ;rr oun.t' ln '.l>: The
\C\cr1r}' o r our .. i ll is "hal ma"C"i us u-embl<". \\1. lill"
"hen " e d ream 0 1
the mocernen r of Juxut il' u' ('A ube r,U\I;X o r \>hich we ar<" o nl} the moer intrflSt> form. O r perhaps "e
onl) lic to oUr!;t'h "", In tho be ginning tM better to e"periencc
the se\e ri') o rt hi, " , II afie rward ,
il to the rigoroos
e xtee me ofconsctousness.
In t his rcspece. IhE' h, xur)' o f "C"dl is n:ganl..d b) us in tho.'
same way as th;,t o f M' Au" lit ) . first ,n a Ilcl/:aliOl, o f o uescb e-

L A WS

" .. N .. " A L

the n - in <I sudd..n reversa l - a, rhc pm!c)lJn.llruth ofihar m onom e n t o f ", hich lile is t he mani! ...station.
Under the prese nt co nditions, independently o f o ur c o nsc ioustogether w ith eating <lnd death, nne
ness, sex ,,,,1 re p rnrluc t inn
"f lh.. W't'<lt

,It'tlllJl'" that ...nsur.. the inte nse c o nsurnp-

t ion o f t:n.."J.V. Til I>q,<in w ith, it il'Ct'nt"at.... rh"t \\ hie h 'Ci,-,ip.lrit)'

<lnno unced: th.. divisioJl

Vy w hich th e

foregoes

g rO\\ l h for hi m self and, rbrough tht: lIIult;pl ic<llion 01 ind h id uills, tnnsfe rs it to th e Irn pe rso n alitv oflile. Fhis is because. fro m
th e first , sexu31i1)' differs fro m rniserlj growth: If, "ith legiln:l to
t he species, ,exuali ty ap pears as

<I

gro\\ th. in princi ple it is nev-

ert heless the lu x u ry o f tndt vtdual v. Th is cha racie rtsuc i, more

acce ntuated in sex ual rcproduct scn, where the individ uals engt'nd ered are d earl y '>Cparate h'o m those that e ngender th e m <l nd 8111'
t11c m li fe as one 8ivc. tn tJt!>,,,. BIlt wit ho ut renou ncing a sub,c(11It'n t return to t ht' principl.. o f growt h for t he period of nutri ti on, the r..p ro duc tion o f the h ig.l,..r an i"",I, has n o t ".."'H ! to
d e e pe n the fa ult rha r sepa rate-s il fro m tlt c , im p l,' 1..

to

1'-'3t in order to incre ase volume an rl powe r. For lh..-se all;Hlills sexlJal re produc tio n is t he occasion of a sudden 3n d fnn lie squand..ri ng o f .. Ilt'rg )'
Glrrie. 1 ill a moment to the lirm r 01
possiLiHt}'(in ti m ..
the 1iger is in 'I),Ke). ) h is s'lualldering
goes far beyond II hat wo uld be sllfficient fo r the gro\\ th 01 rh..
s pcc tcs. It app e ars t o be th e mos t t hat an ind ivid ual has t h e
strt'l1:/-! rh TO accom plish in agi"en momen t. It leads 10 the who leSOl ie des truction o f p roperl y - in sp iri t , the d est ru ction o f bodies a:. we ll- anduht rnatelj- connectv up wit h the senseless luxurj
an d exccsv o f d eath.

Ex te nsion Th rolJoh Labor Dlld TeclIIlDIOflY.

o lld the /.ux lJ ry Df MOrl
fI.'I <ln's dL t i..ilf i, I>a'ica ll}' n llld il ion..,1
H

..n t'ral m.......m..nr

H -E ,, " " U R S E D So<"''''

o f life. In a sense, in c.>t('flJion,

aelivil}' o pt' ns lip a nt' ''" pos,iin
blli t}' to life. a new space (as did tree branches an, lllir,]
nalun:). Tl w
t hai labo r anc1 technical kn o,, -ho" o pen to
th e in c re ased reproduc tion of ITlt'n is nut, in t h.. I'r" p..r M' nM',
ont' t h"t life I"" not )'1"1 popula ted. BUI human activity transform ing lilt' world allgrm;nl s rh.. m ass ol lh ing m'ltte r " it h supplemen ta ry apparatuses. compoved o f an i m me nse 'I"antit)" of ine rt
m"Ucr, which consi' !erab lr lncrea ses th e resources of a...nlablc
" "" rgy. Fro ", Ih" first , Illan has ttlt' 0pt'o n ofllti li7lng parr ofthe
available e ne rgy for th e growth (n o t bio logical but t echnical) 01
his .. rwrg}' wea lth. T he techn iqu es have in short made it possible
to exte nd - 10 ,!""..,Iop - the elementar )" m ove ment of g rowtb
thai life realives w ' lh' n the limits 01 the possible. Of co urse, t his
,1t',-t'lo pHlt'nt is nt'ith..r ccnrinuo us nor boundless. Som etimes the
cessatio n 0 1 de vel o pme nt corresponds t o a
of techniqucs: o t her t tm es, t he in,-enti"n of new rcchnlqucs leads to
a re, ul'gt'nce . 'I he growth of e nerg y reso urces can Itself se rve ""
th e basis ora re sumption of bio loglcal (d em ograp hic) gnM lh. T Ilt"
0 1 l-uropc HI the nin eteenth century is t he best (and be st
know n) Illusrratton of th ese vast living proliferations 01 " hicl ,tc, r!l
nical equipment is the ossat ure: \ \ 'e an: aware of t he CJ>tent o f
the popnla rion
li nked at lirst 1O rh c rise 01
! n actual fact the qu antttati vc rel ati o ns "fl'0pulallotl ami !.cx,l"'ilking - and. in gcne ral, t hl' co ndit io ns of econom ic devel o pmen t in hiMor)' - arc subject 10 so many in terfere nces Ihat it
alway s d ifHcuh to de[ermi" c their exact d tstrtbution. In any ca.....,
I cannot inc o rpo rate detailed ana lyses in to an 0' <:1',,11 survey t hat
see ms th e only way' o f olltl ining the vast m ow m cnl " hi" h aniHIMes the earth. BUl t he recent decline in de mographic grow t h
by itsel f reveals the co m plexity ol'l lw
Tht' fa,:t is lhat l he
ll'vh -ah of d evel o pme nt that arc due to hum an activity, Ih"l ar..
mac! e po ssible or maintaine d by new tec hmques, always have a

"

d ou b le e ffec n lnirially, d leYuse a po rtion o trbe

..nng y,

bu t then t he y produce large r an<I larg ..r

,,-",'entlla l1y <onh'ilJ"tt"S to making
mo.... . liffin ,lt, fu r g row Lh
no long..r

,,,me.., to

11M'

it lip_ Al a ce-rtai n point th e ",I"an tage

o f ..xte ns j" n is ne utralize d by the cont raly ad\-antage, that o fl uxur}'; the jo rmc r remains o perati ve, b ill in a disappoi nting - uncertain , o lt en powe rless - ,,-a}_ The drop in t he d e m og raph ic curves
perhaps the firs! indicator o f the chang e o f sign that has occurred:
Hen cdorth " hal ma tte rs primorilJ' is no lo nge r to <leYelo!, the !'ro-

ductivc fo rces but to spen d thei r product s

At this po in t _ im me nse MJ uande rings

aboue to lake place:

Alter a cen tury o f popu lat ing a nd o f indusrrt al peac e , the temp orary li mi t o f d ev elopmen t be irlj! .. nco untered , til e t wo "orl,]
wars o rga nized t h e g re'lIe-x t o rg ies o f " e a ll h - arid o f h u m an
beings hisl ory has r..co rd..d . Yet
coind d .. " jLh
an a l'l'rt'dah l.. rix.. in th.. g..n..ral

o f li\ ing: T h.. ma joriI)'

o f Ih.. po p ulation I,../lt'fits fmm mort' and more ullpro<1uc ri\'e sc r\-je..s; "" rk is red uced anti " age s a re increased o ccrall.
Thus, ma n is o nlv a roundabou t.
res ponse 10 the
pro ble m of g ro" t h. Doubtless, t h rough labor an d te chni que . he
has m ad e possible all ex te ns ion o f grow th
th.. " i.-C I1 lim its. But just as the IlCrbi n m : relati ve t o t he 1,Iant, a nd the c a rn i
vorc -cla rfvc t o th e herbivore , is <l lu x ut}', ma n is tilt' most suued
o f a ll Ii\ing bod ng' to consume intt'nsely. su m pt uously, the excess
e ne rgy' offererl up by the
tilll': the solar origins o f

p reSM lt't

o fltle to cun llag r.n io ns befit-

1I10 ve ment

Tile A ccursed Shore

T h i, tru th is parad o ejc al, 10 the ex tent of be ing exactly con t:J,u)
to ti lt' usual l'e)"{;" I,t ion_
' fl u s pa rad ox ical c haracteris unde rscored by Ihe tact that ,
at t he

po int o f e xu berance, it s sign ifica nce is st ill veiled .

l7

a .., l<CC'JRSu) s .....

Under p.-csenl co ndit.ions, n ,; ryl hing r-onspires

10

obsc ure the

m oveme nt t hat tends to r..slor.. ",.,,,lt h to irs fu nct ion, to

g ifr-gh ing. t o squanderi ng without r..ciproc"lio n. On th.. one
hand. me chanized warfare. prodUCing its raveges,
th is
JTl{ 1W " ,..

w", ..thill alien, host ile to humi\f1 " ill. On the DIller

l)dmt. l h.. raising o f th.- sta ndard oflidng is in no way re pre sen ted
as a rcqutrcmem o f l"xury. T h.. rnov.. me nt rh a r dem ands lt is C'>"C n
a pro tcst aga inst the lux u ry of lht-

I{ ,ITUnel;:

t hus the d e mand

ma ck In the name o f ju,'iu. Wi l houl h'''i ng

against jusli ce. obvio usly, o ne nlily be allow ed to point o ut t hat Iwre rhc
word conceals th e p ro found truth o f its con trary. w hich
pre c h d)' fIefdom. Under the mask 0 1 juvtice , it is nile that

freedom take s Oil the lackluster and neutral appearance o f n isl<:'nc<:'

su lJjecte<llo th e necevsmess If an)t hil1!!. it is a narro" ing 01 li mits to what is most jllst; it is n o t a
breaking-loose. a
m"'aning rh.u rh e wo rd h as lost. It is a guaran tee against rh.. risk
01
.., not a "i ll ro "ssurne rbose risks w ithout w h ich there
is n O freedom.

Opposithm of the "General" Viewpnillt to

the "Particular" Viewpoint

or COUTSe,

the fact o f'bei ng ali-aid. o f tm ning

aWOl}

fro m

d rno.,, -

me-nr of d ilapidat io n. w hic h impe ls us and even dcfints us, is not

T he conseq uences o t this movemen t a re

fro m t h.. s ta rt , T h., im 3gt' of t he tiger revea ls the t rut h of eat ing .
Deat h has become our l1Ormr, i1ncl t houg h in a sense rh.. filet of
being c..rmvo rous and of racinl/: d eath br.we l), a nswers to th ..
demand o f viril it} [ bu t. that a di ffe rcnt rna ere rl] ; sexuillitf is
linked to the scandals 01death and rh e
ofrnenr,e
lJut thi s at mosphere o f malcdlcrion
angUish lor its parr signilics the at.-IKc (or " ..
Slife

and
of the pres-

exerted b )' th e exu be rance o rl il" . Anguish dris..s "hen th e

,8

L"W S

' ' '' ' ' ' ' '' '' .

an x ious ind ivid ual is not hunself srrc rche d rigll t by tilt' fe..li ng o f
sU IX'rab u nrlann-. Th is is pre cise ly w hat evinces th e iso late d , iudi' i d "al d IMdctt'T o f angu ish. -I hen- ,;;In Ilt, nng u ish o n ly fro'" ., pt.-t
so nal, portkular point o f vi,,",, that I<ld icitll) o pposed to tilt' 8ffiCral
po int o f view based o n t h. - exub...ranee o fl ivinjl;
a, a whole.
Angu isll is m..a n ing l.. ss for so m..o n" who owrflows w ith lif.. , .md
fo r ltf.. as a wh o l.. , wh ic h is an o\'t' rllow ing b} its '"u)' lldlur.. .
As fo r the p n>s,'nt h is torical situation. it is characte riz ed by

tilt' fact 111.11 jllllgm.. ms co nCt'nJ ing t h .. J,rnera! si tuation

Im m a pmt iw/l1r poin t o f , icw, A, a rule , portkull1r ..,,,i,,I"I"I(;" alwdy"
ri sks succum b ing for lac k o f reSOllTCOOS. It co ntras ts w ith EF'let<J}
e xis tenc.. who s.. reso urces arc in cxc.. ss and tor w h ich dea t h has
no meaning, Fro m th.. p<Jrlfw}<lr point o f "i.\\", the p roble ms art'
posed m lll<: Iml illltUlicr b)' a d dki..rlol) uf resources. The} arc post:'<.!
in
]ir..., insUmce by an excess of reso urce s if om- start s fro m the
fPwm/ point 01 view, Douhdess t he p roblem o f ex treme pov{" r!}'
re mai ns in an} cas.'. Mo reover. it shou ld b oo u nderstood that EF'1eml crollo my m usr a lso, \\"h ene,cr
and firs t of all, envisag" th e d n ..lo p ment o r gro\\"tn, But if it cot1\i, lt,rs

or

g row th , it ta kes into accoun t tlu- Iimi ts t hat the OIW and tIlt' o the-r
ca n no t
t o c ncoun w r am i the d omi nan t
character
o r th.. pro blems th at follow frOTH th e existence o f surpluses.
Bri c fly consideri ng all examp k-, th o: pro bl..m or e xt reme lXl\" erty in In eli a ca nno t im m e d i:ltd y be di ssociated fro m rill' demog rdp lli<: growth 01 t har <;ou n try, o r fro m th e lac k o f p ropo rtion
with it..\ industria l development. Ind ia's po sstbtltucs of ind ustri al
g row th can not t h e m se! ves b.' rltssocta red from th" excesses o f
Anwrkan
A ty pica l p rol>l..m o r fl<'ncral
fro m t h is situa rlon. 0 0 lh., one h" ",J, the re

e"''''g''''
the nft,d for

Cl;>?<1Om, "

a n ex ndarion; on th e other h an d , th e n.-eil for a growt h. T he present st..t .. o f d ,to ,,"orld is

.1.,1, 0 ",:1 I'Y t.l,.. un",".."n l'S..\ o r th e ( r'U:lO-

tl tative o r q uaIi11l1;' 00) pre-ssure exerted by h u man liroo. Gt'llna l

19

t:Cooom}
t here forc ,
.a C'Krt"C1 upC.'r;'lt ion. .a I r.l"ltfter o f
Am t-rica n wcaldl to India wi t hQUt n ..:ipn ><;;\li on. T his pro posal
ta k..., into acc ount

,h.,th n-a t

'0

America d 'l3t ",o u M

from

Ih., pn:....' tm - an d liite

o f pn 'SSUf(' - e M'rled in th"
wo d,! ll) Ih.,
o j H indu lit.-.
I he\C. corn.i<kr.lIinrn. nt'C'"\.loJ.ril} fin : Gr.-t pnoti l} to thl' pml,.
k ill 01 wa r, "hit;h can be cJl:'O\rl}
.1 onl} in the li)l.ht o f a
fu nc!;lnwntal cbllllition. l llt' ON) 'iOlution In raising Ihf'
ltl,\!l(lanl of n, ' OK und er th.. lurr..n r moral condition!>. Ill(' onlr
of
rhe Am.. ri ull surplus,
r..duci'l! rhe
pressure ro bel ow LIlt" d.1ngcr point.
'1 his theoretical ,:" nt.;" pt io n
lilll... frlll ll th e cmplnc al
,icwlt that ha,e "'cen ll} " I'pt'a rt'tl co ncc nl lfl}; tilt'
but it
m o re radscal, and if is inl<:n ,., ting 10 nole th at d ll-"5o<.' 'il..... ha<,-e
with the ab<n'(' id",u , ,I hich
conflrmalion

a&iNl

"crt'

conce h t:-d c ..rli",r: This

it seene, to IlOdt c onlT..dkti orts.

Th e Solut ions of Ce ne rat t.wnomy an d

"Selj -Con.n:iolJ!Jnt!ss..
Uul it has to I,.. ,'I(lJed at o occ rhar, I"lwn-"'r wd l....Jd ;nlJ II,.. s"luli o n s. their nnph-mcntat jon u n tlk' r(qu irtJ

lhal

is so J iffil:UIt

thO:' OU IM'I the undcn;lki ng har(lI } looL. t'ncourag irl};.

", he loo'.-erical so lution exills; inclCt:'d . Ib

is tar Irom

1'SC;lping rh e nOt ice o f those on whom the decision

to

dep':nd. N....H1hcl.-ss.. ,)lId ...... n mon- dearl}. "hal DeIICTOI

defines hr.t is thO' (' ''plosh-c c har acu. e- o f Ih is \101'1<1. ca rr iel! ro
L1 w e xtr e m e d<::J:n<.<or c"plo-i'1;"
111 th.. prl'St'nl ru ne. A
curse obviousl y weigh", on human life inso far <IS it doc , nor have
the
10 control d
movement. It m USI I,.. sea red
as a princi ple, wit hout
t hat the lirti ng o r weh a curse
clcpt:n<ls o n rnotn
on ilion. Bul il urtnOl: be lifted iflhe
Ill()\y lTlt'Tlr from " h ich il e m.lnate. dol.... nut apPear c l...ari} 1Il un

'"

'{Hiu.me.... In

regard it seems ra t he r d i""p poi nling

LO

have

nothing mo re to propose , as a r.. med r Il" the catastrop he Ihal

t hreatens, than rh.. " raising o fth", livin g standard.' This recourse,

linked to a
to sec, in its fruth, r1w ..x igellc}'
10 " hic h the recourse is in t.. nd..tl lo respo nd.
Y.t if o ne co nsiders at the same rime th e .\e.alness and the
virt ue o f this SO lu t iOll. Iwo things become inune..d iatel) app<1.fenl :
of rathe r wide ace ..p raoce; d Il( l that,
that il is till' o nl} one
as I haw said ,

d ue to
equivocalnatura, it provo kes and srimulares an .,flort of
luc idity 01.11 th", gn'a l",r fo r """eming to be far n-movcd Iror nsuch an
effort. In this way t he avoidance of rh .. trut h t'nsu re., in reciprocal
fashi on, a rcctJgn ilio n o f the trut h. III any cas .., Ihl' mi n c1 o f contf'mporary man wo uld be rel uct ant to c m brac.. solut io ns t hai , not
bdng nl'gal ;' .., were e m phat ic and arbitrary: it (Jl'efcn t hat exernplary rigor o f consciousness which ..lone Inay slo\\ Iy make human

lit....ommens u rate w ith its t r ut h. T he cx posieton o f a flCtlcral

im pl ies lnt c rvt>nl io n i ll publ'" "fT",in;, certainlJj b u t first
of allil nd mun pro tiJundl y, "hilt;t ai ms 01.1 is consciousness, w hat

irlooks TO from tlu- o uaset. is the 'cll-coruaoumcrs that man wou ld

ac hieve in the lucid v;si"n 01 its linked historical forms,
Th us, ffClll'r<11 emnoml lx'gins wi lh an account o f th.' lusrortcal
d at a, rd at ing t he ir In.'ani ng to th .. presem dow,

,'

P ART

Two

The Historical Data J

The So c l e t

o f Co ns u m p t io n

Sa c ri fi c e s and "Van; of the Az t e c s

Society nj' Consumption and Society 0/ Enterprise

I wi II d.. scri be St'b uf social facts mani ft';!;ling a gt::neral move m..1ll
of Ih,' ..COIlOI1l>,
I \\,,.,,l1O Slal.., a principle fm lTllhc oulsd: fly tld, nil ion, Ihi s
mo vement, lhe
01 w hich is pl"O(liga li ly, is far from bei ng
\Vhi le ' he.... is an
o f res Olin ;"", o H::r n e .. ds
e 'i " ,,1 to

(lll,.. "i ng r...iil ncn l" suc h lh" l a

WO U1.1su Ilcr if ti ll'" "'CrC
not 5ol t islit:,l) , th ts ex cess not a lway' consume d to no p U'"]XlM'.
So<;i..ty <;a n grow, in whic h ca.w t h....xct'''"' is .l.-liber"t.. J)' .....'i('rv 1
for grO\' lh. (jrowth n -gulari z" , ; il chan nds a dtvord..rly e fkn
cence into the regul arit y 01 p rod uct ive o peratio ns. Rut growt h,
a
to wh ich is t il,"d t h.. devdo pmt'nt o f knowk,Ige, i, by
tra nsitory static. It cannot conti nue inde flnitdy. Man's sd.. nee obviomly has t o c orrec t (h e pers pectives that result from (he hiMurlc a l condhtc ns o f its d aoorMi on. Nothing is m ore .1 iffi::ren t from
ma n enslaved to the o peratio ns o f growth than ( he Il:" l3ti\"t:: ly free
m an 01 stab le soc ie ties. The c ha rac t er o f hllrna n lili::: c hangl:"!i th e
m oment it ceases to be ,lluioe d by fantasy and
to /lie d the
d e ma nd s o f u nderrakings rha e e nsure rhe p rolife ration o f giwn
wo rks. In the same wa)" the [ac e o f a m an c ha nges ifht' goes fro m
tht, turbulenn' o f lilt' night to the serio us b usiness o f thl' morn -

, "

S"" R F

The serious humanity o f growth becomes c ivili ll',1, mOT(' ge nw ith the , ..Iu<; .. f lil... a nd

tl e, hil t it tends to nlllfuw

Iil,: \ tranq u il dureuon with

poetic d}'n.1mism. Um..k-r these c ond it io n s th e cleM k nowl .. dg" it g" ll.. rall y h a s of th ing' c all1 lOt
become a ful l self-know ledge. h b m i51,O IJ) "hat it takes tor full
h u manity. th at i" human it}' ,U "1Jrl, Ih ing in order to wo rk " ithOU t eve-r tu lly .. njuyi ng th e fruit , of us labor.
thoo man
who is n: lati\'l'l) idle or at lcasr uncon c erned abour hlv ac hievernen t, - lht: typt discussed in both tlh n<Jgraph) an d hisl OI")' i, n ot a corl'um m"t.

111<\[1

<:itlwr. Kut 11'0 helps us to gaugt that

w h ich we l",c l.:.

Consumption in th e Al'tec \Vo,.,d y;e w

"J be Anff s, "hour whom I "ill 'p".. k first , arc IlOk , <l,JMrt from
m OIOlIl ). ,\s a civifization is judg t-d

iv. worb. tht'ir ci' ilin,

ti on seems w retched to us, f he y used wri ting a m1 were versed

ill ",t",nom)', but ..11 rhcn - importan t uml.. n akings ",,'n ' usdes,:

T h ei r sc i<:nce of architecture enabled them to c onstruc t pyr.lmt(b

'l!l

tu l' of whi c h l.l,..\, illunol;' l" d h lllll.ml Jei ngs ,

-I hei r world vicw

Singularly and diametrical ly o ppo sed to

t he acrtvtty ori"nred p,' rsp ..r t i, .. that wI, h<lH'. Consurnprt on

loomed just <IS larg " in th eir t hi nk ing a' pro,luclinn docs in ours.
'l"11<'Y were [usr
concerned abou t sarr,!irITl f/ ;1\ wI"
about

"vrkmB'
The sun himsel f

ill t ht' ir eyev t he ,'x pyt'""ion 01 \acr ilk ...

I k w<l.\ a god .-e\ e m bling man. Ht' had be-come the sun
ing h imse lf into the' flames o t a bras fcr,

hurl -

T Il(' Spa ni, h Franciscan Bernard ino de Sah al<un, w ho w rote

in t he middle of

ti lt'

'ixtec nth century, repo rts what some old

A; I" cs told h im :
I t is ,'\<l id Ih.U Ix 'iore Ih" ligh t o f day existed, the g '){!- ass em-

hl....l at the place call..d "le-otihaucan ... ano.I spoke among themselves,
" \\'1,0 \' ill rake it upon himl.t:' lf t o bring light 10
, h{ worklr On hear ing rhese wOr<b, a god c alled T<:c ud n t"C"t1
..nt..d hirm.. lf an d rcpli..d: "I willbe the one. I will brirlJ;!
light t o the \' orld ." T he gods then spoh' "!lain and said: "\Vho
d se amo ng you?" T hey loo ked at on" ..nol hn th" Tl , wond .. r
ing w ho thi s wo uld be, and none dared accept t he chargtO: all

""..rc afraid and made excuses, One o f the ,gods who usually
wem unno ric cd did not say anyt hing hut o nly lisl..ned III wl,al

the o ther ,!lods ""..,'.>

The cth.. 1> spo ktO 10 him. !taying.
" Ld it b.. yo u, bubosJlO." AmI he glad I}' acce p!{'d. l"l'P1ying: " I
receive your order gratdully; so Ill' it ." And th.. two th at
chose n btgJO immedi..teJ) 10 do pe n<lnce. wb ieh last ed four
days. fh .. n a fire was li t ill a hearth made in a rock. . .. T he
god named 'Icc uctzrccarl o ulv Off{'H'il costly
InSl"o1tl
of b ranc hes he offered ric h le athe rs ca lled 'lurtwlll;
grass b.11lS h" offe n-d go ld o nes; instead o f meguvy
he
offered spin..s made with precious
and
of bloodied spines he offered sp inl>' o f n ..I co ral. AOll rh.. copal he
offered was 01a \ eI) high qualirj. Th{' bvOO50,
name was
Nanauatztn, ofTcr.. d nin e g reen water rus h("s bound in t hrees,
ins k ad of o nlina ry bran ches. lit: o ff{'l"{lI
of gras\ anti
m 01.j:!:ut'y spines bloodied " ith his o""n blood, and
.. ad " f
copal h..
tlw sca bs of his bubru.
A to wer was made lor each of t h""e t wo gods, in th.. fo rm
of a hill. O n the se hil b tht'y . li.I pt' nan{;t' fo r four nigh " .. ..
Afi..r th.. rour nights 0 / pe naocc were com pletccl. th{ braoch{'s
and all lht' ot her o b jects th e)' had used ,,{'re t hrow n down
tht'le. Th{'
night,,, little hdi,l1.' m idn ight, wh..n Ih..y
were IU do their o lfice, ' Ii-cucizrecatl was gh-ell
a.\nmmenLs.
These cons ist..d of a headdr es s of ,rLlaWfrul] feathe rs and a sleeveless jacke t. As for Nanauat vin, t h{ h"ho<o, they rtcd a pa pt< r

headdress, call..t1

O il

his hair lInd gil"l' hi m a paper

stole and a JXlp.. r rag lor paJll5 tu "''''' '-. \V h.." mi dni ght h"d
come, all the gods gatlwred round the Il.. arth, which "<IS 1.:<lII..d
t ootc>:mlli, wh e rc the fir" had burn,d fo r fo ur .1,,)',.
'I II")
..d lnro t wo lin es o n t he t wo sides of the fi re.

TI,.. t wo ,;h05en on.. s roo k th d r places near the hea rth. with
their faces to the Iir.., in the middl.. of th, two lin.., of
T h.. latte r wert' .all sla nding and the) spoke t" 'l.. lut'in..L.. t1,
"' ying: "c,,, " n. Tecuciztecatl . Cast yoursel f into th.. fire!" H..aring t his, he started to th row h im sdfin to t he flam..s, bUI lilt'
fire "G,!; burn ing Iligh and I'ery hot. ilnd h" slopped in lear and
drew bac k. A second time he gath e- r..d his
and rumcd
to throw hi mself into th,' fire, but wh..n he got ncar he slOl'p'",I
and did not dare
furth, 'r; four tlrncs h, ' tried , but cou ld nul.
Now, it had I:>....n o rd.-re<l t hat no one co uld try more than four
tim..s, so wilen th.. four attelllpt' hac! been made th, gods
addres s..d !\a"auatfi", say illg: "Go o n, Nanau atain. It is your
turn 10 rry!" As SOO n as these wonb were said . h.. sh ut his
anel, t:.l ing courage, went forward and t hrew himself int o t h..
fire . 1-1.. lWJ!an a t om:e t o crackle and siule lile somet hi ng
bdng roast ed. Su-ing lhat h.. hilc! th"Jwn himself into Ih" ti re
end was burning, Tccucizrecatl also GIst himself into th" Homes
a nd burn ed. h is said that an 'ag le ",.. nr into li n" fire at th..
s,,"'{' ti me and bUIll" d. and this why th e cagle has scorchedluu king and 1,lad.e- ned Icar he rs. An ocelot follo wed t111'r..att cr bUI d iu not bum, o nly bt' ing singffi, and this i' ",hy the
ocelo t rema ins spotw ,l black and whi t ... 1
A sho n whi k lat er, ha" ing fallen On lh ..ir k.......s, the gods
saw Nanaearain, " who had beco me the Sun," rising in the East.
"H, loo k..d "ery red, appearing to ' way from side to side . and
none of the m co uld ke..p th ei r .}<:>o On him , I,,'<:auw he blinded
the m w ith his li gh t . H .. shon.. " rig ht!) w ilh hi s ra ys Ihat

reac h e d in .,11 d irect io ns." T he moon in tu rn rose up ever the

h od /o n. Bt'CCltLW hi' had he-s itau-d, ' Iecucfvtecat l sho ne levs
bright l}'. T ht'n th" !-ouds h ad

TO

clie; the wi mJ, Q ut'L/.alcuatl ,

ktlled the m all: T h e wi nd t o re out tht"i r hearts and us"..d. th em

to an ima tt' fh e newborn stars.
This my th is pa-atleled by th e belief th at no t onl} m,' n b ut
a lso wa rs were created "so tha t rhere would 1:It' peop le "hm'"
hearts anti bl oo d cou ld
take-n so th at tilt' sun m igh t eat."2 Like

rhc m yth , th is bdio:f o bvicuslv

an ex treme value p lac ed

o n c o n\ u m p t in n. Eac h year, in h nnnr o f th e sun , t he /l,kx ica n'
observ e d lht' fo u r da p o f last ing tha t wt'rt' o bserved b} lil t'

goo,.

T hen th"} im m o lated lepers who were like th e LuboS<! wirh his
sk in d ise ase,

rot in the ir

rm n ds t hought was on l} an exposition

o f actio ns.

Th e Hu m an Sac ritices of lHl'xico

\Ve h.we

full e r,

o f Mc"in J than

m OT('

Wt:

viv id kno wl e dg e o f the h uman S<loilkes

do o f tho s... " f "arli n e.i llws; "lo uhtk ,.\ I.ht'y

represent a n ape x Ofi lO TTOr in the cruel c hain o f religious r iles.

T h"
k ille d t hei r vic t ims on to p o f tho pyram ids, Th,'}'
wo ultl st re tch the m over a stone a lta r anl1 st rike t h, 'm in t he c hl'..t

with an o bsid ia n kn itt.

J hey

wou ld

tear ou t

t he sti1l -

be"t ing he-art and rais... it th us to tht' SWl. Mos t 0 1 l ilt' victims were
p ri sone rs or war, w h ich justi flc (1 t h", idee o f wan, as necI's...ar} to
tht' lifl' o f th e sun : \V.lI'S we<ln t co nsumptio n, no t conlJuest, and
th e /l.1cxicans t h u ug h t t ha t if th ey ceased t he

SUIl

would

CC<lSC

to g ive lig ht .
"A ro u nd 1'.3st,'r tim e ," t h" y u n, lt'rtoo k the ....acrificial sla) ing
o f a you ng man of' irr e pr oa c ha ble be aut )'. He was chosen from
among the capt ives th e pre v io us year, a nd fro m t hat momen t he

I tved lilt, a great lord . " I Ie we nt t h ro ugh tht' w hole tow n \'fry

,, 0.:11<lr..""..<.I. wtrh
in
'-and and x:colllp.inierl b. eertain
II. "euld I.......,
10 all whom he mu,

and tm,. a1l lll"" he " , b Ihe imago- o f-lt'lC<11ll ipoc.a r0,.... .. f . he
gn-al....t
an<.l prostratt'd Ihe.Jl5t'h'n bt:lore him , ,,,......
him " h........ e r t1wy me t hl m." l Som..-tiln("'< h{' cou ld 1>1: !lC... n in
the I.. mp\.: un 101' (If rhe p) ramid of Quauduacako : "Up 1m'll.'
he would pta} I N- n Ul. <II nigtM or in dw da)limt'. '\ hicho."\(.,. lim...
he wio.h(d to do lr, Aft" . p la) ing 1h.. ll u..t , h c tOO ,. ou ld '"In
u ...-am th<.' roUI pltrtS of Ih.. .... orl d, a nd tbeu rca um hoffit' ,
10 h i, room ."" I ,..... 1)' CIIrE' ,,'a>. tal('11 10 1'11SU1.. t h.. c1q;arx:I' and
princd ) dist tnc t ion o f IIh Iil... " If, ..lUI' 10 rhe gaud t rcarme m
h e gn'" SIUIlI_ Ih l'} would lI\dl c him d rink
IU kl'l'p
!Jender,'" ..T,....lI ty doTp pn:vious to lilt' fc. t i...a] !lll"}
j out h
four maidrns, wI1I
and educ ated 10 1
pUlpO''', Dur
ing those I"..nl y d..p Ill'
inte rco ursl' with I!lC!lt uraidens. Thl' fou r girh t1l<'y !!<lW him wives and Wll0 had bee
" i th special C<lI'C for Ihat pU"I J<Y.. e wer e g i\"l'n a mc s 0 f four ROll.
. . . I in- Jays before h o: was 10 ..lie rh..) g" 'I'
for h im. banq ue-ts hdd in c ool a nd ga} places, d l1(l llM n) chi.. fand prorninenr
accom panied him. O n tlu ..ta) of th..
lc' ti,-aI
Iw "as 10 (lit' Iht') tool h im 10 an Orol IO')'. " hieh
r'"-'r calledL bcucbcalco . gcfor.. r..olChing i I , il l a " IK (' called
T lap inlO'l ian, rbe "'om(" see p pcd asi de ami Irh hi m .
hI' b"Ol
10
p i...... "h.'to;: he \\-;IS 10 be lilled. h{' mo un l..d t he'
II)

.and on (ar.h , lilt' " l i t - he brule one of the Iluc cs " hich
hc had pla)l"t.! during Ih.. ..ar."(, "H(C w.as
ill 1h4: t u p b)
tlw SOImt p- or priests " ho were to kil l him, and Ihc..c IlOI\ J:rabill-d
him and t hre\\' him u n lO Ihl' stone block, ami, hold itlJ.! him Il}
fecI. rn n<.b and hearl, Ihl"O\'n On his
lhe- ('ri"!1 "ho had Iht'
Slvne l nilC
with a mi/.....'y
in the , ictim'!

"nd , " flff dra" illlo: il Ou l , th rust one hanfl into Ihl' op<'lli,'II. and
tore our t he healt , ", hie h hc al OnCt' OffN.. c-l lu lho- sun ....'

<.

Re spe c t wa.\ , I")\H' f " " t.I ,.. ) "illig

n\ bodj : It was carried
d ow n slowly t o th e ttr llpl t' courtya rd. Ordinar),
were
th ro w n dow n the steps to tile bottom. Th e greatest violence

\\.1,

habi t ual. "I he dead pcrwn was Ilayed am l d le priesrthen clo thed
him sel f in t lo is bloody skin. ,\ len were thro w n into a furnace and
pu lled o ut w it II a hoo k to be p lac ed o n the execunoner's bl ock
st ill alive . Mo re ofte n th at nOI the fl c., h consecrated bv lIlt' lmm o-

lat ion
eaten. The festivals [ollowcd one a' K}tlwr with m '1 interru pt ion and eWI)' }ear t he d iv ill!"
call ed fm coun rl.. s,
sacri fic es : Twenty t ho usand is g "cn ,IS ti lt' nu m ber. One n r tI,..
,it:tims
a god, hl' c1 im l>cd to the ""l-ri flee 'UITOl lIKkd.
like a !,'OII, by all att.. mlancc that wou ld accompa n} h im in .ICillh,

Intimacy oJ Executioners a nd Victims"

T Ill' Azrccs observed a
cllTKluct witl, th" o;t' wl,o we re
abou t 10 die. T h e)' treated th ese prislJ nt'Th I"'manel y, giving t hem
the tood and d rink th q asked [or. Concn n ing a warr ior who

b rtJtlght back a caprlvc, then o ffere d h im ill ""criflec, it "as sald

th a t Ill,
"considered hts cap rtve as his own Hcsh and b lood ,
call ing Ilim SI ll ' , w l,ile tI ,.. latter called h im

'I he "ictim,

who b rough t them to d ie . Eflilf N

were o ften mad e to relieve t heir
A wo man inc arn at ing
t ile "mo t he r o f th e bl(., {h" "01\ comolt: d b} the I' ea le''i and mid
wiv es who S<lid to her: "lJon' , be sad, fair fr iell<l; ) ' H' wi ll
t his n igh l w ilh the k illj!;, so you can re jo ice ." It was not made cl ear
to ht'r th at slw
to be kill ed , because dea th ne eded to be sudde n and unexpected in her case. Onlinaril) rI,e ,:on, lem ne<! pri,o ncrs were ,,-el l aware o f their fat e antI w .... t' l" .....e d to Sla) "p
the fina l nig ht, singing and dancing, So metimes
"nt' made
to ,hink until drunk or, to drive a"a} the idea o f irnpcmling dC<l1/',
t he)' ,,-nt' give" a eOlK'IJI,;ne.
""u l, ' ,!aIlO' ,uKl sing wilh

This difficult. "..Iit f"r ,le><t h """S bo rne bette," b} so rnc victims

THE ACCURSED S"ARt:

others. Concerning the

who were to d ie dUling one
o f the November fcsti,ab, we are w id tha t " t hey wenr W rh..
were sirigholl ..:;s of t!lI.. ir masters tu bid them goud-byt....
ing in a ve ry loud coree, so lood tha t it seemed to split their breast .
ami upon TCdching rh.. ho use o f th ei r masters t he} dipped both
hand s in t he bow Is of paint or of ink and put t hem o n the lint els
of ,Ilt' doors and the posh 01 the houses, leaving their imprint in
colors; the sarnc they did in th.. I"'llseS of t l'e ir r.. luuc e s. Some
tha n

''''' 011 , others could

of the m who WC rl:' lion-Ilear te.! w"" ld cal
not cat t hinking oft"e de at h tt. ..y so.m wo uld ha v.. to suffer."? A
slave wh o rep rese nt ed the god dess Hlamat ccutf was
en tircl y in white , adorned with whi te and black
arKl lrer
face wa s pain rc d half black and " all' wllite. "Pre, io us I" hd"g
killed , th is woman had to dance,
t he old men pld) ..d t he t unc
lor this dance, and the
sang the soup; and while SIIC danced
and worried, knoWi ng that her deat h
so d ose
sloe cried,
at hand ."ro In the au t um n wo men we re sacrificed in a temple
ca lle d Coarlan. " S OIlR' o f them, ullo n cl im bing tilt' SH-'JlS , were
singing , others screamed, a rxl srtll ot hers r.r ied."ll

The Reliniou$ CJlClra cler o/ t he Wa,.$

T hese sacrifices o f prison ers ca n not be un derstood apart from
the c on d it ions that made t hl'JT] pos sible: W<l TS an d t he ;\.,sumc<!
sl,... I IJl"o. 1o nl) pro"i,!c.! thai tI,..)
risk of death . The
riske.l dri llg .
Tile)' were co nscio us of this enc hantment of war an d sacrifice.
'I he midwife wo uld cut the umbilical cord o f the newb orn bah)'
boy and sa} 10 h im ;
I cut yourna vel ln t he middl e o f yuur body. Know ,mel unde rst and tllat tlu- hou se in which you arc bo rn is not your dwelling.... It is your crad le, the pla ce where )'Ou lay your head ... _

S AC " , r 'C E S "N O W""' S O F T He

',Z"' '' S

Your h ue land is clsodu:r..; yOll "r... prom ist,,1 lor ot he r places ,

Yo u !Jelo ng lO til e c o unrrvsid ... w lwre b<l tl\.-s at.. fOug ht; \'OU
were scm to go tl 'ere ;
furx-no n an d you r sk ill is warfare;
}o tlr duty is to gi,,: II... MJII I:h", I,lo()(! "f lou r e nem ies ro drink
alld to '1' pl'l) the earth wuh Tl oe bo dies 01 YUllr enem ies to
cat. As for yo" r IIali \'" laml, )"o" r
a nd )'ou r happiness,
you " ill find rhem ill the 1" )llM' of l he Still in tit .. sk\'.. . . You
willbe fo rtuna te to be 100lI' (! \\"o rth) o f dy ing on the batt lefidt!,
w ill, flowers. w har I now cur from your bod)
and fr o m t he mi ddl e 01 yo ur sto m ach righd )' bel ongs t o
rlal ct"llt li w l,o is rbe ea rth and the sun. when war begins to
see t he andt h.. soldie rs
we , h,,11 put it in the hands
of t hose who a rt' valorous so ld ie rs, so tha t thC) m ight giVl' it
tll )"o ur fat her and muth er. th e earth and the sun. T be y will
bu r} it in th e m i(Mle of t he fiel d " he re the ban k s arc fo ug hl :
Th is w ill be the proof that you arc oflere d and pr omised Ul III..
ea rt h and the sun; Ih is " ill be rh.. sigll that you profess tI'ls
office of warfarc, and you r 11<IIIIe " ill be writtell ill th.. 6 ...1(1 of
battle so that you r n.. me a nd your person" ill no t he f< .rgu lten. Th is preciolls offerillg collected fmm
body is like th<'
offering of a mag ucy
of reeds fi JI smoking aod <Ix coI'C1tl
b ra nches. f hrotlgh it )"0l1T vow and sacri fice <lie confl.metl.... lJ
TI ,e irulivi<lll,,1 w hu hrtJuJl;h l bac k a caprfvc had just as m uch
o f" sbre ill the sacred ullic e as the priest. A first bow l of the
"ie t im\ Mootl , (I rdill",,1 lro m th e wou nd, ""<IS offe red to the sun
by the pries" . A second buwl was collected b) rhc sacnflccr, The
lall er wo old go before rh e images of the gods and we t th ei r li ps
w id , the ,,:arm bl ood. rhe bod) o f rhe cacriflccd
by rigll1;
loe would GlTI)' ir hom e, set ting
th" head, and the rest ,,(mid
be ..aren al a banq uet, cooked wi thout sah o r spices - bUI eaten
by th e in \ ir..<1
nut by t he sac nficcr, w ho regar ded hi s ,;("_
H

t im ;l' ;o ..... n. U a second self. AI tI 'e d.tnu lllal ended 11,1'

rhc warriur wo uld ho ld the 'icTirn\ I,e....l in hi s hand.

It the " ..rriu r I'a,! hirn, d f bccn overcome instead u f re t urna ,ktu r.
dciU h ,m 1'1 fi eld otbaute would l};l\'t' had. th e
!i.lme Illt:'aning as t he rirual cTi li< t' o f his p riSO<1 u : h " ,'u ltl also
haec ....Ib fi <:tllht
' 1his was !kIi,lm rhe pr4)er t o I t"ZGllli puc:a fOT d lr w ltli.:r.>:
" In truth. }Ull an: fK' t " TOJJ!'. IO want t h<: 111 to ,lie in NU J.c. 1....l Oll did not
thn n intn thi s " ....-1<1 lOt- an) n th t'r purpose Ih.ln
lU serve as food lor t he
ancl lhe t'4rt h , II ilh tht'ir blood alxl
d'd r f1eslJ."ll
Saua rcd " ill , h ltJl KI and fl esh. tilt' SU Il g ilH' glo!') to till soul
in Ilis palace . T here- II.... \\<11' dt,,,,1 m ing le l] \\ itl, d,e im mol.u,xl
broughl ou t in
prison ers. I he nlealtlllg o f death In combat
the -afTIf' pra) u : "Mill(" t hem bu M. and cou r.Jt:t'ous; remove all
&om t1w ir hearts so d lill thoj m.J} !lot onl) receive Iwath
jO)f uJl). bot doi re II and lind c harm ;uI! S...
thn cill; so th,lI
tlW) do nUl f('4TMrOl"S or swor ds but ratl ler ,-,,"sidt'r them a pleas,lilTThing . as il th<:}' were l1o" e.... and
dishes ofl;lOd ."

From the Primacy of Relig ion to the Prim {l C)'

ofMilita ry
'111(' value o f II.u fart' in Mexican society can n". mi!>lcad us: It WillS

no t a InJlitOt) 'OClc t). Reli gion remained til,' ob' inu! l..q to hs
,,"uIl..i np. If t he A1, lccs
Iw ..uuaeed, r l'lt) llc lollg lImollJ!; rbe
,,-.rri-or soctc nec, in \\- hic h p u re , encalculatcd ' io lclll,t" alMl l l'l1'
ost entatious ft,rm. o f combat 1l,Id S\\<I) ' 1111' reasoned o rg,ll li, ano n o f WJ.I ami
was u nknown 1.0 them . A n ul) ImlJlmy
M>cil' l) ;s a 'I'nI" 1'1' <;t.M. ic t). lo r " I.;c h wa r mea ns a dese luprne m
01 PIJ'l\l' r. an o rdc rl)
0 1 em pire . If It is a rt'l at i. e l)
mild socit"l} : it makes a custom o f lite ... riona! principk'l o f {,"!lIM"pri,... \\ hfJ!><"
ts J!;i,,-n in lhe f" ture, and II excludes tl...

madne ss of
Th ere h notlli ng mon con tral) to military
o rga ni zati o n than th ese
o f wealt h repre sen te d U)
he ca to mbs of slaces.
l\nd Y'-' t t he ex treme impm Llm :e o f warfare had b ro ugh t abou t
I'll th e
ill the d irect ion o f th e mf;onnjjry
a
01 en re rpnsc [ which Introduces. lOge th cr ....i t h tI 'e Ul,,<;ern for
res u lts and lor eflectlvc force , a begin ning o f hulll.m il ) as ;'g;,ins t
the crud ' wlellel.' o f co nsum p l ion . \ Vhil e " t he 1.. ing n:m J.I ned in
"is palace," t lu- co un favored th e \';e tim (who WJ.S lSis l.' n "tilt' 11011ors of a god" ) ", ith one o f t he m oH sole m n sacrifices o f rhe year.
There is no possib ilitv o f a rmsrak e he re: nlis was J. cacriflcc of
su bstit uti o n. A so ftening 01 til<' rit ual ha,! occu rred, sh ifting o nto
o t he rs th e inre roal s io l..nee th at
t he moral pri n ci pl e of consum p t io n . To be su re , tI, .. mow menl 01 viole nc e that anim ated
Anec society was " ever t urne d mo re w ithin than wi t ho ut; but
in ternal and e xln nal violence s co mb ined in an econo my tha t pur
not lling in rt' ""n'e. T he ritual sacrifices o f p risoll er. (:omrnamle ' /
ti,e sacrifices o f wa rriors; the sacrificed
"-'prt''><:".rl te d at ICdst
rI,..
c.xpc ndh urc o f th e sacrificer. T he su bst itu t ing of
a pri so ner fo r t he l..i ng was an o bvious, if inc"n"'(jut'lll, abatem eut of rhis cacrtficia l tr<.'1l7).

Sau'i/ice 0,. Com;umptioll

This so ftelling o f the sacri fici al p roce ss
disclo ses a movem e nt to which th e ri le s o f im mo lati o n we re a
T hi s

moveme nt appea r.. to

no t know if 1'1,..

liS

ill its lug ical necessity alone and we canof acts confo rms to it in d e tail ; bu t in

c oher..ne e is eviden t .
S.w rilkt' re stores 10 the sac red world th at w h ic h serv ile
G iS I' i t S

II S O:

t1..grnd..d . rend ered pro fane . Servile usc has m,,, It' a thmil (,'"
<lb jut ) ofthat "hic h. ill a d ee p seus.., i , " I tilt' ""me n al rr re as the
IU/,JCCf , is in a relat ion o f int im at e part ic ipati"n " ith t he su bjec t.

It i, no t necessary that t he sacri fic e actually " .., troy , I,.. anima l
or plan t 01 which man had to mak e a thinfllnr h is use . Thej. m ust
at le ast Iw d est royed as li ling s, that is. i/lso}or os l1Jn 11Cl l"" M om"
1/';"11" Destruction t he beet m ean, o f negating a u tilitarian re lati o n between m an a nd th e an im al o r plane Bur lr ra relj gut.';

IU

th e po im ufholocaust. It is " !lough rhar the co nsu m pti o n of tluo ffer ing.. o r the fmnmUn;(m, has a m eaning that is not reducible
to rhr- shared ing.. st io n o f fond. Th,' vrcnm o f the <;ae rifice ca nnot be consumed in the sam" \Va) as a m oto r use, fue l. W hat ti l{'
ritual
the \'irhl (' o f rl',li scowring th e in timate IM rticipat i,m
" f tl,.. s.1nifi':er an.l the vi. 't im , I" "hich d cc r vi] .. us,' had pUI
an end. -n,.. Sli"" buu II,1 to lahur and ha\ing I,.,c orn" til" prupa' ) o f another is a IhinB just as a wor], an imal is a th ing . "l1,e indi-

vidual " ho crn plovs the labor o f h is pri soner Sl.'VUS th e ric that
li nks h im to h is fell ow man. lie is not far "urn rhe rTIom ..nt w llt'r'
he w ill sdl h im . RUI th.. owne r 1,a.S not simp ly m a, t..

;1

chinn, a

comm odity, uf this propul y. No one ... an mal,c a cll/IlB o f rhc sec orxi self tililt th e , lave is wi tho ut ar rhc same time estranging him-

selffrom his own intima te being, w itho u t ghing himSl.'lf the limits
of a tj,j"R'

Thls should n ot

considered narrow ly: There no JX, r1l:Cl

"peral iotl. a ml ne ither doc vlavc no r the mas ter h e m ire!) reduc ed

"we.,t

to the
IhillH'" T h e sla ,c is a t h ing for thc owner: he acc epts
thi s s ituat ion w h ich h{' prcl<" n. to .I) ing ; h e d Tt'Lthc ly
pa rt
imima te

t"r

b."
Sim ilarl y, lo r th e
the
be I,is Idl ow man; he is plOfolJlldl) separated
equals cont in u e to see hi m as a man, eve n

" r tl ,M: O n", " Iso I,a.,

UWlIe r h,,-,

10

..II, for it i< nOI '"nlJllJ;h tll be th i<

10

from l1im; cve tl

iflle is still a mall for o rh crs, h e is now in a world wh ere a man

can be me rely a thine . T Il{" ..a rne p<l\.. rt) tht'n t'x tt'nds moer h"man
lifc as e xt.. nd _ over lite coumrysklc if the we ather is UU Te",1... O\Crcast wea th e r, when I he su n IS filtn<:,1 b) th e dou,k a nd the pia)

uf lig h t gu ..!> d im , ap pears to "red uc e things to "hal t hey <In;.'

T he erro r is ob vious : W hat b before me is nc ccr a nY lh ing less
than t l'e univers e: the untvcrsc
no t a thino and 1 am no t at
all mi staken when 1
its brill iance in th e su n. B" t ifth.. '1m
hi.ltl.. 11 I mo re c learly see the barn. rhc fiel d. t he h e dge ro " . I
Ilu Iu ng e r see t he splendor 01 the light that pl ayed m .. r ti ll: IJdtJ1 ;
rather I see t h is barn or thi s hedge ro w like a screen be tween th..
u niverse and m e.

into t he ",,, rid th .. ""se nce o f

In th e same way, slavery

lig ht lha t is the separate p o siting ot each Ih mg. rctlu <c"d to II,e
'ISC rhar it ha, Light, or b rilliance ,
tl w inlim" cy of1i/e.
th at l \ hich life de epl y is, w h ich is perceived by t] ,e " ,bjt'. 1,," I,.. i, ,!s
true t o nsclf and as the tl<mSpare nL) o ! the universe .
B UI

th e recl"ctioll " f" d ,al "hit;h is"

not lim ite d to

10

th e oral't oj thmfJ5 i,

Slan' r)' i, al", lisl,... t. hut we ourselves arc

aware o f the aspec ts o f social

We

in w hich man is l d egate d to

th.. lewl o f t hmf}'. "",1 \\T s ho uld know th at th is rel egati on d id

not awa it slav..r}'. r rum the
th e int rod uction o f laVor in to
the wu rM ' ..p lace d inrim aq ', th e d e p th o f des t-c and it s free o utb r....h . w it h rational
wh e re ", I,at ma tt ers is I1U lun ger
the truth o f tile pre sent m o m ent. hut , rather. I h.. , ,, bs..,, ,, ellt
res u lts o f 0perutjon<. 1 he fint labo r cs tab l is hed the " o rlt! " f things,
to w hich the profane wu rld o f th e lI'lcients 1,;.. ne", lI) co rresponds .
Once th e wo rld
"as posited . m an him ,cl rbeu \m.. on..
uf t he th ings 01 th is world. ar lcasr fur t h e rime in which he
labored. It is th is d cgradaliull that

111<111

h...,

d l",.\)'"

rr iecl to "s<"'r"',

In hi s slTange my ths. in h is c ruel rile s. man is ;" 'mrd, of a

inHnwc} fro", t he Iirst.

(()5f

Rel igi on is t h is long e ffort ami thi s ""J<"i,hed qu..., t:

alwa yv a maile r o f uetac h ing from th e real o nlcr, fru m the jl'w n ty o f Ihmy s, and 01 r..-sto rillg rln - dmnc " rUer. 11,e alljm"l Of" " I.ln t
that m an uses (a> if th e)' o nly had value jo. him am!

m lllt'

lor them-

is rest ored to UW t ruth ofthe intimat e wor ld; he recei ves

a sacred comm u nica t ion lrom it, wh ic h re sto re s h im in tu rn
inte rior h,t'..d o m .

mean ing of

pioicund Ii"L"<10lll

10

gil en in dcsrructio n,

whose essence b ro consum e projitJi'$ lr w l'3t.."..r Hl igbt r"lIldin

ofuselul works. Sac rifi ce Jes lrup t hat. "hlch
in the
il consecrates. It docs not have to destroy as fh e
on ly th e
lie tha t c onnected the o fTering to t he wo rlel n f pw lit"hl.. "r t i\lit)
is severe d, bur t his separa tio n bas rhe sense of a deAlli ti.,.. consc mption: the consecrated o lk ri ng c anno t be re sto red to lhe

/"ell/

o rd e r. T his p rin Ci ple opens th e ",,)' to I'"s \ io na te rele<L\t'; it Ill>-

..

viol..n ee wh ile md rl.;1'g u ff Ihe dom di l\ in \\'hiel, \' io le nce

absolu tely .
T h e world of UlIJnKUT ls as a nri therjca l rn rh .. Tm/ world as

irn m o .le rat io n is t o m'l<!t' r" tio n, m atln t" , t o n :u."". '!(l",b: n ness HI
The re is m ode ration u n ly iuth c o b ject, reason
o n ly in th e id e n t it y o f the oUieer w it h itself, lu c idity i1 nly in th l
di st inct kn " wll'l!gt' " f " bjens. Th e world o f t1 ,(. , u hjl:e( i\ tlw
n ight : t1ldl dliUlge duk . infin it ely SlI\lxTt ni ght wh ich. in the sk-op
o f reason. I'tooucn mOTlS/ CO. / submit lI,a/ mad"",,", 'lSd! Hilt's (I rat
ef'.,J ideo of t1>F fn'c "mbjerc, " l/nUlbnrr/ina rcd CO the "real" (,rr!Ct ond

oal/pied on/\" ",tl, the (d''WIIt. "I he wbjt'a

i t:> uw n domdin am l
su bordinates it self to rh o (Ibjerl s o f t h e reol o rd er as 500 n a s it
bec omes co ncerned lo r t he lurure. l-or th e .m bju l i' c o nsnm pr jo n
[llsolar dS it is nOl t ied d own lo won.. II I am no longer concern ed
abou t " " ha t " ill bcvb uc about "what is," what reaso n do I have
t o ke ep .my ch ing in rese-rve? I call at once, il l disord er, make an
I"his useless coni, l\l an ld." ..m " <:omur" p l i" n o f .. llthat I
su mpt io n
" Juu mits me, o nce III ) co ncern fell" the m orrow
rem ove d . And if I thus cons ume immodcrarely, I revea l to my r..[
low
that which I a m
Consu mption is th e \, ay in
which Sl:/"'umtc beings comrn ur ncare.fS Fveryt h ing she, s th roug h.

,"

SA"" " " ce s ""' 0

"',,"s o r

'H '

evel') th ing b open and tnfl nh e

tho se "hu
intensely. But noth illg counrv tlU'tl ; viole nc e j , released and il
break. JOlt h wi thout limitx, as ti lt' I,..al increases.
\ Vhat
th e return o f d 'e tlung to the wlrmul, order
its emrv into the heard, 0 1 CunslJIll pri' lIl, " h ere th e...iol en ce no

" i,I""'1

doub t is ltrn ited , IJU t never

}!;",at difficulty, It is always
the
o f "",c rifko: 10 g i\'e dcst rucnun its JUI' , to save the
rcsr fro m a mortal dan}!;t'r "f l'onragion, 1\11 th ose w ho have to
d o wit h sacrtfi ce are ill
bu t ih limited ritual fo nn ro:gularl y lias th e d ft'lt u l prorecting these who oflcr it.

Sacriflcc is
i ll w l'i el , r1,.. intimal") o l thosc who ma ke
up the syste m o f common works is rediscovered. Vio lence is it.\
p rinci ple, hut li,.. worb li mit it in tim e and space: it is subordlna t cd to th e COflCUIl IUr tmiting an d pl'l'serving the c ommon..lir j .
T he i"di"id 'Jal., break 10000e. but a breaking-loose that ",cit., ' he'"
and Ilk ",l, rllt'm indisc rirnina rcly w ith their f,'lI o" hc ing\ hel ps
to connect them
in th e o perati ons o rse" u lar limt' o It is
not l';t a """t... "f cn Urprue, which ab'olbs the e xc ess f" r{;C!> " iu,
a vie \' 10 rlu- u nl imi ted ,levdop rn"nL of wealth. Tile works in
G"esl io" o n ly aim at continuance. -I hl') o n l) p H:r!t'r nmin.. t ht:
limits " f t/'o: ft'slival [whose renewa l is e nsu red by Ihdt 1"IIndi t)", w l'id, has its so u rc e in the fcvtival il so:ll). Bu r t1,,: communi t y' i , saved from ruina tio n. Th e "clim g iven ov... to vio lt'n{,e.

Th e Vilim, Sacred (lIId Cu rsed

-, I,.. v ictim IS a su rplus take n fro m the mass o l"ust'ful wealll ,. An(!
he call u nl) be withdrawn from it in ordl". to

consu med prolit-

and rherefore utterly destroyed. Olin """sen, h e is th e

{lull rsed 51",,<, d e stine d fUI' vi u lcnr c oosumpt tcn. Btlt t h e CUTSe
te ars him away from the v,der of th"'(J"; it gh es hi m a recogniz..Ilk flgul'c , w hich now radiates in rimacj , ;mguhl" t h.. profundity
o fliving

J\ m hing is mu re

th an the aner mon tbat is lavhh eJ

un h im. Be ing a thing, h e can no t rrulv be wi t hd rawn Iro rn the

real order, w h ich b inds him , UJ1!e5S d es truction rid s h im of h is
"th inghood," t'li m iJ1aring h is use fulness o nce and lor all.

soon

as h e is c onsecra te d a nd dllring the t ime bet we e n the c o n secra-

tion and d..a rh , h e ente rs into th e closeness o f the sac rificcrs an d

participates in thei r consu m p tio ns: J tc b one 01 their ow n and
in the fcstiva! in which h e w ill peri, h, he sing<> ,

es

('njuys

all till:' pleasures w it!1 t hem. TIlt' re is n" m On' st'r\ il ity in h im;

Ii.. OIIl .......,n r""'iv.. arms i1m l figllt. H e is los l irl lilt; Immense

Coll-

f"' ion ul tli.. fotiv,, 1. AmI th a t is pecos..ly h is undoing.

" he vjctim " ill he the only one in fac t t o lea ve rho rea l order
ent irely, lor he .,.I01"ll' is c arried along t o th e end b} the m ove m ent

01 the festival . "' h e sacrificer is d ivine o n ly' w ith rese rva tions T he
furu re is

reserved in him; t he furu re i, rh e weigllr rhar Ill'

bear. as a thin g. TIle u Hicial theulog i"lx 16 whose tradh.ion s" hagU.II
collec t ed "ere well aware o f rhis, fur the y placed the vo lu ntary
sacrifice o f Ni\nauat711l abo ve the o chers, pra ised
for bei ng
eunSllme<! by' the gu ds, and },r,l\"e d ivini ty the

of consmn p-

ti o n. \Ve c a n no t k no w t o w hilt t'xt.. nr th .. v ic l ims o f f\1.. " ico

a':l:t'ptt'.t tl ,.'ir fa te-. It
"collsi".. ",.t il a ll h OIK )T"

filii)

I"

I... 111:<1 in

lit; ,,(kr..d

lo

iI

se nse ce rta in o f th e m

th.. gods. BUI th etr inuno-

Iation was nor \'v IUlltarT Mo re over, it is clear that, from the rime
of Sah<l.gu n's inlO rrnan rs, these deat h of}'1l's were to lerated lW<:iluse
r1 1t')' impressed t'lJ't'ign .." . TIl .. f\1t'xic.1tls imm o late d d'i ldTt' tl tl mt
W e TI'

d'oSI"1 fro m a" u Jllg tl, ..ir own. BUI st', nt' p" rlalti cs ha(\ to

be d ecreed a" inst t hos e who walked away fro m their p rocession
I' he n they went u p to t he ,,1t"1>. Sac rifice com prtsev a mixture of
angu ish and [rem ). Th e /rl'/17.) is m ore powerfulthan th e anguish,
but on ly pro\'idi ng its t lflXn are divert ed to t h e ex t....in r, o nto J
lilre igIJ p riso n e r. lt
11,1' sacnflce r to g h'e u p t he wealth

I,,,

that the vict im c ou ld hale be en for h im .

'"

S", C R I F ICE ," "'''' ' ' "' '''Rto

' H[

"'1: T [c,"

This understandable lack u l ril-fOr dues nut . howew r. CNInI-,'t'

tbe mo.."aninR of tht:- rit w l. The on l) va lid excess was one tha t we llt
btl()nJ t he bounds, and on e ..
consum ption appeared .. orthy of the
Thi'" \..a!i the 1'' ' me n paid to e,,;caP' lhcir Uo..-nfall and rCffiO'T the .... righ t int rud ocl'd in t hem by the ;l'01rlc r ;lntl
cold Gllc ulation o f tile n:i1Iunlt .
or

("

The Gift of Ri valr y : "I' ot1at(:11"

Thl' Genera l Importance of OJte ntotiou5 Gif ts

in !t1l'J. ;COll Society
Huma n

nflces were <lnl}' an ex tre m e moment in rhc

1(' 0 1
Th .. passion rhat m,lll.. t
blood
fmH1 th e
pyramids gcnt'Tdllr led the
" " rh l II> make unproducuve USt'
<.I f 3 sU))'i;I<l nu al po rt io n o l lht- ,n OUK C, [ t com mand e d.

One " ft hr funcuons " I Ihl: !>o'.ercig.n.

"chit'! of men."
who It:IIl im m e nse
31 Il h .Iisposal. "as I"
in o:.tcnradc us S(11l..
Appoln..ntly. he
\\.1.\
I OJ h,l\'c
been, in
ancien l nmcs. , 1><: C::IIlmil\ol.tion of the
.. of ...
J lis im mo lat ion - c::onscntoo 10 II} fht> peopl.. tw cmboc.li...I, if not by him - could haH' given t h.. m ''ll. ride 01 lIlIing'
I
' "JIlJC.' of an uciirnucd nln.umplion. His IXl" "" mUSTh.lw .\od\l.:J
him in 111l' nxl. But he \\ , '0 e1mrl} rhc Illa n " f prodigali lYrhae
he gan:
" " :lltl, In place o f llis l ife. l ie was o blige'] 10 fIIn: lind
to plol. 5.lhag (,n writes:

Iti"p 1001..00 I.". o ppoetunitic.... t " :.1.<.1" Inei r (:CncrO\Hy

a nd HI .lchil'\e ,I re p ut a tion in that rl)!..ro . 'I hi!!. is why tho-_
would (:untrioote
sum., for "a, or lor tl u, orntm {da n.'$

PTl-croi,'R or 1OI1""i'll. sacrific....1- Thr) ",ouM pled!,'"

"

\\"1") pre-

in t hC' gameo; and. when one o lrbc e" "'mnne.....

man nr 'Hlllyn, vernu red to gl't'Ct them and l>pt'ak.l Ie'" """"I,
th.Jt pleased them, til<') "lw ld gin' IOOc:l anrl drink. oIlong will.
fabriao 1(,. wc:mng a' KI .... pil1lZ' II so meone else comprn;nl
d idt
10 t he m, thry wou ld ghc: gi fil> t1141
weI(' In kc:epi ng wuh his meril and with t he ple.Murc ht' bed

ci"'l!l

c..auso-cl them.n

T he
\\a, n'IC rcl} tI'e rictwl>l , h ut vvcrvcn.. according 10 hi. worth .mel hi\ 1Ill.1gl' - Ihe rie h. t h.. nob le the "merc han llo" - lIacll o
.. r
rht' sarn e cx pec rarion. The fl"-;tivals
we n' an " " lpO..
not o nly 0 1 blood but also 0 1 ..h h in g<'no ral. Ea.;I, un.. cont rthu tcd in pr opo rti o n 10 hi\ I.>O\,,-r and eac h
om- was o fre ",,1 111<' eJC c.a\i o n 10 disp lay his po " ..r. T h rol lg h c.1r-

'0

tu re (in

or

purchase , rhe warriors am i ! Ii.. m ...

chan rs obraincd the ' i, tilll' " I rhe sacrifices. T I,e: MCA k ... hu rh
vroov te mplc:, e: mI>c Jlishe:el w il h dr"i ne st atues, and tlw ritual
ir.t' rnulripljed the cxpenst, ..
The: o Oki.mts <Iud the
vic. lim' we re ric hly ad OUJed; lilt' rilual
l'ntai]ed COItl;,J.c:.ani .. " Apt' mlr tu rC'i.

Pu bl ic I.,... t h als we re g hcn p"'l"SOnall} IJ) Iht' ... ea ll h)'. Ih('"

" m erc ha nts" in 1,.. t'k ul ar. 18

The Wea lthy a"d Rillwl Proc1isality

The
c hmni< le .... left
infOm latiou core..ming lilt" rncrt::ha.nu" of M.. "ko a.nd the customs thq [o!le,"L'tl. C1l."lorm
t hat must hone b ll'ni,h....1 t hf' Spaniards. These "me
led
eA ped ition!> to um.af..: t.,rrilOrin.
o ften h.-.l to "ghl "lid tht-}'
oft en prqNn:d fhe "<10) lOr a w;u. wh ich CA pla in' till" Ilono r ,h..I
arrached to the ir
BUI II... .-i.\k t he y assumed could nOI
ha,... I,.... n enough ' 0 Illa ke th e m lh('" ('"(j"ab (If the ocblcs, In th.,
..y..S u ( l h.. Spam ards, busin ess was J..
clen if ;t led

6,

T><F GIFT OF

prOT' ATeo ..

to adventu re. Th o: jl, J gme nl o f d Ie Eumpca" s .kr ivcd from th<principle o f com merce
soldy on into:res t. BUI the
"merchan ts" of Mexico did no t exactly follow the rule of profit.
their trading
conducted w it h'H'1 M'b'ilin ing and it main ta irwd
c har"Ckr of thoo tnad cr. T ho:
"l1wr<,;h"nt" .lid
th o:
no t sel l; he practiced th e Si}I-exchoflF: He received riches <IS a si}t
from the " chief of men" (from th e sovereign, whom t he Span ish
called the kino) ; hI'" modI'" 0 puS<'nt of th ese riches to the lo rd s of
of
the lands he visi ted. "I n rece iving Ih est; gi lts, t he gre<l l
that provin ce hastened to give other present'; in return . . . so that
the y migh t be offered to t he ki nK.. .." The sovereign
cloaks,
petticoat s and precious blouses, The "merchant " received as a
for himself richl y colored feathe rs of vartous
c ut stones
of all Ji;(lrtS, sh..II" fans, s1lt'1l I;>a<kll.._, Ii,r 'I irring cocoa, w il.l-allimal
ski ns w orked and ornamen t..d w ilh do:signs. 19 As 1'01' the obj..ClS
the "mo:rchants" br oughl back hom th ei r ua-cls, they di d not COn
sidcr the m to be m ere commoditicv. On the ir return , rhc y ,lid
not ha ve t llt'1II "ilrr i('tl in t o th.. ir ho "'.. in Ih .. ,h yli gh t . " TI,.,
w" itoo<l fOr night",11allJ fur a f,1\"or"hloo li me. O n.. o f lhoo <lap eal loo<l

ce wl1i (a house] was roob'ilrJ ooJ <IS prop itious because tht:y Ilel,] rhat
th e o bjects o f w hic h they were tho:
e ntering the house
on t haI J a y. wo uld e nte r as sac red thi ngs and. as suc h. wou ld
pe rseve re tht:rt:." ;OO
An arriclc 0 1 exchange. in t hese prac tices, was not a thing; it
wa s no t re du ced to t he in crrra , the lifclcsvncvv of the profan e
wo-ld. . he Oi}l that 00(' mad e of it was a sign of glory, and tile
ob ject itsel f had the fad i;m ce of
lIy
one l'x h ibi tt:<1
or1e's wealt h a nd one's gootl loTtllne [one's power]. T ile " 1I1t'Tc:hant"
W d ' l h.. tTI <1 n-wh"-givt's, so rtllJeIl '" tha t I,i s Ilrst C"IlL.. Trl on
return ing from an cXpL-dition "as w ith ollering a banquet to "hieh
he invited his confreres , w ho wen t horne ladcc " it h presents.
T l,is was m<;,rel y a feast cclebrJting a return. But if " \O me mer-

cham became rich and ac....uun l..,1 h in,...:lf rich . 11<: wuulu
a
lor all the h'gh..
me rchanfs and for d ie
fr5lh'al or a
base tu ,Ik " id,nut
Ianls. because il wuu lt! 11a''f;' been
ho, 1"It made 50IIle 'fl1..nt1itJ .."petxliturc tha t m'ght .-k!luo,ler 10
bis pt' r!;()n by uipla) ing t he Iavoe " f th e {:otb "ho hacl g hrn h im
....21 1he fCSli>'a1 Legan "ith the
of an imO>.ica.nt g il jng' i!;iorn which tht' gOC!ob wouM .lex.ri l,.. 10 e.-ch other
once the
had Uii poued. For two
11"-
..t o f the
" ou ld d,,,,- rihtr' .. fi)l)lll, dri nks, R"t'fh b smoklllil 01,,0:1 "'...vcrc.
More !'a, d ), a "mercha nl" would
a oonqut' l d un l1& a fo uval called f'C'tIfIlJCuulillli. This "ali a ' )" PC 0 1 !>af tC'<1 and ruinous
Ct'tcmo n)'- TIlt" " mercha nt" " ho celebrated it "-!Critic- eel slaves lOr
the ocr .aston. 1-1.. 1,.1,1 to in- he people fro m all around ami assemblc pr esen ts wo rt h a jortu n... incl uding cloaks nnllml:w ri ng ('ighl
hundred
" of which th ere " en; g'lIlwred
fi lllr hu ndred o f th e r1ChcM allll " g r.. at many o llu.:rs o f
qUdli,)."21 tl'e mOS' Sllbl.ta nt ial gifls "..e nt ttl t h.. captains anti d ig'
n itarks; ttw men 0 1
,"nL rec eived
T Ilt' people t1.mcecl
count le ss omtllS, inl<' wJ,ich .. ntcrcd sple n<l iJ I)' tlro:"Se.1 , laws,
..n< L, and
deco rated ,, ;, Il
wl:aring nt:ck.l.ccs, flo,, "
flowers, T I,t')' da nced . laking t um " smoking and sme lling Ihei r
reeds, Then they " err pl..ced OIl a platform, " !Klth.1.l t ho.:
goests might see th.. 1lI I,..ltcr, and.
honded pia' .... of food
and d rink!. and atl e,..J..tl to
gracious.l)." \ Yht'fl lht' tH' 1t" carne
lor [hot- sacsiflee, the " 'TIt'n-hanl" wbo i!a\"t' the ""'ti\'al tln.'S:>t'11 up
lik one 01 tho> .\1;1;\'-"$ in ordet to CO" irh 1h-nJ to the temple "hero:
t h .. prWsb \\"t'rt' wait inf:. Fhese victims, armed for combal, had
to dCkml tht.:rm.o.lw s
, he warrior.; " ho d[taCke<l thl.-m ......
they passed by. II o n" 0 1 the aAAtc'iSOn u ptu rcel .l. "Ia"" t ht'"
" rnerchar n" had to 1:14)' him TIK
o f rhc slave, Fhc
eign
hin"""lfan ..mleti 11M' so lt'mn sacrifiCt' . wl' ich " ....., lcnc-ved b) tht:
shared
o f Ihe Ilesh in the house o f Ih.. "merclWlI.''U

TI '" G'F T O'

'' ' ''",LRy

ROTL "'CH

TIl.. se c ustoms, tllC' 8'ft e,n}um[J" in pamcular, arc far removed

fro m pre sent cornmcrr.ialpracrices. Thei r
becomes
a ppa re nt o nly w hen we compare ,hem wi tll an ;mtil lll io n
in exis tence, tbe potlatch of the Indi ans of no rlh"-cs te.,, Anwri.'a.

The "Pollard," of th. Indium of the

American No r /"",elt
ClassirAl I ..r;lJn"",y
rh.. first L'xchanges in tlle form of barI..r. \VI,y
it I"w e tho ug ht t hat in th.,
a mode o f
as t'xchan1,!e had nor an",v..red t ht' need to acq uire,
acq uisitfon
but rathe r th e com,.-"ry need to loS(' o r S<j' JamJ..r? TIl" clacsical
Conc e pt ion i, 110 W (Ju<:"lIl iona hle in a sense.
The " mercllallts" o f Mex ico practiced the paradoxical system
of exchanges rhat I have described as a regul ar ' e<j ue nec 01 gilts;
t hese c us toms, no t barter, in fan co neril" t ..d 110.. an'hair organ izat ion ofcxchallgc. Potlat ch. still pr.1Cliced by tl,.. lndi.ms " f th..
North west Coast of AmcriC<l, is its ryptcal lorm . Elhllog rapl ll'r s
no\\" emplo y thh t e rm to designate Instirurso ns func tioning on a
sim ilar princi pl e; Ihey find traces of'it in all societies. Among th e
' Iingil, I.he Hai,\" , {/l" Tsi m shia n, the Kwakilltl, potl atc h is of
pri me
in .s<wial life, "' he least ad,.:m[;Cd ofth,'i(' small
tribes gi ve potlatc h,,, in cerelllon ies marking a pe rs on's changc
of comli tio n, at the Iime of init ions. mani,'ges. fUntr.1[s. In the
more ci , i1 i7<;(! (Tibcs a potlat ch is slill
in th" ':-!lur;e of a
festival. One can choose a kst ival in w hic h lu giv.. it , but it can
trselfbc rhc occasio n ofa Icsr h'61.
Potlatch is. like co n1l11erct', m eans of
wealth , but
it excludes bargaining. Mo re o fie n l han not il i, rh e solemn gh'o f consid erable riches, offc ecd by a. chie f 10 hi s ri"i11 for the
pu rpose
c hallenging and o bligating hi m. The rt'ci pie m has to erase th e hum iliat io n and ta ke up th e challengc; hc must
the obliflOUon tha t was con tracted by accepting. He LaTI <Jnly

'7

re ply. 'I ehc rt t im e latn, by

u f a ne w porlarch, more p:enc ro us than th "
H"
pay hack w ith int ..
G ift-giv inE is n OI the on ly form " f p" t1 at eh: A rival
challe tlg(-'<l by a .'iOlcmn des truction o f riches . In principle. the d cct ruct ion is o ffered to th e my thical a ncestors 01 the d onee ; it is litt le
different from a sacrifice. As recently

the ninetee n th cen tu ry'

Tli ngit c hieftain wou ld sometimes go before a rj 'OIl and cut the
tlm",h. o f
in his pr<-><;e nce. At th e protx r t ime , the d estru c -

II

t io n wa., r..pa i,1 by tl,.. killi ng o f a larg.. n umh" r of slaves, T he

Chukchee of th.. Siberian No rtheast ha ve relatt,,1 inst it ut ions. T hey
high l} valuable d og tea ms . for it is necessary for t hem
10 sta rtle, to s uflc Ihe rival grou p. T he Indiam 01 th" Northwest
Coas t wou ld SCI fire ro their
o r break th eir canoes to
pie c es. T he y ha\'e e m bl azoned

bars po ssessing

01

Iic rlve

va lue (de pendi ng On how fam o us O f how u ld d ".; e"PI;>t> rs are ):

Some time!' these bars i\1"C wo rth a forlu n... They th m w tI,..m in to
th e sea o r sha tter th e m .24

Theory of "Potlat cb"

I. The parodm: oj t he ''gift'' redurrd 10thr "arqwSitiDll" ol" "po''<1't.''

nl(' Gift, th e ins ti tutio n o f

SineI.' tile pu bl ic'l,,,n o f Man:d

porlaech hOI, be en the " bjen o f a

S Ol I , .. t im ...'

dubious inte rest and

c u rios ity. Potlatch enabl es o ne 10 perceive a "onn..c t'o n I;>t>t wft< n

rel ig ious be havio rs and econo mic ones. Ne vert heless, one would
not be able to finO l<! VI(S in c om mon be tween these two Iypes u r
be havio r - if by eco nomy o ne understood a conve n tio nal set o f
huma n act ivit ies, and no t the ge ne ral e co no m y in its irr ed l/c ibl t'
moveme nt. It would be futile , as a maner of fac t, 10 r.onsjdcr th e
econom ic aspeets o f potla rch w ithout firs t ha, ing formulatt-Q the
,ie" poi n t d efi net! by fOCTOI ooonw. 2S Th e re wou ld be no pot
latch if, in a b'en..rOlI !Kn!K, th .. ultimate pro ble m concerned the
acq uisition and flot th" di s." p'lt io n o f llSt'ful wea lth.
68

n_ .. r. '''T cO'

"V

P CH' ATe ...

The stud y of th is strange yet farruliar ineutu tto n (01 goocJ mOln)
of our behaviors art' red ocible t o the I.' W5 o f potlat c h; rh..y I"" ,..
the sam e s ign ifica nc e a, it d oes) h<l!. a
pl ace in general
e co nomy. If t h(' r(' is w it h in ' '', ru nni n g th rou gh Ih .. spact' \w
inhab it, a mo\'ell 'en t of ..n" I"IO' t hat we ll".., bUI lhal. is not retluciblc to its utility ( whic h we 0I1-e im pel led by reason to \eek ), wt'
c an d isregard it , but we can als o ad ap t our acti vi ty to its !:omp letion o u tside us. 'rhe soluric n o f the pro b lem t hus posed ca lls
lO r an action in t wo con trary directio ns:
need o n d \t' one ham1
to go bcjond the narrow limits w it hin w hich w" o rd inarily re",a in ,
a nd o n Ihe o t her han d somehow bring our

bac k

w it h in our limits. T he problem po se d is that o f th e expenditure

o f th e surp lus. \ Ve need to give away, lose or d e stro y. Il l lt the g iliwo u ld be se nseless (and so we wo u ld never d eci d e to g ive ) if it
did not rake on

m eani ng o f an acqu isition. Hen ce 8i''IIl[J mUSt

bec ome U<quirifJfj a p"'i.-er. t; ift-g iving h as th e virt ue o f a surpassinJ; o f the sub ject who gives, b u t in exchange lor the o bject given,
the su bjt'Cl approp ria te s the sUlpassing: He regards h iS Virtue, thai
whi ch h e had th e capacity fo r, as an asset, as a p<)wer that he n ow
He e nriches

with a conte m p t for ric he s. and

w l,at h.. l' n ,,-c s to I... mi se rly of is in fac i hi s gen emsiry.

BUI he .....ould no t be ab le by h im sc lf t o ac quire a powe r con
sutured by a td i" q , dsh m ..nt o f flO",er: Ir he dcsrrojcd th e obje ct
in solitude, in sile nce , nO so rt o f power "Quid res ult from the act ;
there wou ld not boo an ylhi ng fo r the sub ject b ut a separati on from

I',,,\.t'f w ithou t any c"m l'..nsat;on. Bot ifhe d..stroys th e o bjec t

in from o f anorher pe rso n o r ifhe gi\'t'S it aw ay, the: o ne w ho gives
has act ually acquired , in th e or" ..r's
lhc pow cr ofgh ing o r
d..st roy ing . H.. is no w rich for h,l\ -ing made U5C o f wCillt lo in th e
ma nn er its essence wo u ld require: H,> is rich fo r l\a\'lI1g osteruac onSl 'lllcd whal is ",..alt h on ly if il is c o nsu m ed. Bu t th e
wealt h that is ac tu al ized in the po tlatc h, Hl comumpllon }OI" o,!lCr.5.

has no ' N I
exc ept
.1.\ t he o tl ..." i' d 'nnged Il)'
tl,t' consum pt ion, In n :>enM',
consum puon
10 be
bu l lhc n it m",1cI no t 1)<1\ e the com pletion thai the act io"
il has on till. o lhcr c o"f.,,,, on it , Am] th i' ac t i. m tM t
IU be-., on ..then I'",d,o;d ) ....hat
rhe gilts 1XJ\\ t'r,
" h""h om acquires Iro m rh e r.")(;1 o f IaUIIfl' 1he c>.cmplat} \ irtu.,
0 1 th. l'0llaK h is ghl,;l1 in Ih is
f( ,r man to Io(I0000p " Ilill
d ude' lrlm, (n co rnhmc ti lt' Ii Illill es" move1ne- nts o f Ihl,; un i , CTht'
wi th till' h m ir th nr be longs ttl hi m .

1. The apporrnl a#,s<Jrr1,h ofPJu.

8m "you ..an', na\ t' )'Ollr we and ("at it too," Ill<- 1I4)
It
contr..:! iuur') to t r') t o be un lilli hed 0111<1 li",il,-.I at The
timo' , a nd t hc n-,,, Ir is c u ml-.:l).: TI,t' Jlifr docs not me an anr
th ing lilJm (he
ofpcncral eco nomy; th., r(' b d issipation onl) lor the gi\er.
Mar.., ,, n , it tum, OUI t h'll th ., gh cr llal> o uly appi're n tly
f\or OI1ly c.k>n ht- bacc
JlO", 'r o.-c r the recipicet INt t he gilt
has bt':stoo,..-d on him, 001 the ft'( ipil.'flt is ohhgaloo 10 nullify 1h..1
power by repayiflJ!: t he gill. T I... r;' "<llry C\"C n entails the return of
a g rea ter g,li: In un lt-T to H"t ( ,cen !Ill' gi,cr rnuv nIM onl) redeem
hUI It., rnuat al-o imp'-"t' the "power o f ti lt' gif t" On his
rjva ] in tu rn. ln a M 'n\e
prcseut-, ar e re pa i' l wi th rnt",rJl.
t ile gih is rht" 0 Pr""ilt' of " hat it wcmt't1 to be: -10 g. '" obviousl) 10 lose, but t h<' los,\
hr info:" a profit ' 0 !II., one:
"no
it .
In n-..lh). th is a.bsurdly nm tradictOl) 'I',.'(:t of po tlat <:h m;s.-

lead ing . TIlt' fir.. t gi"CTwl/rrs t ltt" apparen t gain ....'ultiTll; fm m t 1,,(\iffernlCt' lx-rwe e n
prese-nts am i those g l,en 10 him in re tu rn .
'I he one who "'fl.l)" only 1m the It-..Hng ofac.'Ju iring - ,1 po wcc an'\ 01ou tdoing. At.ru.lll). "" I hOI,,: sai. l. rbc id "a1 \\ otl l.1
tha i
OI IXlILltl h could not I,... ...-paid. 1 he: lxnen' if)
rOfl1"SJlOnd,

C, II

r O F R,VALRy

rO TL AT C , .

to th e {le;i re fo r gain. O n th e co n trary, re ceiving prom ph one -

and o b ligt's one - to ghe mort' , for it

nec essary To remove

the

resu lt ing obl'gation.

3. The OC<j,,;CijtjOll oj "",II.

DtJubrlcss porloteh if not

f(>

t he J",jre tv lose, /1111 what iIIJr;"BCi

lv the s;.-rr i... nor the ,ne.'iwb!e Jrl<7I'G.,-e of return }/'Jr<; it" t he mnk which
it

w"/.",,

()IJ

l he (JIll' "}J{) hu.\ 11)(: /m'! worJ.

glOl)' .lnJ ra nk shou ld nor be co nfused w ilh power.

is power, rtm " in" ,tar as powc r itself cscapes the

Or if
..

o f n JTl:;t> o r r ight to wh ich it b oTl!inarily reduced.

h m ust he
furr hu , thar rh.. id e ntity of the power a nd the
ab ility to lose is fundamental .
sr... nJ in rhe \\<lY,
anJ finall y prevail, b u t , a ll th ings comiJneJ, neither
force no r right is th e hlJltlall b".u of the J jfferenti.ltcd "alu(' at individ ua ls.
the survi\'ing practi c es make clear, r'lIlk var ies d ect3CConJ ing fa an inJi\ tdual's ca pacity lo r Iliving. The annual
factor (thr.: capacity for
an a..lveITkl"y in a fig ht ) is ib d f
subordinated, by and I<II"ge, to the value ofgi\ ing. To be sure, th is
is t he ab ility to appropriate a position Or possessions, bu t it also
tl' e fac t o f il man\ ha,ing suke,I his whole being. Moreover; th e
g ift'.; asp('u o f an apl'''''! to iln im ill l(ll"C"
b ro ught out in
for a Com m o n c ause, to whic h th( lIghtt'T
hi"".. II.

(,1()1\,

the COI1Sl'q uc nc e of a supc rioritv, is irsclf somcthing dill<:Tt'n l from

an ..hiUtr to t ake ano ther's plac.. and seize his posscsstons: It
"xpr.. ..' a mo" .. me n t 0 1 se nseless fn'nz)', 01 measureless expenditurc of un..
bat Is

w hich tht' It:n 'or of co m bat p re.u p pose.s. Comin th at it is always beyond c a lc ulat io n a t su nl<"

momen t . BUI t he mean ing o f warfare and g lo ry is poorl y g rasped

if i t is n o t rela t e d in I,a rt t o the acquisitio n of rallk throug h a
reckless expendir ure of viral resources, of w hich pcalarch is rhr
m o st legible form.

l'

4 . 1M j iJ3lll(l5K
&1 if it is true t ba t fWltl.au::h T..

the opposi re of ;l r4pil1C.". o f

a p lo l,ta h lc cxc. hange or. ,l!,cn..ral l) spe",k ing. fir an appropr iat ion
o f posses sions, ;U;llliisi ti ol'l is non eehcleee its ultim at e p u rp ose.
Because tho.: lT1OI'cn ,rnl it srruc rure ,l iller; fW Ill OlUS. h apPear..
SITiI.ngc.- (0 us, and so i l i, moee Clpablr- of rcveaI;'l( wh.u usuescapee ou r P(:rcq 'lion . and " h", i t sho .. s rn. is o ur bd..'ir
a mb i,llUil). O ne c an dcdun' th e fo llo\\ ill( laws frn m II. O f c oorseman is nor ll..r.nabl c once an, l tor ail an dthese law, o p.'rat e dlfr..,e ml} - the ir d lecb ere ....-en nc ul..vi,a:I- .lI1
stilb'CS
b u r lxIsic"l.lI) Ih n OC'I"'"
10 r{'\l'a l a d ecisive pb.)
of lor-ces.:
a ,w'1" l1s of reMl<Im, "hkh soocuce haft w rulanrk <II ,h'lT dUJX'u>l

compku "I'flfVpnalHMt ( ir rOlltJt>l br .-fu11J rrnp""ro; ;f runnel

cmploonI for 1M
iJlV"' lh >/ dw p mductllf' form). but IN sqoonderitlR tlJ ,h.. 'urpll4 it!A'JI
bW Xl Jn an obp-t oj "pprrpnatiot!;
"!J,,t i.l nppropncr/(J in tlX' >quan&:r i.l' tk 1""n;y< it n k(, '" /lw squnndr;= ( .. hdltcr on Ind"KfooJ Ct a DroopJ, ..-h.ch .u <JCquirtd ry hUn us 0
and .. hicJJ Mrnninc.< his r.mK:
/II l <.TTlJjn pat,t.,

ronk

wn

III

(erta in 11m.:.. ronoct

III w:>cirf}

be

(or ' M ra nk oj

ol>ir ('/

(J

Ilr'" __M't.

otoorlfJ athcn )

tool ar a f itld; '/ II l< uhi""ud.

a source vi I'tvJiI. t M prlllopit vI it ,< I'Ievrrthtlas dr'f'tnu""d Ill' (J rooI II't SilU"ntknng oj ' f jOllITU S
in rhron ,ouM /WIll! t-n ucllucrOO.
IIC

QPf'''-1'InUtetf in tn.. W I .... ""'J f))

"

,ho,

5. N"brl/uih and (OIllmdKtiOll.

wtue th e resources he c o nt ro l. ar.. rtdllc ibrC l o 'j uam i tics 0 1" e nman i., nor ah, ay, abl" to St:1 the m a,ick: tor a )..'!"ow th that U nnol be e.wUCSIl or, a bove ",I I, COIJt intul. He
.. oDl .. the
hu t ht" re mai ns
1O .lIt quire even "Iwn he does 11,1'oppmi tc ,
and !oil he ma ke:'! .....ste itse lf
o b jcc i 01 aoq utsition. Onn" rh e
resources arc diS!li pared, t here rcrnatns the
ige acquired I ')' t he

"

one w ho wastes, -I he was te is an os te nta tious sq uilllde ling to rhis

e m l, w ith a .. i",ow to a su periori ty me r othc.... that he ett rtbures
to himselrlly this mea n s, B'II h l' misuses th e nega tion h e makes
o f th e uul it Y o f the eesonrces he wastes, brin/<: ing in to con rra dict ion not o nly him selfbur ma n's c ntj rc ex jsrence. The latter thu s
c ntc rs inl o an " mbig u it ) w hnl' il re mai ns: tr p lace.-; the ,'alue,
th e p resri).,... and th e trut h o f li ft, in the negati o n of th", servile
usc of possessions, 11I ,t at the "'m" I im.. it m" kes a servih- use of
tlli s n egation. On the o ne hand, in tllc 115<:(, ,1 am i
il discerns that w h ich, being n e<.:e ssar) 10 it , 11' he

.. t hin g
11 , ... 1 for it,

g rowt h ( o r irs sub sis tenc e ], bu t it stric t n ece ssit y ceases to h im l

it,

" usefu l thin g" canno t c n t in,;l) answe r to its w ishes. Con-

""'1"entl)', it calls

1'01 t hai w h ich cannot be

fOl the useless

..m ploy m ..nt of o neself, of o n e 's p o ss e ssions, for plu), b u t it

g rd.\ p that w hich it w ished to be UllfJTillpobk, 10 we that
whose uti/i t! " it .Ieni e. !. It is nOI f'nough for OIJr left haml not to

all!"" 'pt,

10

know what the right baud g iH's: Clu msily, il mes 10 take it back.

Rank is e n! ircly l he effect 01 this crooked w ill . In a se nse, N,:k

is tJu. opposite o f"il t hi ng: \ Vhat founds it i, s<lCred , and the /<:eneral OJ'd crjng "I' r<ln ks
the nOlm.. o f hwrorch) . It is the srubbo rn d e te rm inati o n

10

tre-at as a

w hose essence is sacred, th at wh id,

;lOd usa ble thin9 that

. ,o m plt' t.. ly r..mond fro m

th e p rofan e uti litJri JIl sphere , where th e hand - Un'" rLl l'" lo", I)'
an d for serv il e e nds - ra tse -, t he ham m e r and n ails t h e ti mbe- r.
Bill am llig llif) e ncumbers th e p rofane ope ration jus t as il em pt ic, . It'sire 's veh e m e n c e o f it s mea n ing and e ha ngcs it int o an
al'p;l re n t c orn..d y,
T his <lm pro m ise g iv!"l1 in our ",'t' lre heralds those link ed series
o f dcccpuons, f'X I,lo itatiol\s and

rha r g iw a te m por-.,l order

th e ap pilTCllt u nreason o fl,islorr MOlIl is flcecssaril) in a m ir,1gt',

his ,'e ry re flect ion mys tifies him , so intc: nt is he o n graspirlj.( th e
10

ungrasp.tN e, on m ing

o flust hat te<l as took Rlmk, wh ere

"

,,"CCu ",,"CD Sh"""

loss iv
into .l<.'j u i.\ilion,
ro the 3f. t" it) of t he
;ntelleu . " hic h rri!uu., rh.. objce::u of Ihf'll .j.!fJt 10 thlllfF. In poiru
f<K l . lhout podanh rncOOlllOI 0..,1) tf" OLlfI;fl.
(lut
bUT more profoundl) in Ill.. "Vcr.u ."n\ o r . ....>Ugh r.
Gen.. raJl ). in \.l(;r Hkc or in pol la rch, in ;",;tion (in MHO!) o r

"--tOl').

in comemplatlon (in th nu/lhl ), " I,at "" ' ee l... h ill"a'

selllblanc e - ,, !.i\;h by tldlllil if.l ll "e \;;1 111101
- IIMt "e "ainl)

callthe pot'tl')' 1M deplh ....... t he intimae.:) of IJoluion. We M C 'lL'C

d:ci"c,1sirx c " 'e- wanl 10 t:""'P th", sha.:""',.
\\c <:uuM nf'll rca.h the- Goal objn.' uf 1.. l'l(J\' 100"... without lhe
d issolu tion 011<00\, k.I".... "hie" ;li lTl!> 10 , ...'<Iua ib "hj..... t wthe
Lond ilion
n1\: .. It.m ate peoblcm .. f
... is tl1l' same ,).\
01 cOfISUIllVli"" . No o llt;
<;.111 hot h knf\\' antI
be do.:.sHo),..1; r\O one can hu .h (ons um e
wcahl. ami increase II .

6. LUAU',- oncl cUte"'.. potY"f1\.

But if 11,t" demands or t I,, 1ife of I"'inl,,'!' (01' W'oup!i) <I..techcd from
lifc\ im men. il) ddi n...s an tr uer..\ l to" hi<.. h en.'')' ' 'jX'rativ n is
rder...:'!. th e /FllitTol nlO\t'tI1em oI lif( is flC'\l.'rtf..:I........ ;lI(complisli..,1
he) ooJ the de mand' 01 indhidll.lh. Se lf" hnelt.'i is hoa.ll) d isappoin t...!. II scc ms 10 pre- ail .ancI\ O I..) 00, n 4
bourxlal')'.
bu t it i, , urpasscd in iln) case. Nodocbr Inc.. ri\"ill ri.." ofindh iduals ..mong rhernsclves rake .1IWil) th e m ulti luc!c\ abili ty to be O\'('rm n lry th..
..1 eXlI b"rano.;e of ene rgy. The wC.'" k are flee c<:,I,
ex ploi uxl l') I.....
" ho 1"') th em with
he$. Rut this
<;aTlnOf l:1u.f1l,'" t he O\"t'rall
"here it"I;, idual intere'l i,
rrKlll ..,I, ami wlte re 1M lin oj 1M nth un
;mQ Iw d ,.
In the o:fl<l. "it h IItI I'ossibili!) " f growth o r ofac<ju i,iliun
reaching its li mit at ,I , :.. rtain po ifll .
lit.. "hjec t of g r,:.. ,!
of .,.... 1) isol ated ill,ji , ' <l.I3I, i, n.....l>.... ril l 1ibe ra te,1- tml) IiI)t'ratcd under titc cO\<:r of lies . Ddi ni ri\CI ). men lie; fhe) do 11,.. i..

",,,,u,v

T H E G' " '

bes t 10 n:lat... rhis libe rarion to interest, bur th is liberat ion carl ies them fu rLlu:r. Cons.."u.. nrl )', in a sense the,. li e in any case.
As a rule the imlh idua l dc{;"rnll];lIion "f r..sou rce s is doomed to
d esrru ctton . Tbc individuals ".h o (;"rr)' n"t t " is (I..srn,,rion do
nor Inri) possess this wealt h, ImSw Ilk. Under p rillliti,-... cOrl< liti on_s.

wealth

..." p.... ss

always amlogoU\ to stoc ks of munitions, ".lli.:h

a nn ihilati on , not rho povscssion o f wealth.

" l

cl ..

fiLI I

thi s

image is j" s! as accurate ifil is a m allcr of ,,:>.pre ssing th" <Xjuall)

lucli, n1u, In llh
mnk: It i , an ""plo,]\"c c1largc. Til" man o f high

or

rank is orig iI1all)' <lnl}' a n e"plosivt> individual (all men a n o . plosive, but he is explosiv e i, a pri vil<:ger:1 war), Doubtless he trl ..s
to prcvcnr , o r

'It

least d da) tho: exp los ion.

h e lit's ro h im-

selfb) d eris i"d) lak ing hh wea lt h and h is pO\, e r fOr

that I!IC) ar.. "ot. lf he ma nabJe s 10 e n jO) them peacefull), it is at
Ihe cosr o f a
o f h im sell, 01 his real nature. I lc
lies at t he sa me t ime

It)

ali t!'" 01" .."" 1...lor.. " h"m cm th e con

nary h e main tains the affirmation o f a lru th (his "" p l"'i\'e na ture] ,
fro m wh ic h h e t ries 10 escape, O f cOU"''', I", "'i ll I,.. .. ng"I/",1 in
th ..., .. lie<o: Rani; w ill be reduced to a comrn odirj of .... ploit"tion,

;,

o.r

source of p rofits.
pove rty rannot ill all}'
l.h.. m ow"m ..nt 01" ex u be rance.

im ..t

lndifk-een r to inrc nri on s, to reticences anr1 lics , slowly or sud denly, tire movement o f we"l th e xndcs and <.;Of1SumC5 the resources
of cne rgy. 1his olien seerns
SU m tT; il' t hC)' cann o t

hut not on l) do these resources

c omplete ly cons lImcl\ p.ndUtlivd) a

surplus usuallj- re mains, " h ich must be ;m nillilatcd . At lirst sigh t ,

potla tch appears to 1..<1")' out th is consumprion bJdl). The dc srructi o n of riches is n o t
r ul ,: T he ) "r.. ord inaril y gi ven away and
the
in t he opcrat jon is rc.luccd to th:lt-of th.. g j,"r: The aggregalt 01 riches is p reserved . Bur th is is on ly dfl dpp.."rdn c.. . If l'llIIdtch " ,r..l) re sults in acts sim ila r in C\cr) rcspcl:J to 5dC riflc .., it
is no n.. th.. le s., the compkmr1Jw,,- 101m uj

all

",u/lu/;01J who,\C ""'lin

;"B iI jn the [act thot It "jthdra'u }Wolthjram padua"." cOIl5umprion .

In g..n"F.lI,
.. \\
use ful prod ucts fm m profane circu l<ll iofl; in pTil....Iple the g ifts of pot farch libera te o bjf'clS rhar
arc useless n o m t he Hart. Th e
of archaic luxur j is t h e

basis o f potlatch; o bviouslv, th is industry squanders re so urc es repre se nte d b) the q ua nt tries o f avail able human labor. Amon/<: t he
Aztecs, the)' were "cloaks petticoats, precious blouses":

()I'"

"richl)"

co lou red Iearhers .. c ut stones, sh el ls, fall' , , 11Id I

... wi lelanimal sk ins worked and o rnamented w ith d ';sig ns ." In the America n N orthwe st, ca noes and houses are destroye d, and d og s or slaves

art

Th ese are USC/ill riche s.

o bjects 01 IUJ\ur)' ( f'h.. whn... Ih..

the g ifho arc

n ! food are p l..,1,gt',1 frn m

rhc start to the useless (;Om llm p lion o ff"'''-lo !.,j.

Om' m ight even

thatp or tarch is d ie specific manit..
the meil n in};fu l fo rm o f luxury, Be)'o nd d ,e archaic torm v, lu xu ry
h", ac tua lly r..ta in..d t h.. fu nct ional value o f potla tc h creative of
mI<. LUJ\ llr)"

' !<:lnm in.., t he rom k "f eh.. o np w ho displays

it , and there is 110 cx a!tr.;<1 rall k that doe s not require a rlisplaj,
But th e pett ) calcul a tions o f those w ho enjoy luxury are surpassed

in t."v e ry wa)" In wealth, what shine, throug h th e defec ts exten ds

th e b rillian c.. o f t he Stm and p rovo ke s passio n. It is nOI w hat is
imag ined by t hose who have reduced it to their ptwertr; it is the
ret u rn 01 HIe 's lm mem it} to the tr u th of ex uberance. Tl li, muh
dest roys those who 1,01' 1' rakc n it to r w hilt it h not; the leas t that
on" ca n

is thai th e present forms of we.-. lt h ma ke a sha mbles

and a human mockery o f I.host' w ho t hink the y own it. In rhiv

presem ...1a) society is a llUgt: <:nuntcrf" it, wh..r.. t his tmth
of wea lth bas underhandedly sli pped into
poverlx. T h.. Ir u..
IU!l. ur} and th e tC<\1 Ilo tl a tc h o f o ur t im es falls to th e po\"e rt)' st ricken, tI,,,1 is, to th.. ind ivid llal w ho Ii.., ,Iown an d scoffs. A
gt'll u ine lu x ury requires rhc ( Oml' ld.. cont ..m l'T fo r ric h...\, the
somber indi llcrc ncc of the individual " ho rtf"....'s work and mak..s

T H e G Ir, OF R ' V A L R>

"O 'L A ''''''

his life on rbe aile hand a n infJ n il d ) Tlline,I splend o r, and on the
other, a silent

10 the laborio us Ii,: o f th.. rich . Beyond a m ili-

m p tificOl.Iion ,lIlel " c apitali st m i!r

tary ""ploita tion, a
ap pmpri" rion, henceforth no o ne C<\ n rediscover the rn.::ming 01
wealth the eXJllf)"i\"..n.. Ih'lt it heralds , unl e ss ir is in th c 5['1,,0. Io r o f rags and the ",,,,,/wr {_haHeng c o f indifference . One might
say, fin ally, that the Ii.. d.." lio",,, We'., exu beranc e to revo lt.

77

PART THRI;1"

The Historical Data

[I

The S o ci et y o t

M ilitar y E n te r p r is e a n d the
So ci et y of
Reli gi ou s Ente rpri s e

T h e Conqu erin g Soc iety: I sl a m

.,.h r
01 Gil';ns a Mf!o(l jng
to thr "'0,,/('(11 Rdin;tm
the re lig ion o f Moh a mme d , ' s, t og.. lh..r " it h Buddhssrn
311(1
om' of th e th re e "orl.] rel i.l/.i(>l1s. 11
in
snbs tanr ial portion o f Ih(' po p ula tio n o f the glo be, .m<1 prov ided
t he lai t hfu l'u lfi ll s specific mo n l o bl igations ill h is lilc t im e.
it

bra l it ude a fter d e a th . I il c C hristianit ), il alhlTn5

the e XDlenc:l'" o f
u nid t) : II

.II

God, but il is ""bomant l,;o:Jn[rning h is

, he clngllkl flf t he I rim l) AS an abom inat ion.

T Ill'" ,o.'loslem o n l) !"CU.'Iln il....s o ne God, o f" hom I\\o l,ammt'< \ is

no <leu'" to
eli. in;I).
t hr me s;,e n.l/.I,;T, b u t Moha mmed
Ill"
not like Jesus, " hI)
o f llOf h man a nd <';00, a m"diator bel ccn t ...o worlds. TheR" is 110 dtl c llua ti OIl of ,...tarn's
clh inc tr.InSt e n<.k nee: Mohammed is on l) .II ma n, IIono ,d I') a
<kciri ,'c rnrlat ion.

In t1Jt'lJry These tenc'b adequaee I) define hlilm . We sha ll add

to the m .he recognit ion, on a M:'Conda ry plane, 01 the Jude oC hris' ian rradir ion (Mos lt- ms speak of Abraham and of jesus, bu t
tbc lauer is onl) a proph.,! him!>(11). rhcnc r..
rhe ratbcr " d lipl es: tl 'e UlI'Wlucsts of thr lir.;(
th..
in,,,,,io ns

krMl\" n history o f "'\oIliIm ,T"Iftls

OIli pru.. t he d isloc;oliOfl o f

"

o f t he
and Ih ... T uru . lo llo..... d b) Ih c d r- d lnll' u f the
Moslem p<J!,'crs in o llr t im.. ,
is deMo but (111) "upn flctaJl) 0;0_ If we II) tu .. nlt'r
into t he 'ipirit t h..l dcrcemu......1 a
mO\cment.nd ordered d ,,;
lin :!! of cocndess mul titudes OI'n ccmunec, Wt' do nm '!CC what
could have tout.. h t.'C1 II"> pcl"$OlUll). but 0fI1} fi ,n nal l""n i<. u lan .

arrracaion lOr IIw I.l ilhflll "'" can onlj sen.... L,

the local color of cov nnue-s, of " range c h in. ancl a " hoi...... rit"'"
o rt,ieratic altitudes ami b...st un-s. Mo hammed hinself " 11I,,,c iiie
i!. wel l koM'''''' to uv,
a
mat Jot':!> no t ......'C tllCd ear
and irrcpiec.. ab l.. m.....
for us t hat
or
has. If
on l) we arc alcn , Rmlt,n.. o r Ch rist speak 10 us. btll Mo hammctl
10

"Ihel"\.

S" t n l.. thc above tI,al wl' ''''t,,..r th .. " ndClli'lbk scxhlllion
lI ,a t w<; f....1 tri es 10
.... it scli in 'nml", 'w d o n't k no w w hat
p ri nd p k , th" n appeal' as ti,t,) :,..., lordgn 10 w ha r
affccrs u. \ Vc can on h r.....irt m pla eirudcs.
to

O ne cannot d o ubt the ' ill'..cit)" o r the co m pele nl;C tlr Emile

Dermenghem " here, .I t rhc uH.... lusion of the rich '01o.1I1\C "hid.
t he Cohier< dlJ Slid hM rt'Ccnl l) devoted to Islam.
Ollliiocs thc
,-aluel> Iml Isla m t:0fI1""" to us. I h
no use
,"In)tlling
bul an irred ucible tl'"lu d l). BUI t he lac l rt ar Il,c
on freedom as
wrvt cudc. on jlCn tlencss
violence, il> ,urprh ing and illllic n h e ol tM perplcxin 0 1someone tryi ng 10 rOfTllub tl? a deep auracnon. \ \'ht-n
of fu n .lum ht- i\
t he .lrtr.ocli'lfl I,.. t..ch both
10 frt'e<lorn .IndIO lvlam, bU1 the <jtJOl:3riom he nfkr.. .. re- 111'1(;0<1"'("-.I does not loce OpprMo!iOlS." SoIl' t he Ktlr4n. O ne
grant, thl' antil h....h of t Ile i,k .. of COIl a,xl an uOJu!>t
bu t
is 001 .. !\1()\lrtn lra il. And one can nfll F.!.illo nou' IhtdcspoI;c IIIl !U r .. u l '>OI l're iJlnq in Islam . Is ft M'ilo m nm
ba sed O<l I"('I"Qh. alxl ;l> il nOI 11M" 'MIme Ihing as

spem

1\0\0 th e H:I} w(lul .dam. n tcaIU !>l.lhmh,.iOl1. .'\ Modem

oec who submib,.l He: whmiu. to God . 10 Ihe d iloCi plim: thlt

e..:1

,I..nwxk, "hio. h is <.onsi' It..nt " ilh tha t ,1"Il\O!ondMi b) hio!i lieutenants, Islam is d isci pline a_ opposed 10 , '''' .... pridolls ,iril't). the
inclhiJ llaJh m 0 1 t he Arabs of Iho:: po I)l llI:'sl ie u-i bc-s, I\ot hi'l!: "
rnoee " o nl IOU} to Ihe id eas Iha t rhc " ril.. " n rrl /rcrd()m (,oJ,.ps
in ou r mtndv,
" n WO\r is no
s tr;lllge. 4 Dcrmcughe m i , el Ol lhtA

rhc lil:t thai for Moharr nned t hc

holL'
,..,r is 110 1 tl l.. t (If th.. Mm ll-tll aga insl ,h,- infiel d bUI tI '''1 o f the>
renun ciation 1)1\(' m llst engage in OIgains t Qn(''>CIf. He is also righl
to illustra te Un: morl.. rate charac ter of Islalll b} rd e ....rJ( - .. to theIlIlman it} s hO"n in
lir.;1 Cvoque5IS. Hut ifone s peaks "of "ar"
Clpropo! oft llC
..rns in oedcr 10 praiot: l hem. it is besr nOI 10
separate this
fmm their principles.. In thOr
I"''t'rl
' iol ent .:tion <lgainst inlirlel" i!O good. J rom the: fint red...l. at
Merl ina. tho.' di sdpl o; of Mohamml'tl li' OO b} pillag ing. "On llle"
less rig ht

10

ot."'(;a.sion o f .. 1\\nJem rai.I."

" [he Koran ( II. 212)

IOId

'!MI)'S r<.lallO:

the 1\1ol.1.. ms

11l"'I.

10

flght even Ihough ' M

raid was u rrht1 n ut in violation of th e truce of the prc -I, lam ic

sa<.re el mon ths." S
The !ladj,b (I he " rl UeIl Ir'ld it ion ml .. k i nt! of C()(k 0131.... lent
lvlarn ] o rgan i/ ed the
, )'sl.. rn<l tira lly. It exd u.lc.' needlee, ex.., uions <In<l a([lS of , iol cncc. Th.. rt')!illlen imposed Oil t hOSl-'

1\t:I""te.1 peN)nS " t,,') ceme 10 terms " il h t il.. , ic[fJI had 10 be
hlllmlle". c.sp<.'Ci<l1I) if il was a (jucstioo 0 1 n""n ofSLriptlln' (UlIistian'. j.-..., anrl/nrtm[rians). T hese l\CI'1: on l} ..." bj.....red ro tax atKlrI. l il..c" iw th.. h"d,th o rdained Ih"'l rhe cmps. tree ' . dn,1
Irriga tion workv "'m uM boo
But

[he imam QI

t he Madem commun if)

"-age- phad ( hnl)

liar ) i1bainst tile" peoples 0 1 the ""Ill 1(.rn [OI)" imm..d iau:l)

8,

",Ij",'..n t to th.. " t ..rri to ry " I

Th.. I..

m " , l m..k.. Mlr.. that t h...... 1'... ,,,1..,

..r, of th.. a rm )

I."" ,w th.. t..ad, iIlgs o f 1, I"m

"",I ll", t they nofus" t" lollo w rhem: it is then " L",,,ssal) to fight
them. Fhc hoI)' war \>.:IS permanen t, the re fore , at the borders
o f Islam. There.: was ' l O real peace poss ib le between Mosle ms

and infi.]d s.

wa\ an absol ute theoret ica l J)otiontmt could

n o t h al .] u p agains t th e fac ts, and the juridic<l1 expedient 11<\0

t o be found , rhc MIa, fo r circ um ve nting it w hi lt' conform irl!/;
t o it. Th e ,Ioctri lle

t hat t he Mos lem pr inces m il/:ht

enter into truces wit h the tntidejs, la,ti ng ten ye.1rJ at the most,
in the !""s.. o j an msu rmoumab le wea kresv " h Ill' Mos lem sta te
am I in rI,.. lan e r\ illlt're st, The) we"" free I " bre..k th..m ilt
w i II , pms ided th e y a to n ed for t ht'ir \'io la l t',1 ,-", t h. J
Ho \v co uld 'Hle fail tll sec a mea ns 0 1" expansion, o f indefinite
grow th, in th ese
o ne th at is pe rfect at the san-e t ime
in its principle, in its effec ts an,J in the , Iura tion of its e llects?
Some o f Dc rmc nghc rn's othe r views arc also in the natu re 01
vague approximations. But this clear question e merges: ll ow does
o ne grilsl' the m(' a ning of en insrtrurion t har has outlived it , rea son fo r beinl/:! Is lam is J ,Iisc ip lirl" applfed to method ical effort
o f COIl'1lJCSt. Th t completed f'nto.:rpriSf' is <In empt}' Framework;
thus t1w moral richev Islam ho lds are tho se o r ma n k in d in general, but its ex ternal
a rt more mark e d , less unsra-

hk

iI!)o:!

m ore form"l.

The Am b Societies ot Consumption Before the llegim

If we are

to define t he meani ng o f the Prophe t's d iscip line, o f

Isla m , ",.e cannot lea ve 0 1T J t its survival, w hich in our view preserves t he bea uty of dea th O of ru ins. Islam op poses to th e Arab
wo rl d w he re ir was horn the , letermi TlatiOTl t hat ma de ilIl e lllpire
ou t o f .. I.. lll .. m s I hM wr.r" S"att..r..,] un til the n . "VI" ere rcla tiv ..I}

, .. .

CC .... U E .. ..... S O C ' . ' "

.....

wel l informed abou t tllt- \ m..11 Arab communities, no la,\O('I' thm

Iht tribe. which had a di ffiUlIt ......isc.1'lf .. be fure tbe II"'Kira. I
w rte not
nvmadie. but tk tl llT..renee between lhc nOllwk
ar..J tI,.. ""';"'llt oll) inhabitanb uf l ho.: I:-JOI'
- !>U::h t.kn _a
o.-l"a l rib ( I"': nn un- M,..jina ) - "as rd a lh e l) \ 1ight. Wit hin rhc
con fine.. uf h..r:.I, If ihal ru t.... 11,<") mailllainftl a storm)" ind h iclualis m 10 " hieh rill' im portance o i llwir p' .I<:t T') h ronnee-r ed. fh l'
perso nal Of I,'ibal rivalries, the bou tv l, f bra..,'urol, 01
of
y. ot ,' IO<jucnco.:. of pOt'll<: tal..m. play.-cl the
ro le
ill t hem. ().;tt'ntarious g i\ ing and sq u..mlni ng
ra'np'lllt and
on.. can lloubtl......\ infer tile c...istcnr c o f a ritu al fon n 0 1 )",tI<l1< h
fro m a pI'..... rilJli ofi o f t hc Koran:
not g i..e in ord e r III Iwvr
mo re" (LXXIV, 6 ). H;" ing rema ined pol)l hcis rie ,
01'
tribes ha..l hlOQl.I) )3Crilicn totht:n Wfft" O m srian or jc.. ISh. but
then it ,,-as Ih(' tribe, and nor t he- ind;, i,lu... l. which had chosen
me religion and it is doubtfu l thllt rh.. \\a ofli ft: ,,-as ch...i1t,ol
, "t"l) m ueh
... ees ule }, Blood Wllgo.:<IfIC to. tilt- ob ligation for lhe
relatrees o f a ma n l.iIlL-d tu uk tltd r r.....e nl,,>e O ll llR killer's rt'1a.
liH'S, , om plt't....1th iS tablea u of " ash-ful acts 0 1\ iolt".nct-.
A!>\llItiing tl '\;l l till." ne igh bori ng
endowed " ith d
I11mta!) u("g" ni1,lI iun. we-e d osed to ,k pns,ibi lity o f
t his spendlhrift W")' (If life could ''1IS" rl 11
equilibrium (the
frequen t killing of th t: femal.. tw whu rn Iwlpe. l t o p'l.,"Cm OH'I'population). Uul lt loc neigMJI.'rs h.1t:l " ..a kt'rw, l, the maint enance
of a
olllfc t hat did not
if'" f" r 11 jui ni lil-: 01 torces \\ ould
no, h",... allo" t"tl these people 10 1.&1.<' ..ln ntage 01 II", farl . A
p rd im inal') rdomlOlfiun of nt>;f Ofl1S, t he kwm..l"tion of a I'rdimin.u) pri nciple o f
o f o.:n t""I",iJor and of uniftC.&f io n of
"crt' IIeCf'j;QI) before ...
coe kl be undertakm.
n ell "'j!i1i nl>l sta rt'S i ll ,Ioxlinc o
,lid nOl
mean to rl"ipt ... I IU tllt- lJOSSi bilitics d l<l' resu lt ed ho m the \\ca l.ness 01 th.. fKigh IJl.,ring srates, bcr
teou::hillg nonclhd a.lo had
o

'<

th.. 'oil "''' .. ITeet a-, it ",{)"I, I h"HIMd ifhe ha d clearly inten ded to
profi t fro m the occavion.
Properly speaking, these pre-Islamic Arabs ha,l nor J't:',llJ,t'I.1 Ii...
stag.. o f mili lar} " flInpri,,", an) more than rhe Aerccs had. Th ese

WilY, oflife "orrnpu nd t" the princi ple ofa "JC idy of consumpli o n" But am o ng pe o ple of the same ,tage, the A'lte,s
..,..-r
c jsed a mi lilal") hege mon). T h.. Arab" whose n d gh lJOr.; were
s..,san;, l lran a nd B)lamium. "ere forced t o Icgetate.

Nu., cen t blum or 5ucidy lh-duu-J 10

M ili ta ry Enterp ri se
" T he pietism o f p rimit ive Islam ," w rites H . Hol rna, "\\"oul,1 CN

rain ly deserve to be ctudicd arel .'>:a m inH I more dnsdy, "-"'IJecl" l1y
, ilK .. Max \ Yel,..r "01\ Sombart have deaJl) shown the importance
of tile pi e tist wa) o f th ink ing in the o rigins and dcvclopme nr o f
capita lism : 'R T his re mark by the Fin ni sh w ri ter i, all
mor..
pert inent , illLe t he piet ism o f t he Je ws and the Proresram s was
motiva ted by intentions alien to c apitalism. It nevertheless resulted
in the birt h o f an ecollom) in w hic h t he a ccu mu lation o f l:.ll,ita l
d o minat e d ( to the derrim en r 01" consump t ion. whic h \\;l' Ih e

ru le in the Middle I\ges). 9 In an) case, Mohammed cou ld not

haec done any bcrrcr if he had s("t our (O n ansfor m til.. rf'C kl t'.ss
and wasteful agitat in n 01 1"1,.. Arab, o r hb l im e in to <III
instrum e nt o f conq uest.
Th" act io n o f Mosl e m

tS

comparable to rhar 01 t he

Ill<lnag..r , )f a "wt o') in w hi' II , liso r<l..r has t,i\.ke o holJ : H.. l.. kes
w ise measures to 1111 the
i ll till: pl"nl lhat ha' e drained ollthc
and re duced th e outpla to nothing. Mo ha m m e d o pposed

h.. glor i, 'o s <tIK1 iOl Iivid ual "Ideal" of " iri l il )" of rh..
pr c-Islarmc t ribes, " j ill the di1l, with fait h and su bnnss tvc discipline. (Ric he lie u com bat ring the rradirions o f fe ud al hon o r, rhO'
.1" 0"1, ("h me Ihis sam" d irc c lifm Iklilwr.lt.. I). ) H, forbade bloo d
t ilt>

m lJ lll Wa , t

r ...(; C ONO;:U E" ..... $0<; . 1: . ..

' 0;, .....

\'Crlb>e.lOCC \\ uhtn I he Muslem c urnmunit), b u t

it
Hc
kil li'\! o f intanrs. lhe usc of "inc

[hI' gin of rk.Jl ry. He

this
inp. for ,he sd,e of pure
whh theuseful g U ll\: 01 alms.
..* r
close retau..,.. h i, clue ,;o.\ well as t he pauper and thc wilI) larc' r, 'r cr
do nO!. S(j u.loc!er e x trim ' g;m l l) ; !>pcndlhrilts AI'(' tile de.. ii 's brcrh....n.. (Koran, XVII, 2R-2 9 ). Ext reme g" 'l(>I't);,il}'. a major vrrtue 01
Ih .. n-ibcs, SlItldcll[r becam e an object o f
ual I'ri d..

wito; r-om l..mned.

antl inthvi<1-

T h" Sflilall(!l:ring, int rac-r... b l..

.",.-

age warrior, I" .. t'f" anti bdCM.-'(! of

....'Ofl"\{:n, hero of the I ribM'
l)O('tl). gi.... ......) to th.. devou t soIJ If.:r. tilt' Immal observer vi <II!>cipl ine and r ues, Tk- custom ot pr.t) illjo! in (Ul11mnn "<1'> a corswu
affi nnation o f Ihi!> cmnl!C; it hao; riglll l)
10 m ili tar) esce- ee, , ..h ich unifies and m echamxc s

mmpa rCt'l

fll,
contnst of thc Jo\.onn (al1(llhe hDditJ. ) " it h rhc c:apekiuus "QrIJ
o f poetry S) mbollzes tl lis rc'l"uJialiOfl . II , .. n n l) aher ti l{ tr eesiSlibJe ,,-;n'e 0 1 c;:onq ucst by thr , 1"'0111 arm) . h at the Ir.Hlill On
was n:sumed; \ klOriOU\ Islam " .. nol. hdd 10 ,he- same Wt f'Tit): Ilencm m
for wh ich the 10 nJo(ing re mained , cn.. ....1
to IX' a
,lf1C" lhr
had consolidat ed its dom inal ion .
T he alt ernation (,L msto;ri t,-. " hid l acc um ulates, wu f prod rJo(alit ), " hieh dissipates. is tile onlil'\.ll)' rll) tlllll in the use of
Onl) rd:.rh't' auvtertty anc th c absence of diwipaaion ;,lIow for
ti lt' gHl'Wlh

or l ilt' enc rJo(}

sptems th" l living bcinjo!s

const runc. H'll., at It'as' for a ti m".

ncccmr l

\0

IJf "" ..

it-tit'S

hn i h lim i.... <luJ it i...

d '$.liip'lle the e"cc'>li In.l l (antlol OC accumulated,

w .....r gi\TS Islam

a place apart in t110C rn c .....: mt"flh

;"

the- fact

rtlal

" pen from IIw- searr co an ..

unlilllitni in. rea-e 01
T his was I., no m eans a C;:Of"I.'> istt'tlt plan or prtlj t . U4J1
chance reali zed C'lc'1 l'0ssib ilit), Anti ('ha'KI.' ",AS \uppon 1 b) a
m inim u m of n ccl"\Sil). It is r..lall....l)
10 assemble people b,
inspiring them wi th a pankulu euthu...ia\ m , Ru( une mUSI &"e

it

"'llS

"

"C C,-"SE D S ....

th em

to do. ' 10

.., to ..

is nP.it of ..lito .. licit

an u napplie d lu re ,,; Illis fo rc e c-an n ot follow if..', imp<:t lJs ,m el pre"

fo rward un less it is used th e mo ment it bec o m e s available. I rom
th e first, Islam was fortunate in having to set itsel f vio len t!) against
the wo rld in which it o rigina led. Mohamm ed's

"1'1)()s..d

it to ti le tribe wh os,e rradirions it blasphemed. The tribe threat..ned t n exclude. it. wh ich \"'S eq u ivale nt to deat h. It thus had
to re -pudiate the t ribal relationshi p, iln d s inc e art existence w ithou t ti es was not c onceiva ble at thc t im e , it had to e stablish a d ifferent t ) pC o f bond between it a nd Irv adhen-mv. T im wa s the
me an ing 01 th e I lcg ir;l, w h ic ll p ro pe- rl y be ga n the- Mos le m e-ra:

Muhamrn.., I\ flight frum Me' GI to Medina c onsec rate d the rupt lln'

"fblood t i..r, and the establis hment of a n ew com muni r j ba sed

n n ch o \.Cn b ro the rh ood, o pen ro anyo ne who aclol't.. t1 i t., tf"ligious

forms. Ch risrianit v dates from thf" in, fh i,l u..f birr" of .. rl'1l,ct' m ing
god; Islam , fro m rbe b irth o fa ' -' )[I lm uTl it ), o f a n"'" kin,1 ofs...,t."
which ,lid n n t ha ve its basis in either bl ood ot p lace. Islam diflers
Irom Ch rist ian ity and Bu d dhi sm in th at it became, afte r the I-l'l!ira,
som c t h ing diflcre m from a te ach ing propapared in (he fram ew o rk
o f a soc iety alrea(l,. formed (a local o r blood c o mrn unirv }, IT
the establis hment of a soc iet y 00l;t'(1 on the new
principle was in a sense perfect. Th ere was

nt, mo m Il,r

ilmb igu it) o r compr omtscs "t he re ligious lead er was at the same
ti m e tile legi slator. the- jud gt, and t he m il itat) c hie f. O ne cannot
imag ine a more rigotOllsl}' u n ifleo c o r nm unl ry, Th e soc ia l bo nd
had irs o rig in in w ill alone ( b uT w ill c o tlM no t break il l, w h ic h

o ft.. r... 1 rh.. a,I",tn lagt: n ot ' m l) of e ns uring a d ee p m o ral un it y,

bu. ,,15<, o f 0 pc lling Ivlam to In definite expansion.
It was an ad m irable machine ry, Military orclet r..place d the ana,..
ch ) of ri va] dans, and in dividual
n" I, rng..r
was tcfu lJ). we nt Int o ti, e sen 'i,-.. o f t h.. arm ..,l n >o,nltlllit),. O" Ct'
the o bstacle [ t he t ribal bound ary th at IOr' ned ) stood iTll llt' \Va)

T'-'I: CO N Q UE .. .... e,;

o fJirtlw th ha,1 b ft'n rcmrlVc , l, t ilt' individ ual te"-CC5 "cre ke pt in

score for mi l,tJ r} cam paiglls, Cor'lI'It'M, w h ich t he IwditJJ rn c ehod fca lly fashioned illl" a nWaJlS " f cxpanvio n, inve."e.l the new
resourc es. w ithout ap preciable

io a closed

of

fo re t's that gr..w la rgcr an.-1 largcr at a faster and faster ra te . This
rnov .. ",..nt r..call s ,h.. d.., ..lu pm..nt nf in d us try through capitalist aCtumul.llio n; If wa ste is halted, if tlevelop mcn l no longe" h as
a Iormal Iirrnt , rh.. afflux o f e ne rg > dicta te s grow lh, <In ,1
rhr- accu mulation.

So unco mmon a perfection is nor w ithou,

othn sid.. , hr1\Yever. If o ne compa res the Moslem c onq ucsts Y' ith tl1I' " evd o pmen t 01 t he Chris tian or Budd hist rel ig io n , cnc SOt)1l notes the
relative p ownl..,,-rl<>ss o f lsL1In. I"Iw fact is rhat thc formati o n of
PO"er
Ihal t me f<Jr" b''' its use, 'I he de velopment o f
try rcqu! ro a lirniton co nsum p lion; Equiprnenr get s first prior uy :
imm ediate int e resl is subord inaled to it. Th e '-ery princi p le of
Islam im plied th e !><Ime o rder o f values: Lil e loses its imm c ,] ial ..
pO\\'t'r of d isposal 10 thc pursuit o f a g rea le r power. III a,oiding

rhe m o ral weakness ofthe Ch ris t ian a mi Buddhis t com mumucs

[ forced to serve an

political syste m ), Isla m fcll into a

greater wea kness, rhc COllS<',q"' :'wc of a comp l..", subordination

of religious life

to

mili tal) ucccsslt r Th.. piu'" Mosl..m reno urced

not o n l}' the was rctu] expenditu res u f the t rilMl world bur <lI M},
as a general ml .., Ol n} expen diture of!un'" t hal was no t all external " jol..II(" t llrn..,j
fence that founds a

th e in fi{lcl cnc mv.

, T h e in ternal v toand
in a sacrifice played

o nly a secondary role in t h r- h lafll of t he Iirst period , For Islam

is dd'n... 1 not by c Hn slllllp tio n b ut, Iih ' ca p ita lism, by a n acc umulation o f a\'ailabl.. fi,n;t';S, In it., primar} essence, Islam is unarn enablc to an y dra math atiu ll, to an y transfixe d contem p lation 01
dra ma. 'f hcr c is not hing in it curre::.pom ling to Ch rist 's death o n
, h..

or t o Bu dd ha's rapturc o f anm h ilalion, Li ke the mili-

, ..

tM} .....vud gn who u nle ashes his violence agai nst ehe ene my, it
against the rel igious \O\'ereih'll, w ho

sets

violen ce .

Th e m il itary sove reign is n eve r k illed a ml even tends to p UI an

e nrl to ""'crif"'.,,; h.- i' th .-r.- [() .lircCl t he violence outs ide, am I
t o I'r.-st'n .- d ,,' vi\.il l lo l'('e o l thc co m mun ity fro m inte rna l consUJllpt io n , fro m ru ina tion. t il: is c omm itted fro m the start to the
pa t h o f appeo pria t tnn.., n f cn 0'l ues ts, o f r-alr- ula rcd ex pc ndh ures.
wh ose pu rpost' i, growt h. 1,larn is in
thesis o r r.-ligio llS

"nJ "' ililal}

.l. .. " nst',

in its Un il), a syn-

it has curtailed sec-iflc .."

Iimiti ng rt'ligion 10 fllO",li l), a lms -gh ing and pra}c r observance ,

Late blum or the Return to Slabilit,.

G h 'en it s fo undal io n J m l i ' Tlrn!".-st s, t he nrc"., illg o f Islam gets
lost in ti le con stituted Moslem clllp irc , As soo n as 1s1,1m c ea sed,
because o f its victo ries, 10 1>(' a rigo rous d evot ion o f v ila l

rO n k S

to g row t h. it re m ained n m h ing bur an e mpty, rigi, l iT"",.-"urk.

Whar ca me to it lro m e lsewhe re was not take n into rhis rigo rous
c o he sion w uho u r b dnJ; t rans formed. But except fo r ti lt' co h e sio n, there- " nothi ng JJl it that "as n o t g h 'cn befo re i t . It
" pellNI itsel f to the influe nc e o f the co ntjuerecl lall{]s " hose riches
it in he rited .
It
rnme rha n a lit tl e srrall/o!le th at UIlCI' t he conq uests were

c o ." " li,b t.-d t h., trn d ., rly ing Arah ci\'ili/al ion, th e n eg ati o n o f
w h ic h I,,,ll fx ,c n a fo tJn<ling p rinci ple, recovered
vitali t ), and
c ontinue d much as be fore.
1O wh ich Mohammed 0 llpo,e, ] rhein t he A
IlPS

of that mum" i'l o f the tri bes,

o f t hl' Ko ran . , ,, b"iMc rl

wnrhl, wloi,h m:tintaiflu l a I ra,li t i"" o f c h ivalrous '';11-

in w h i" h violem-e wa-.. .: o fllb j",: d oi rh (Jl'Udigali t ), and 100'e

with pUC lr}. MUT('on::r, wha t we o urselves h ave fro m hlam does
no l partak e o t Moham mod's c o ntribu t ion, b ut prn is..ly of those
co n d e m ned values . It is c unouv to

..- ,m Ar..b infltr<:nc c,

ill o u r c hi val rous "reli gio n ," so d lfferem fro m ti ll' i"St ;lu t i"n o r

' ''II:

CO>" Ql " .. .. . G ,",c C' I!:

de B"su. the Luter being qO' h feeeilo:n 10 the

world. T Ilt' \ cl')
dll ' OJrocU, ImJol<
Oil II
me,m i, 'g llurin!/; Ihe l ime o f the
a poe tic mea ni, 'lo( I it'tl to th e . aluc o f
tn the h ' d frh (enluf). in llx' \ \'<:;1,
the onlif)ill') intc rpr.at>o n 011 hI' rilllal 01JtrrlaJnent \ v;J!< M I rn,
And the bi rrh, in the Sout h of Fr4J1. .., o f the poe") o ( I iOfl
al'llUt.'fltl>
a tradit ion goi'"l! bacl, ..u
U, t1M_
p.lt'"y cornpetirions of tilt' ui bt-s that pn... .ll-d rhe .lISl C: rcaot inn of rh e Proph e t. I()
eh i--alf) ............lffi in the

chotuCfll

9'

The tr n a r m c d So ci e t y : La m a Ls m

Til e Peaceful Societies

In a sense , Islam di ffe!> from ulllina')' <;<X.ielies o f m ilit'lI)' en terprb c by an c xagge ra tiun o l rrai u , Otw .....,..s l<:n(ltTlci... in it,

ri"Al

In

of

ex trem es, tha t arc less pron ounced in the imperi..1 \"entll l"l':;
,tn ti' l"it } or C hina. Trur-, o ne does nOI find the hirt l1

0 1a morality in conne cuon " ilh lslam: It edopred a moral it)" that
pr....
it. But th e d e ar brr Ak It rnad .. w it h ti lt' socictj ou t
o f w h k h it ca me g ives to the Ilg u r<' irlormed the sha rp lw,-" Ihal
the more ;ancienl e m pire, d o not M H' . Imlet'd , the !>ubo rdina tlC)fl

of e Ol'lqucsl. to [l1oral it} is " Ildt

iIleo;, and

its me.vl.ill).(.

II is pa radoxical, perbaIX, tu h..ve c hosen lt., ill p rde re llCt' to

t he m n rt.'" ' lassical Rome or ChiN.,

uon.

Am I it is , tra'lI!c

to

10

illusreare a typr

"f, h ili , a-

l}Jin!>!. for-';ln:! Lamaism, instc,w of the:

Christi;an Q 1u n: h, tn dew rib<: Ul unannni

o;oci l.-1 :}'.

But the con-

iJ> , I........., t he pl3} of elements roo: int elligi ble \\h..n un<'
ghes extre me examples.
In ;a hu ma ni!) everywhere prcfW('I1,u
oil war,
iJ> p.wadu..ia ll) an .,(X-I",... of pt"acd UJ eivilw tion . il1Gllpablt- of 3ltiICI.: il'lJ.!.
others or dckrKling ilself. I, .. -ert); illllTlt' nsil ). topq>;<al>h) and enid
Are in th is cece the
defcnd ces 0 1 iI , o un tf) " itl, no rnilit a!)
fun; r-. lh " ,XI[lul" t;ol1. little: d ifferctll r<K:iall) from the Huns ;U'l' !
tr3!>l

the

(i n ti mes

mo reover, th e Tibetans would im " d..

C hina, ..xact ing t rib utes fro m th e emperors], a'

of

the 1 wenrierh centu ry

incapable of
pablo of uffning more tha n a day \

incato

I "'0

invavions. b> the Briri sh ( 19(}1 j and b} rhc

( 1909 ), [I h
uuc m at an im unno untable inferiori ty in weaponry made <I d d r:i11
of t he im 'ad e....
k t o rh... r poo rl > t"fj llip pt:d armies elsewhe rf' e Recti- e1}, opposed n,"'n "TlTIOwd lim.;"" And Tioct has till'
ad ,anlage o f an all bur ina....."ibl.. I'0, itipJI. In rc alitj- a pm it iH'
dete rm inat ion i, in.." I".,,!. T Il<' Ne palese, wh ose race, locarion
and mM..n al , "ltllT" an, q uit e similar, have o n til('. conlrar} a large
lIIiIirar}
lit {th c} even in vaded Ti be t various t i mcs),
it is caS} to gj,'c a reason for this pcal'eabl ..n..,,;
At [irs t.
It , <JTig in is Bud d hism , w hic h fo rbids its i!(lher<onPi I II kill. warNepal is do minate<] po[itica l1} by the Hin d" m ilitary ;,ri,t<lc01 ti l('
But the Budd hisr nb..t.1ns ilf.. wry pi ou s;
Their sovereign is a hi g h d i/ltllt ary nlrhe
Th.. cxplanat ion
is n,,1 so clear, hovo..ve r. In spite 01 C\ery t hing, a lee blc reaction
in rhc face of an in, asio n is biza rre. Other re ligions co nllem n war,
and t he peo ple w ho pink " rhe m "b,illu, l> , t ill m anage to kill
o ne another. One vmu l,l li k.. tn look more closel y at thing' , "nl!
th e I. "tllllm, . " w,Jrl of "

o fficial . Sir Charles Bdl, devo red

bo th 1' 1th., IJt;P'OI I<1l lili' o f the th irteent h Dalai Lama (187&-19 34)
o f T ibet u nder his reig n, e nables one to 101and to ,0"
low t he m<llcrt,,} Op U<lIK)IJ oj ti,e

rather wd l. 11

MlJderu libel <lud;h Brit;.d, Anlluli.H

Fhis boo k b} Charl es 1'.,11 is be n e r than a

or

it

flur a cum l'o" ,,1 wo rk I"' l a firsr-hand docume nt, the di MJrgan i7.ffi r-hrontclc 0 1a II un ess involved in e vents, re lating w hat
ha ppe ns to him as he go<:s a Io ng. Toe author g;'cs a briefa,co unl
ofto ings he h"s no t experienced d irectl y, h ut he (J wdl s m o re at

length o n the: small OCUlrn'rlCO of his 0\,,, lik : He

lofl.l JY

us the leM! de ta il COIlC('ming hI' ' ta) in

ur in Ind ia. .. 11t'1l'
be was in Lon' olet \\ n h the Dalai Lama. TIM'" ,,"uri. is po...ri} d un...

but i t
I11l1 r .. livelyand oflen m U I " t han a IOnnal ' turl}; I t " .lI
jumble . bot Ill) ma n .. r. '\o\'c d o not h..cc a IC$S
('If" mo..c
com plete r!oc un u::n1 un t he ch ili uli o n ofTiber . C harl..... lk ll
t he flr"t w hite man to have hall
rcla rious , basa-d 0 11
l intl oflricudship. w it h a Dala i I Mna .
,"c ry ho no ra bl, dip.
lo mauc agt'nt appe ars to have ich a gellll int' n mL'c m not on l) ftlr
.. ufTibct , "hv !iC
ti,e i" tn t'sbo "fhi" 0\\1\ ('()un tr) bur lor
I",: lnc'\' F, ell (he
v r l"rli3. nUl 'I' r) an xio us lOge' in , oln:<I. see ms to ha, .. u lk-d o n hi s services .. It h II
LC"rtlIin amOllIU
Charlt"\C tkll thought t hat t he 8111iID sho uld
' h e n betaw; to m,;,,;nt .un the ir ind e pe nclc ncc. to
throw ofT tilt' O lilW* )Uk fur good. nit' Bl-ili!>h finall) dill adupt
" h;c h \\o>!' int ended to moll.: Ti ber a 71l1'1t' 0 '- infl uenL't':. bU I in 111 L-allt lou"
Tht')' !iiI" l he ad,-antal,........ f a hll U..r
state an d they we re ' cT)' m uc h in la,u r o r 11 Mrung. a utOlK lmr 'l lli
Tl b.. t , bllt a ram part agaimt t" '<:ntual.li l1ir ult ic-s must 1lI) 1 b..
gainc<! at tl w
o f serious im mc-,!iale rlimo ,]ri..-,-. Thq wallllJ
to avoid 111l\" il1g rh.. Chinese
nl>tghbl)l'S. but n01 it
",['am
\ UPIJU1t ing
.. agOl[nst them.
A peri od ,..,1"
Ii-i..rut,hi p, rather warm around 19] 0 .
a t least e nable d the aut bor 10
at
and tak.. puli l icOlI
initiati w :'l; in it couutT)' that had n.,ma[nrr l d OOL-Q ro whiu'S lO. mnrc
t ha n a c e n l uTY, I'\ n(1 " hilc t hr01 Ti bet we re no t
uokncw n p rior to B..ll, c ('rtainl) . cec cou ld nOl
il>. lil" and
'icissitu dcs Irorn wit hin. \\ C" do nut emer a ...rem unt il \,.. {.An
percerce it.\, fluct uations. unril we di scO\l'r an in teractiun of its

..

.. Ie me u'" in operat ion. Charl o Bd l. r1 uri "R a. }'ear's

OIt lI\6ol.
t ricrl tu
l ho.' gooern m r-nl u l lll/(C t 1Il 11 m ilit<l t) poliC)-,
Couldn't Til,.... ha\ ,<: an ;mn) in pruputt io n 10 Its m....JI"J It !IO hap-

thai the diffi t.vlt ics he cecou ntc..e d e nable Ill> 10 examine
an t"COnomic
r nJlln
pa redce, , t he ' ..riolD !x lSSibilit ics o f human 'OCiel) and the boener.tl t.-oooit iorK III an cquifi bri um
in
.. ",licl,
pt"' 1!;

The Purely Rd;e;olls Power oJ the Dalai Loma

Tbe special aim of the L:tst bool h) Clw-In Bell (" ho dcd in 19 50)
is the biograph} o r ltw d lin eculh Dalai Lu na , -' hi\ nbjccthe retur.tll) led hi III to rn i""l Ihe kflu" n
of an illSI ltut io n th a r
ha\ no g ric t count....pan o thcr tm n ti,e Jla pac), I .1ill \um nlol. itc
these
lac ts, Budd hiWl
intlu.!t"'....1 illio nt lCl in 640,
Tibet " "OLS tI,en
b,.. kill.'l.. lind in ti lt' Ilrst pe riod t bc de-'do pm e ntof rh is r.ligiol1 d i.l nu l OIl .. II " .."ken the ('Olmrr)', " hk h
W <lS une uf t h.. c hi"' m ili,....)' powers of Asia, Bur
monasd ei sm spread and in ti ll: co urse 01 time the inOllc rn:c of rhe- rnon..l>It' r!t:l> rhrea rcncd \ h.1t o f IlK> kings, In t ht' TWt'l fth ( " ,Iwry a
rdormer, Tsong ...a-Pa, fnundeil a m o re seve re so-u. ill "hi.,,, the
monks observed striel
f he refur tTll-..-1
ofthc " Yellow
Hers" 0pp'.l't'<1 t hI;" IlXl'It'".. ..eel 01 rhe "Red Harv." A s.lintl), or even
<.Ii,i..... d w-olCle r W.!S atu; oot"d to the " \e IlO\, I fars," \I hi. h, "'''ppr;:.;tring III theil SIICttSSOrS, gon-e them t ho, spiriwal l)u' .",r and rel igio us !i(J\'Crcignt), 00(' of them, a J!reill l..ll\iI o f Ihe MRic.. Hea p"
rnotlolSterJ neilr I h,a..... allied him"..,..l r " ilh a "iongoJ c bscf .. he
debtcrl a
"Rood I YI" 1.illl;.. In this
Tibet eamf' undcr rhe
aUlt.-.ril) o f rhe " D..llo; Lama," il mongol rttlc J:i'1'n ' Xl
occasion to lMo fifth incatTla.t io n o r that \Upetiu ll-mn
T his Dalai Lama \\" S IK,t c1eMI) 11.., mou imPlJrt ant o f t he
ineamare jo!<xls or n l,..t. T IM' :.o:rni-Iq;cndal) namli H 'S tba t dea l
.. il t. the o rigiro. i n" !Il'nSJr' J;l\C t.ighu standing 10 t he "Pan ch .. n"
of Ta"'5hi U in-po (a monaslct) "est o f l hiIS.J. ). In re..li l)- rh.. 'piri,
rual au thorir j ()f rbc DalOli l a ma gre w OUI nf h il> t .. m l>O..-.l1 am hority. "11>e f';rnd lf':n himlotrr
in sddlnon t u ,Ill Im me nse tel igio us

THE U"' .. ..... FO SOC IE n

I' r..
an

.. "" ",;'"

"..c nla r c harge 01 a province; h,> has his ow n policy as

vassal. TIle

<;;l"ll'

i, true , to lesser dq,!:T't'CS, ofother

great lan 'a' , , ince an im portant monaster) is a lief in a harO'I )' cen tra lized ki ngdo m , lik e a Mate II ill ,in a stare. But the sovereignty
o f the Dala i Ldmd achieved consisrenc, ill t ha t it ceaved 10 be

hnked tu the tunct to n th a t eSlah lb hed it. In ou r ti me , Ll w ht' illl

o f gO\'em mc n t o f Tibet is '>0 liUl e th e gr;md lama of t he " Ric..
I le;, p" that t his mu naste ry, rebellio us er ti mes, cou ld c on duc t a
pro-eh inese pol ic y 'IIKI t hwarr the pro-Bri t i,h po lic y 01" Lhasa.
This in dccisi \t' c haracter of tht, IUC.lI I IIstirutions is reflec ted
in Ti be t's relations " ilh Ch ina , The authority n ftht' Dalai
which is om bascdou any
power, has ne w . ,",x..rclscd more
t han a lragi le co n tro l ove- r t ht' p ia) of forc es ro \d 'iclt it cou ld
n ot o fft'r an y real obstac le . ,\ M,vt"'eignty is precarious tI,al' d ocs
not ('o m mand bo th th e rel igi ous t'ntl lral1 me n t o f t he peo p le ,l Ot!
t he half-m t'r <:t'nary, half-e m o t io na l obedience o f an army'. Anti in
faet theoc ra uc Ti heT soo n fellunder t he d o mini on " I Ch ina. TIle
o rigin o f th is
is OOt clea r. T ile T ibe ta ns dispu te the
C hine se version; t l,.. C1,in es>:. th e Ti beta n one. Tibet "as often
subjec ted t o Ch in e st: rille even in a lll ilill ity, bU I n o t like a fief
s" hjn't" ,1 to a sueere tn (by a t rad ition al
by both
parties ): It was a mat te r offorce, and forct' IllJick ly overturned
" hat forc e llilt! established. China in tervene" in Tlbet as far back
as t he seveu rccn tb century,

w hat it cou ld I" co n trol th e

sele c rion o f th e Dalai lalli"" , All amban , backed by a garrison.

h3<1 th e rea} secular powe r. Ct' Ilt'ra lly speaI.. ing , th e garri"' Jll seems
to
we ak : l l oct "as Jlol
co lon izat ion, d ,.. administranon

prorcctorarc [t here " 'dS flO

e n rirclj-T ibe tan}, FllI t

China had th t' u pper h and and ow ing to iN i1g,'n ts the ,m'ereign ty
o f th e Dalai Lama
Hctitfo us: It m ay hav.. been d ivine, but it
was a lso powerless.
It was a ll the easier to nu llify the Dalai Lama's pow e r sinct' ..
?1

bizarre mode o t succession periodicall y abandoned lhe c o u n lr)

to regents for lo ng intervals. In the cyes o f th e libcrans the Dalai

Lama i\

']0

rnn rtill, n r I"iIth,'r, he .li .., nnl )' in

soo n ....inca rnate d .

was

ami "

Ii-om t h.. I.>t'gin ning as rh ..

goo

lncaruatl on o f " m ylhir.:,,1 bd' ig.

p rotector a'1(1
of
Hbct in the Buddh ist panth e o n. Th e ge nera l re inc a rnati on of
human beings (in o t her ani mal ur human creat ures ] afte r d eath
is the o bject o f a furularm-mu l bclscf fur l:Iu dJhi '1s . rh us on t he
dea th ol'u Dala i Lama, always attribu te d 10 th e desire to die, it is
necessary to go in searc h of a mille c h ild. in ,, 1J(Jsc body he is
soon reborn. An offici al oracle
the province and inquirles arc co nd ucted concern i'W: ch ild re n born w it h in a pe riod o f
time aJlTt'spo nd illg to the tleildl 0 1 th e late Dalai La ma. The dectsiw sig n is lilt" recognition " f an ol'jt-et t hat

""5 lISt' d i"llll': pn ,-

vious incarnation: l'hc ch ild must ch o o se it fro m among o the r

similar objects. The )Ullllg Dalai Lama, discove red at the age o f
four }'CaT\, is t hL'n introduced amI enthroned, but he doc'> not cxcrd , .. powt't I>..("r.. !'i s n in..

)"'M. rhus. ta k ing acco un t o f

tin; 1irm; I<lpse fo r l-.:: i"" am"l lon, a

mtJ ,>1

t wo rci gm. Moreover, t h i' r"'g e n e y i' o ften p ro lon&J("'1. It

fo r the }'o u rJg sovereign to di e yo ung. As a ma tle r 01 facr, ti le four
Da lai La mas prior to the thirte e nth d ied befo re or shorrly after
th e assum p rto n of power, a decel o prn enr ill w hich the
o f lilt' Chmese "am bans" ere rhough.
m o re man<lgcab le "Iltl. moreo,-c ,-,

TO

hav e h ad a pan. A

tme rcst himself in

resorting to poison.

The Powerlessness and Rno ft of the

Thir teenth Dalai Lama
B)' W<l) o f an exce p tion. the thirteenth Dalai Lama survive d. This
" a , perhal" d lie to a nortceab If' d ecl ioe of the Chine se infl coree.
T Ilt" a1 n ll<l n had alr'-"'tI ) 'l ay"" "Il l " f tlling' at t he ti mO' 01 the
,8

d ,i l,]'s sclccrton . I his ne w J.r>II wav born in 1876 ; h.. "as Invested
"ith full p ,"','r, . rd ij!iou, and ..." " br. in 189 5. ' libel was not then
b e tt er a rmed Ihan before, b ut it was

an

n lrt'm.. d ink" lt)" o f acccw, Th e de fac to power 01the Da lai Lam"

is a lways po ssible ar the
casing 01 attention on tilt" part 01
III.. C h in....... hur it is t h.'n c o m pletely preca rious . T he young 5o<J\'Heign lean e d rl-Is qutc klj, Jnp ite the ignomnn' in \\ hid, lit'
kf'pt hy]'h tsolanon fro m e\'el)'thing .and h is

3!l

an ido l.

as a m o n k los t in meditatton. He made a Hrcr nuvrake. A letter

fro m the vicc ro v o f 1",l i<\ asked fo r t he open ing 01 t he Tibetan
ma rkets to lllndus: T he Dala i l ama re ru me,1 it u no pened. The
matte r "..." ne t very

in hse lf bur the British could nor

bear being n ex t to a cou n tl')' t ha t was d o \ cd to the m, tl,..., riske d

king ope ne r! tv Russia n in flu e nc e o r even, it was said, handed
m'er t o Russia b)" th e Chinese. The gO\T n 1llll' n l o f Itldi" sent a
poli t ic al m ission c harged w ith es tab lishing sat isfactory rela tions
" ill l I ha M. T it.. Tibetans upposed thf' enu}' of enYo}s into rl le ir
te rri tory. In t h is v,ay the mi ssion bec am e mili w r)': At th.. It..ad
uf a ,I.. tac h me nr , Colone l Younghmband b ru l e the resistance and

marched on Lhasa. f he Chineve d id n o t h llllg" ; lJ,f' D..Ia i [ .. m..

ti ed, b ut not before placing th e governmenta l sea l in th e han d s
o f a m on k

...<1 li, r

..

"n,1 I.."rn ing, rh , only

co nd itio ns the Brit isll impo sc<! on le il\i ng Lhasa were the 0pel1ing o f t hr.... T illf't<ln t owns {O commerce, recognit ion o f t heir

pro-

re ctorate over a border p rOl Ince , Sikkim .and las t ly, no m h" r
lilrd gn pm ....r was to inte rvene in Tibet , Th is trc.J.t)' deli m;r1 a
o f Brithh inffu ence , b ut it also implici tl y recogn inx! T ibe t's sove re ign ty; it igno red th .. Chinese suzerain ty. T he Chinev.. pu t up
no tic e s in some town s ofTl bet, proda im ing the d f'po s ing o f t he
Dalai Lama, bu t the po p ulace covered
T Ilt: Dala l Lam" stayed four

)""A1rs i ll

t1WSl '

papo.:p; wit h ma nure.

C h ina , go ing frum MonJ4olia

to Shansi, then to Pe k ing. T he rd.,lti o' ll> uf t he Ii, ing Buddha with

THE AeC URSEr, S HA RE

rhe Son o t the He a..e ns rema ined amLiglious ( th.. Ch jn..ce seemed
to forget abo ut the de thr one ment ) am ! strai ned d u ring

t im...
Ra ther ab rup tl ), th, Dalar I a r ne wt ou t o n th e return jou r ney to

Ti bet. Bm the <lay h e an-ivcd in Lhasa he had at I,is h.... ls a Ch ine se a rmy. instruct ed to k ill h is m iniste r>; and lock hi m ti l' in a
temple, He resumed the rood of ex ile, th is ti m.. I" ,,"<lrd tl ,.. ""mlJ.
In the d ead o f wiuccr, pass ing th ro ugh snowstorms Oil ho rseback ,
exhausted, lit' and h i' party reached a border post aur! requested
t h e protection o f two Bri t ish t.. l..graph ope rators w ho ", h.. had
d irected to be awakened in the nigh l. In th is way h e de m onstrated
that the m o st firm l) ..stah lisl,..d r.. ligiu lJ s puwn is .,1 th.. rn" rc:'
o f a real power based o n a rmed terc e. He could " n l) has.. him selfon fatib'l.lc , o r at best on the prude nce 01 t he neighlJuring conntrie s. Thc Brhtsh g lad l) welcomed th is
w h" had I,....n
unable to go,cm but wit hou t " hom a lJ thorny was usc l...ss. r"r
his pi''' the Oalai Lama , insr ructedby b in..r .. xpeneece, saw t htad 'amagc he cou ld ,I.. rive fWIlI a" a" tab'"" i,,,, h..t,,,' ..n Hrit i.,h
Indi a ami Cht ro . BUT h,' overesti mated it . The smcrd!(n authorit y a nd mu tual antag o n is m o f ",.,ig huors a r.. us .. flll If ' a ,,,, r..',
au to nom y but the ) akm .. cannot .. nsu n il. nit'. ""lici t"d Hrit is!'
failed to S<lt i,f)' the anxious expec rario nv 01 the exiled leader. T ln'y
nfu, ..d tl w ir '"Pllf" I. ilm i, ,,,hl ) lim iting tflt' m",lv..s to "" pre\\ing Th e ir ,k,ire to see one J ay if stro ng T ibel , released from the
Chi"t'''' )'()k... T Ilt'
finall y " ....(>r<;CJ o nly b)' rhc internal rlifficuh ies 0 1Ch ina (t ilt' 1..11 " I th.. Lmpir.. in lq l l). -n, .. fi l)Ct
an, d rove ou t o f Lha... a garrb on bose le ad ers no lung e r had iln}
aut ho rity. Th. ..m han an ,t l i lt' ("( Jlnma nd ..r o r rh .. C h in.., .. lim ''',
surrende red. The Dnlar Lama re-enrered the- capital <1nd rettlrn",,1
to pm ...r aft ... all .. " iI.. 01'C\'en yea r. . I le managed \"('r)'
lo ' tay ill p<)w .. r <J ntil !,is dea th in
\ Vhat
rht s tht rtee n rh Da lili Lama is that ha\ ing
Mltvivt'<I , h.. 3("'jllir.., 1 th.. ""pt'rkncc 01 power - tho ugh under
roo

the most ad verse condi tions, There

no rradiri on that coulr

haec gu ided him.

teache rs hi\{'
him a mo nk's educat ion;
10.. 1'01" learned little be)v mllhc captivat ing and pear-eful
m..J it"t io n, w hic h is struc ture d by m eticulous SpeClJI..Li'JI] am i;,
de ep IllYLh ol og )' an d meta physics. T he srudies pursued in the
Ti be tan lam ascrics ar e quit e de mandi ng and th e mo nb excel at
difficult de bate. But one would
that ,,,ch an educatio n
would be more apt to anest hetize tha n to arouse a ' ....ling tor th ..
poltncal necesstues, especially in this part of
"od d tha t
inaccessible and <lelilw mtt'I)' r-loced to the o utside. And
at a ti m e w hen the o nly fi-" ..ignn, a11" .....d into Tibe t "ere Chinese having neither th e dcshc no r tn..
of in fo rm ing.
Slmdy. bu t ste;Klily and o;agacio usly, the tlurt eeurh Dalai Lama
dlscovered lilt' m1r!d. l ie turned his yt'ars ufcxile 10 account, never
m issing an " pl'0 rl ,mity tf) ".-qlli re kno\dedge useful to the cond uct of the govc rnme m. Duri ng 3 'hit t o Calcutt" he became
acqua inted with lhe reso urc es of advanced ctvtltzanons. T hu e 1,... d to he igno rant o f the re st u f a world in which lit" ,,"ilS t o
pld)' hi, part . T hrollf!h him Tibe t beea me aware of th e ..xl<rndl
1'1a)' u j forces, which could nOI be ignored o r de nied "ith impunity. Mor e exactly, the
<1nd d ivint' [(JfCe t ha t he conajrurcd rccognit cd its hmiu, - and
tl.al wit lll)lIt a m ilit.ll)'
u could d o notl,ing. His po wer
so d ..dr!) Iimile'] to
inte r na1
ro contro l over sacre d cen.'mo nin dlld sile nt
mednanons. that h.. rarln-r n.a iwl y offe red rh o British the responsib ili t) lor exte rnal socc r.. ign l)" dfld d...
power over
Tiber's foreign rc lanons. T he)" o nly h;..j 10 conrtnue ro St3Y out
of its inl t' mal affa irs. (Bhutan acce pted dncl appro ved these conditions, hilt rha r little COlllltT) of no rthern India is a stale whose
aflilir.; arc " f tiu l.. {"-"'S..,/" .. nce.] TI ll' Briti sh did no t examine the
proposal: Th"y did net want ,IfJ)' o t he r influe nce in Tibe t th..n
IIlt'ir own, but the)' w arned rigll1s limi ting those o j others, a nd

,m

not a burden of

li l y. AImcst without ilssi,tanct' a"d "ith-

o " t fo rce . the ll alai Lama th us had tu fan,

ti l ,,"

r..,,1 " f , h e world

and til.. ta sk
heavj- tor hi m to be ar.
No n ile can se ne t WO maste rs. "l i b.. t in ih li m e had chosen
t f,.. rn onks: II ' w l neglected

the kin!':s. All t he prnt igc IM.:I gon..

to lam", SlJIT')IIIl,Ie, 1 by lege nds and div ine r iul dk 'fhi> 'yst{'rn

'''" J!L..d

in the abanrlnnm Ctll 01 militarv fOru.;. Or rJ tflt't milit",) ' power had died : The fact th at a I" m" carried the
of
a k ill/:( rook awa)- the latte r's
(lJ resist the I'rel;sure lru m
" ilh"ut. He had ceased tn h'l\'t' l h,' force of iltt r.lction necessarv
to assemble en
IC...- t h;,\ pu rpose . Bur gi,-cn llo b stnre o f ..flairs.
the so ve reign n h" had succeeded h im had unl), Jon.. NO (J1I1\\ardly:
llc had no t in!wrilccllhal milit ary po'H' f w h ic h h., bel destroyed.
rile world o j praye rs h ad prc. ail e d OH'r rha r of arms, b ur it had
without acquiri"15 lorcc. In onl.,r to cCJllq lJ er, il had been
o bliJ;!;.,d 10 ap pea l to fordgn in rcrv c nrion. And lt hacl rema ined
ar th e me rcv of
hJ I CC S ,
it h,1(1d estr o yed rha r wllieh
resiste d w ith in.

ThO'C accide ntal

(qll icU, foJlO\\l..d b} l'C-'>u mptiol\.')
of outside pressure, whic h e n ab led the thirr ccnrh I)ali I ama to
e-ndure , in the end o n ly o ffere d him p roof o f his powerlessness.
Being w hat he was, he ... ,,11) did nc r h ave t he me ans W sustain
h is statuv. Pe rhaps 11."rin) had not be en so unk in d W rhe ninth,
tt'nth, eleventh a nd t " .. lflh Uali Lamas, killed wh .. n rh e)' came
o f age, And Ill.. dl' pa re lll luc k o f t he
\\<lS pt'rhaps h is
mi,k"Tun.. , Th.. lhine enth 3<-c t'I'I c<:I it
ne verthele ss;
I,..
acce p te d th e
o f a pu,,",r t l,at co<J1d
not be exerc ised, th at was e ssentiall y "pCII to the outside and t hat
c ould expccr no th lll15 lTo m tI,.. (Ju t,iclt' but death . So he resolved
to ren ou nce his own essc nt ial llt' ing.

. .. t

.'.' .. ..

., .D

L......'''..

Thr Rr"olt 0/ fhr M onks AlJ"in5' o n A ttrm pt

at MiIi'arj Oryanizafion
With Ih.. h..,p ot a respi te (in Chif\Ol "ltiR"e. t1,ell revo luuon],
that had cea bl..d hi m fiN to " ... I",n: .l.1l, l lhl'n IU ,,,.. reornc, rbc
l)alai Lama arrived al tIlt:' iell''' o f
to "li bel th.. lXJ\wr l ha'
I a lmi,m had ,!cn ktl it . He " ...._
in rhh t .lSi. b, tl l(' ;1(1. ic..

of hi, Fogli'!' bIOl':l'ap hc" C harles B..I1.

the- pOli t Ical agent "I
tilt' !,'U',.. rn me n t uf India. di d finall)' \'Oln ll1 il Fngl ..ml to a fricncll)
poJj q . Din'('t InUit;lI)' aid con tin ued t o be- T('fuSt''' ; no t even sh ip.
mcmv o f arms "ere considered, but ,Iuring .l. p :"r's u llki.,1 mis"
sion C1l<lrl u Bell. " ill hi, 0\' 11 nam..... 'uppon" d d w: [);"lal [ arne
In an .. Ron aimed at mi lital) " "R"l1 i'dllun. Ir in' oh CfI
Ih.; anTI)
- in 20 )"C.m - f.. en 6 tho usand men to 17
tho usand! '" ta ,; u n t he S"U1'lr a nd tlK1llast ie p rope rt it'1> would
cove r 1.... cosrs o l t h.. o pe ra t io n. J lit Da lai La ma's illlti loril )
o bligc,1 th L 11. .. ables to ;t(.quiescx . Bur if it
..a< pcntont'fh to
renounce, li lt possible W i"'.-oh e m lnl"l l'''' and digllitarWlo. unt:
, a nnot al I o f a stldd" n depri ve a '>UCit' l) ...f Ir, essence.
Nu t o n l) (he ma jo. ih o f mon k. hilt lhe people " cn' .. lso
..
.. <1. Inc. casinp, t he arm) , CITO
I\U U I<l dimirneh t he
import;tno ' 01 tlK" monks. Ntm. I],el c an- no
o f rite" tluo'c
is no
110
- in shon ,
.. i, no human [ile
iu rhat COlill tl') I,hid, d"..s nOI de pend o n

revolves aromlC I rhe- "

l.

If !>l)m.." ne,

nst all Hkclihood,

"he
I H 'n'

ro

fro m th e re ligio.., ilt' 1\"u M still t:!erh .. hh m""lIi'lG

IlOS.' i hili f) o f cApreS\ioll from t hr mtKlb. 1 he c m(,I'g c ncc
of a 11C'\ c!c.. ..-ur , I\hich WoIIS no t C(ln tcnt " irh
",''''ch
1/''''' . cou ld ..01 lit" illuifl ed 10 the peo plc b, all) o lh.. r luke
hut tbcirs, 10 scch ;In e;\tent \ 1"iL'> tl lC' me aning o f an M: t 'HIl ur a

tu rn
,md

ilW ")

p&.>Sib ilit}' ghcn b, and fot' tilt' monl.. t hn rhc arm)'5 fe''' ,upport...-" pon r.l)-c.-d it as the o nl) mea n.1 0 1 m" inta i"ing the rei,
gion. I" 1909 Ih.. Chinese had bu rne d llx: mo rm.l..ri.." k il1 l'd II..

,,"') ..... .. P.

monks .... X, <'..... rW' M tbe

th e !i.1Ime . h injl "" II...

books_ Bur Fi ber

'las in "'WIlIT

\ \' hu good

it , I>l' u pl e

sai d, to flgl,t 10 ul'hv ld .. principle if flght iOR meal'll h...n(l<...

tl ,e prin<.' p1.. in Ii,,- li", t plac e ? An impo n MlI lamil
plail'K"u it
to alil rles Bell: "It ho i ....) use in<;:rC'Il;inJ! ti ,t'
in fib...I. (Or
i r is wn nLn in rl,. IXIUk!i' l hat Tibet wi ll be eOl"lqUC'rt"d

e igne,.. lrum ti m .. IfIl imr,

co ncern rha.t t1w

" ill noe Stil) I...

1...1 JOr Jr...cping

(Clr-

r \ T Il the

pos it ion, w l.ich

""n-

made them o ptx.Kt' th.. tT'I.l lllteTlilnce o f an arm) (thilt would

comba ted fo n-i E:1l in' ad.......). u ll'l,.1 the-Ill to figllt on another
Il" "c! . Ti le wlmcr o f
hCd\ } " illl
o f rlOb
<m<1 cjvil war. One- n i}tllt , placards urgill!( l he people to killlkll

public pi", ." in l h asa . Fe bruilr} 1'J bt,J.!,on

t h., f.,sti\al (If t he (i reill
whic h dre" lU I h<lSiI a gatheri ng
of SO to 60 thousand monks. A llolrt o f
c J"(J" d wc nr th rough
ti lt'
sho u ti n/.:: "Come o ur an, '
\ V.. are 1101 " rrai d 10
Ollr ]i, ,,s." The fCSlha lll nftJ ld ed in a n alm oo;phn L otrcnsion.
TIl<'
's supportcre and Bellllim ,elf "u"ml,,<i fair ) -like cerem o ni es and mi"gled ... ilh Illl' pUl'ulltCt' in Iht SlIet'b.
inp;" be>l d fr" 1ll to the storm , 31 th e m e l"C) o f 3 11 .." C iUliOIl tha i
m igh t have r.lk("n
and <H rc<.li o ll ou
f!lo m ("nr. r hcre
Iolloe ed a , a rlw r moderate purge - re mar l ab l} mOO"""l" III
(illn - ""xl tI,.. rc bellton lasrcd ill lo ng eim e . 1,,", mi li tar: polic)
o ft h<- Il.l b i I u n a "'" pmd c n t : It was ba.'It"d Ull ..I, "'Clll ar, comIll()n , .m... aod rhe gcncnl
tili" could o lk r
hull""
o mb l" i1g a irn;t It . t be monks' ca use we ill in t ht' d .."ction of
'Inc

Upal

brrra}.ll , 001 UIlI} o fl1bc t, bu t o f

i'HIf. It C.l.IlX

up
lhe Iin nl1<'S5 of an Irltemally
J!O't'mlll<'nt; it " as
lost fro m t .... \ Idli. And the su rprising tl li"J: is not i t' l,n lu fC , ln.t
the f dCT rh". " III\ t IThtSS moccmcne su pported it so anll''' lly. 11,. ,
p.ar.td<; i\ such rh,u un c compell ed 101001: f<ll" .I.... p("( reaso ns
behind il.

Th e Consumption 0/ fh e TUrDI Surplus by t h e LamDJI " ill bc..1!in

aside the superficia l exp lana non. Charles
Bdl stresses tht' Ia.; 't th.u the Buddh ist rd ,!,ioll pruh ihiu , iolt' n. t'
and condemns " .o r. B" I o rlwr
hoi\<: tbcse princil'l a..ond
one
"hat the comlT1&.. hn..... lira murch are wurth in priO(
I in:.. .\ soci al behavior cannot re>< llt from a mor-al rule; il
I he srrucmre- of;l SOCiN)'. a

o f man-rial JOITM tha t a nim., u',

lt , \V hat ..' id' nl l}' co mmended Ih i\. lllOH; rnc n t o f h" , t ili l)' wa,

pon.kmU5 wJ.) - I ht \t' 1Iinterest of Ihe m on ks. Moree' cr.

.'l e mf'nt h tar from C50 "'ping
rh .. alt.. nrton of Chule s Bell. " hn (t ll1 t ril"" ...., valuable inke'ma uon '--'" t h.. SUh jlCf. One was aware o l t h.. < "' e n l fli l'lfuai sm
bcloee h im : a ffi<lI1 k for nel) three edulr mal e... l"I'l<)naSl ..nM lhal
nu mbe n.:d 7 to 8 rbousaod ffi< .nk' ;lt an) one time . J. lo tal ..1 'SO
10 500
pc......",., c ue o f a population l.,( 4 to S
m ill ion_ But tbe """Ierial
01 mulla'>t icism is sp :<:ifled
b)
IWIl in b" cJgc lal} terms,
Au ....
10 him . thr total revenue ohlol: XO'emmelll
I IlaSl
in 19 17 ( the vahn- t,fbrllf'lit\ in goods a nd serv ices add ed to thaI
not a mo ral

bill rat her - in

;I

"r

o f t hc c u rrc m j }
appr.... imal .. l) l720 .000 ) ea rl). o f t ha i
amoeru, t he. bud/,.'Ct of th,,; <lml) was i ISO.COO. That or th e adminwas i 1OU.UUU. O J the rnll<lillOcr. a n "Ilprt'dabl l' shan'
wa.' . ..., a.,id. b ) ,h,' Da lai Lam a for I hl: n: lig iom c"-p.. ndlru re-, o f

the g'" ..tIml ,nl . Hili ill ad ,li t io n 10 ' hc \{'

...mmeuta l CJOl pt' ndl..
teres, Bell
IIM I the re'em,t'
)earl y lJ,. t he d c 'll)
(i...
frOlll the prope" )
uft .... munas,.. n cs. !-Jilis and
Ila) f11e nt.\> 01 rd ij..t lous sen ice<o ) ".Ili \\1'11 O\cr i1 .CKJO,OOO. I hm
In lMa] dN' Il'tOl bt4Jn Dj 1M Church "utlk! hm.., bn miu tIS Icrgt
m fOOl

oj 1M

n or r. opht time! tbat oj the- oron.

These
based o n
a"'-.cssmcnl have no omcial
Charaa"'T. But l hl") llt'\...'1'tbclcss llIum inat.. l ht' ......J\On lOr the oppos il ion ell("')(lIl tf'rffi by t he militoll) poJi c). If a nat ion ,k-dic-au's

m<

it
canno t at rh.. Mme t ime ha' .. an a nn )_ FI*" berc no d....ubi a sharis possihl.... beoc ccu rd ig iOtl' .md mililar) life . Rur "hu t be
ran s "'nt' up sht"" iog I ' pree ,,,d) om exclusive dedical ion. The U l :;,oti" l1 olan arm)
hoI,-.. I n r.llio nall ) ' .:lllcd k>T.
but it "or.
at .xl<l, w it h the I ling on "hic h lif" "a'
lo nnded: it nonetheless imrodec cd .. m aJ;li,;c illt o t he co untry,
Tt l
bad., on SO "b"ute it dccts son
h.m: be en 10
..nesclf; it 'HMJ1d bavc I,.......n li\.,e
In order 10 escape til..
ram. On: vull nt"Cd5 10 sa) hl,..- mil; li,:eliTlf! toos, hold in tho. bq!.inUlM.: . Iill needs to >!H m t he deep r..a....m that . UniT upo n it
li m e. cauS(';,! a .. hole' c oulll ry to bccom.. a
l hat, in
th.. mi d>! " I'.. r..al ' \I,d d, "n.lll} c au."' " this COU Illr;-, a n i11leg t-..1
p;tn oft hal wo rld, to O p l ou l or H.
it, vita l (u rt I....., almo st tJ " r..

ThO' Eco nomic bplolwlion

to mo uasdc

0/ Lomu;5R1

One " o uld nOI arrhc at the ru l eau:>t' in Ih h in., ta nc e ir .lOt' d i,l
1101 firsl p,>,. e ivc till' gen er-.. l 101" 01 ec oeomj : ( )n t he " hole a

>tlC le t ) a1" olp produce. more tha n i. Ilt"ccssar)' 1m il s sun 1. it

has II sUTI'IU!i >It its
It is
the U:>t' il males 1' thi"
surplus that d etcrrmues it : The
is the (;tUM" 01 the .Jt;it;tt i<lfl, ul' t h.. qructm;\l
aJxlu( Ihe e " t ire
,,(
c ry , Rut th.. . urplus t....s Illon: thlln . 1OC o utlet, th.. 1",)St co mmu n
of " hi.-h i, grow th. Am' growt h it..... 1/ bas m >ln}' kn-m s, e.u h one
01 which ..,e nt llOl ll) " Illes up again st scm .. li m it. "J h " a rt ... J.
d emogr.tphi. gru" th
m ilit3rr: it is IOI''-fi' to
in
cOflqUCSI. O nce th.' mi lit3') Ii mil reac hed, t he- stlll'lus h.., II-ic
sumpll.IMJ fo t'lre'i of
115 lin outlet , alOllJ!- " i t h th.' g<lml':S
lind spcct:K"jf'li that 11.. r'i vc thcrd mm, o r pr:rxlltal lu)" UI)_
H ,storr ccaselculy records tile cessation, tl lt' ll the rcsumprlon
o r g row th. I here an' xtatcs 01 eCj uilibri um ," w r" th e inc reas....1
sump l udlJ lile and IIII' r...-luccd bd lk U!;(' ",e ti, il)
t he excess

"'I:

L " ... .. ' S ...

its most hu mane outlet. Bu t this state itself dissolves soc i..ty lit tl e b) little, and returns it to disequilibrium. So me new movem ent t he-n a ppears a, t he on ly bearable solution. LIn d er these
cOndi t ions of I1I;l lai,... d

" ,d..t y .. ngagt's a,

soo n as it c an in an

u ndertak ing capa ble III inn ea><i ng its lim ..'. II is tl ,.. " r"dll)' to
recast its moralla ws; it uses the surplus for new ends, w hich
den ly exclude the Otllt'f ou tlets. Islam condemned e\'cry form of
p rOtlig,,1 ht-ha";or, \'alo ri7ing llli li t'\lT ac uvi t y instead. At a ti m e
wh,'n i" n..igh bo rs t'njoy",] a state o f ('qllilib lilllll it commanded
a growing milit....} force th" l n(){ hi ng could resssr. l\ renewed c ritique u f rhc lim n s ofluxul'} - Pro te sta nt ill' fln;l, t hen re voluriu n.,ry - coincided w it h a poss ib il il ) o fi nd usrna t developme nt .
im plicit in tI,.. technical advances of the new

axe, T he largl'!;t sha re

o f th e surplus was reserved, in m od ern t imes. lor

mu lat ion. Isla m rather quickly

rrWI

ac,cu-

it, lim its; t he tle\'..lo prnc nr

of ind ustry is begi nning to approach the-m in ii ' turn . 1,lam

re turn e e! 10 the forms 0 1 e quilib rium II/the world it ha.1
que re d ;12 by con trast,
d ed y agitat ion: It,

H1-

"conomy is ill\'o h'ed in a .Ii,,'rr-ond..mn...1to grow, ami alrcad) it lacks

the possibility o r grow ing.

The positio n o f Ti bet in tl li, sch..."O\ is i"

0\

se -nse ppos tre 10

th ose o flsla m or the modern \\orIJ. Fr"m t im e im m e m orial the

of succ e ssive invasions hum t he
plate aus of centr:,1 I\, ia had swe pt to ward the regions where We was
to
\\':1\' .. ,

the cast, to th.. wes t anti to the south. Hut aficr t il<" liheenth centu ry th is overflow from the ba rba rian plat e aus ran u p again,t t he
effect i\'e re sis ta nce o r c<lnnons. ll T he urban c iviltzation o f Tt ber
already re presented in Cenrral Asra an inci pient outlet lo r tlw su rplus in a dil lere m di rect io n. No doubt t he horde s o f Mongol COn
'1ucrOl's used ..ve ry pOlosi bi lity of in"a,i"n (of W'owt h in space)
availab lc tn them in th ei r t im e . Tib..l ollt- r...1 iIM' IFanot h..r "Olu
l ion , which th e Mongols rhcmsclvcs we re t<l adopt in

'"l

I IJm

in th ..

THE "CClJ ..

S""",,

population!> of the poo;"" ilbleLan<k 'It'n'

pt> riod kall )
w ... ttao.. l..
rich a reas: O,hrr.. ilif'
IH Jt1/d (V'lK f<I pro...; the y "oul.l hJ"c to aban<l OIl t h., barbari ans'
outlet 0)1" warfare " '1<1 llnd an()t.... r use 101 lI n:ir e n,,"}!) 01t>tfIO\\.
Monal;ti" ism i. .. mode of expenJilurt (If
...JlCCSIi 11lOIt Tibe t
undou bted I) .!Klnot ,!iJ;<,,,.. r. bu r d se,,-ht'n' il ''.is gilf'n a place
UIorw!Nk o t her o utle ts. In Ct'n tl'i\ l A.i a l h.. extreme solutiOn c, mstsred in J!i..ing the monali tery aI/ t he ext t''S. 'Iocla) Oflt needs a

tm,

cleM I\rasp 0 1 th is principle: A pupeJ!at i"n IM t onnot smnchO'l\

t .....e lop lhc s)S1t'.1ll
it CHns l itul('S. tha t cannOI inc rease
irs volu me (" irh t he help of ne w rec h nlq ues l)f of wars} , must
waste rull) e"penJ a l/ lh.. surphe, it is br 'IIIK! to produce . I he 11oIrades .. I Larneism. " hit h 1'C<k ltcd a perk.. t funn " fler t he.- 'm e nli on ot Iireerm s, olmwt"'""! this
It is lilt" r<tdin l solunon
a COUlltry t ha t has no utht"r dl\ e rslofl "no ulti maul ) hnds il\tlf
in a d O'ICd clJn l"iner. Not ",'PIl the o ut le t consist ing in the n<:...1
to drr.-n..t onad r. to ha", moulT,,) anJ " uman 1i\ C'!; available !()r
th.n purpose. Itt n>u1II 1) that is IOU poor doe<; nut reall ) It}- One

invades it witbout t Cc u p);1IJ!, it and

books" that a monk ..pole

invedcd In llll
li me to t ime. bUI lion one \\.11.11,15(ol). T hU!i. ill the lIlid'lt of" riclltT
l li"U >11.<.'11 could /lor lie. <lSSUrillf;: t hat Tibe t would

'mrM. the p<H '" lountJ) in i ts dLl!lied container

giu: t he p,wk n, 01
a '>Olu tion thai checks it) t"xplosi\t violenc e w,tru,,; <In mre-mal c"{),,\l nlct i\'n M> perfec t ..... free
and

w .. U-;wmcd

of con trocersion , '>0 IIl'lCondtl<

10 aocculllUlaliOll. [hal {)(IC c.mnot en>
the
... tit ."f Iht> ")SlCIT1_ The cclib...) ollhe
ma joril)

confided to Bell b) Ihe conunander-in-c bic l 01'

t he arm ).) T hr n::,'t'.Jtu<: of Ill<:
cnsu r('<! the coesumpl ion of re-sources, s u ppo n mg a m ol'l5 o f seert le c nn )lIm e rs. T he
eq uiltb riurn wo uld \OIH >1l be
if th is rnass " t"re n ut
<Inprod ucl iw and child!......, . T ho;' latx >1 ofrhc rili t ) suflk .s 10 feed
";1\

t he

Hr mon ks .."n :n presente d a threat of d.-popura tio n.

Ct>n n'rn

,""

H iE UN A R M E O

LA M A 'S ""

them, and the re sou rce s are such th at th e ir number could sca rcely

1><: inc reased. The life of mo st o f the m on h is hard (pro blem'

wou ld res" lt if ther' wcrP an aJ\'ant<ll,;e in d o ing not h ing). Bu t
rh., parasi t is m oJf lilt' lam as re solve s t he situation SoJ wc llthar the
Ii.'i ng saandardol t he Tibe tan worke r,
to Charles Bell,
is h igher than that o f the Hind u o r Ch inese worker, Pur rhcrmon-,

w rirc rv em 'Jjber agr' m nuting rhe happy disposit ion of the Tibetans, w ho sing wh.. n t h..) work, ar.. ";"y to gf'l
will" m o ra lly p.. rmissivt', an, l ligh r-h.....r l.. c1 {yet lhl; Willlc.r cold is te rrible

a nd rhe houses have n<1 g las, in the windo"s and n<1 fir eplace },
Th,' pier), o f th e mo nks is anothe r mat ter. It is ofsecondary im portanc e , b u t th e system would be inc c ncctvable w it ho u l it. An{!
there is n o dou b t that lamaic en lig l" ..n m e nt morally
till'
essence o f c onsu mp ti o n, which Is 10 ope n. to g ive, to lose. and

which brus hes ca lcu lations asid e

T he Hbc ran sp tem spread to Mo ngo lia at the end o f th e sixt c c n rh cen t ury, T he com -e rsio n 0 1 t he

even m OT<' a

c hange o f economy rhan o f reli gio n, was the pe culi ar d e nou eme n t
nf rh.. histOTr uf Cenrral Asia. TIw age-old oudet of illl asi" ns bei ng
, -1 0"<'(1, th is h , t act of the elrama d e fines tbc m<:an ing of Lama ism :

TI,;S totalitarian m onast icism answe rs the ne ro

o f a closed

J USI

stop the gJ"(,wth

as Islam reser ved a ll t he excess ti,r war,

<I..,'d " pm .. nt , l.am ahm pu t

into t h.. cone.. m pI", i, '" iii,', t h.. rr..,' I'I.!)" "I' rhc sellsi-

and t he m odern world for

rive man in rll<' world.
If t he Jif'li.: relll

arc all playe d o n the same board . th e n

Lam aism is t he o p pos ite o f t he o t her-

il "I"n.. ""0;, 15

a,"(n'jn ', w hich is always dir ec rc rl re wa rd acqui siti o n "ne! growth.

It ceases - tru e , if h al; n o c ho ic e

to s u bj ect lite to an)' o ther

t'mIs bu t li fe
Di'cctl)" and im m e diately , lin: is it s OW " e nd .
In th e rt t cs n f T ibet the mil itary forms, e,'oking th e age of t bc
k ings, arc stil l e mbod ied In th e ligures o f th e dances, b ut as obso"'9

lese l< orms w hose 1. ",,; . ,f aUlho ril ) i, rhe object of a ritual rcpreKllur i"." In th is "ilJ the la mas celebrate the, le W!) ...tHl O\'cr a
"url.1 "Ilt__ iolcnclr'
rudel)
100' Ard lho- OI.lt"cle.
I hei r lri um ph l ' its un l.'.ashing w.thin. BUI II is 00 Ics, , i"lnu
I. ...
rha r, In TilX' l , e ve n 111tJrt: '0 th an in Chlna, Ih e miluary
pllJre ssrcn is held ill n ltllempt. b en alt..r the
ot the th irrcc ntb UaJai I am", a Ia mi l) 0 1 nobles tum plaincd ,,11...\l Il! hAd
il son rvmmi""ioocd ........1 offieet. II did no botlO<! k>r Bell tn po int
OU I tl!<lt in Fngl and no eilre" r was more rt:'\fX" . red;
part;:nr.;
brggecl him IflU.... his influent .. w ith the Da lai l am a 10 \UIJP',rt
their req uest ft.... ol ..ancc l latio n. ( )r curse, ,," hill' n lt'r"k1S>lic ism is a
in a SfT&.
pllrt" expe: nd iturt" I I I'; also 01 I't'nunCiati.c lfl ol ..
u is the pcrk-t, o;ulution "bwnnl
complt"tr'l) tumiJ"t; 1-..w'S
bat-k 10 the <."Iulmn . n Ul 0"" should not und...-co;timatc lhe- o;i!!.

nil,...m....' of'this h" ld so lmion; recen t

II'!' Ol"cntuoltcd ii'
l1ar,..!tlxical value . It gi,'/'" a clear illtlit:ittio n c un C" rning thc gcnCra l l u nt iit io n' o r c."nomlc equ ili L. rium. It It' nl tOnI , h u m a n
"ilh II.S limits, a."-' dcscnbes - I)r)ond mi li ta!) or pro.-

.I

A(tl\

il) -;a

world thar is Ullo;"btJrdill.lIni

no

;\Il)

OCt

P ART rOUR

The Historical Data III

Industrial Soc ie ty

T he Origin s of Cap i ta l is m
and the Reform ali on

T h r Protesta nt Ff h k and th e Spirit of Capitalism

M"" W.. be-r
.,ho'''' - no t. o nly t hro ug h all.J.lysis l,ul thm ugh
statistics a!> wel l - the pri, ikgcd role ul' P rotestants ill capftalisr
o rgolni:rarion.l E,'en LOda), in a gi,en regio n , o ne sees P ror es ra nt s
bC'i ng d raw n to bus;n,'s., an,1
mo..... lu th .. libe ra l p ro fesslons. l t see ms tbat the re is an amn iI) between the frame u f
m ind uf a hard -wurki ng , profit-calculat ing indusrriaiist and t he
pros<lk severi ty of th .. r..fj,rnwd n
T he la rgest part in this
uriCllWU" " was no t played by till' doc trtncs uf Luthe r. But Cal
vinism 's vc ne of infl ue nc e [ Holl and, Lreat Brita in, lfnited Stares]
ro ughly corresponds to the areas of indlls trial (\t:w lopmcnr. l uthe r
fi)r",,,];,, ...1... nd;".., IMlf-peds..."1 rc,.. .It. Calvin expressed the aspi
rat ions of the m idd le cl ass uf t he commercial cities; hi s reaction,
were th ose o f a jurist fam iliar wit h business m att er.'.
w ebe r's al'gllmen Ls, q uick l)' bec ome fam o us , have be e n the
" hjed of numerous criti ques. R.H , Taw ney allows that they exag
gerat ed th e oppos it ion be t ween Cahinislll an d the various econom ic doetrin..s " f ns t im..: It se..ms t hat Lhey overlooked the
c ha nges t hat ueClUTC(] bet ween t he initi al te ac hing am ] the late r
theo ry.z
to Tawne y; lip to t he seco nd half of th... ..ve ntee nrh century the agn:emrn l bel ween the Puritans and capitalism

"<

" as not complete; moreover, it was lew the cauvc ( hall

tI)(:

dTeG

of the economic g i,ens. BUl. as Taw n ey rcadtlj acknow ledge"

th ese re..cr\'atiom d o 110t nccessanlj<lgaimot weber's thin king.
:\nrl o n th is po int he focuses more ctoscf, - and "nme",hat
- o n the econormc d ocr-i ncs th an o n t he basic reactions,

In any 0""

w..l>f't deccrvev t h", 0: r..,[it for having rigorom l)

ana-

1)'l.",1 the C<JIlnect io n b..

a rdig io us crisi" ao<! the ..con()m i(
t urn ....!'r t hai ga,-.. ris.. to the mod..rn \.1.flrl,1. O th .. rc, incl u, ling
Engel" look nO I" 01
ue, Iw lo rt' him. bu t the, din not defi ne
th eir narure.> And il there wav a [,ller clarificancn - as in Taw" "y\ work - \"'",oc r ha d emphasized wh",
essential,
dearly art fculatc d find ing, Ih,ll Wn'" o bt" illl"d

nle

more
..r..

pe rhaps of secondary Importance.

Economy in rile Doct";ne and Practice

of th e Aliddl e Aye5
The re were con trar) l)peS nf econ nm) cnrre<,pom ling to two
di lfc n:nt n: ligious
Th e l ies betwee n t he prccapitalls t
.., 'o n o m ) ami l{"m.1 n Ca t ho lic-i' lll

" "l'ft'

[usr

Hrong as those

I,.. t w.... n the modern econo my an,l Proresra nnv m. Bu t Weber

, Irt-",,,d the t:'CI tl MI. the lll(J{l.. rn KOllom)' is ess..

i 1111 USIr)", th" dlCvdup m"nt

c"p iul-

or IV hlch was not r"cili tared by t he

Cat holic C hu rc h and the saate of mi nd it maiura eus, whereas in

tbe Protestant world Calctnlsm provided a favorable , lilning po i l1t .
Moreover, it is easier to mark the oppos ition between lIl(" two
eco nomic spheres if, going ill a dir e c tion that takes us tarthc r rrom
la wne )' t han from \Vebel, Wl' conce ntrate first of all c n rhc wa)'
the a\aila b le revo u rcec a rc used. w hae differc nt ratcs t he rucdicvaleconomj from t he capita list econornj is that to .. vel) lal-ge
.."t""1 th .. fo rme r, sra t tc eco no my made a n on pro duct ive con sum p!.i' 'l1 o f Ihe .. ", -.." w .... 1th , wh i I.. tilt' I., tt..,- ace UIllU 1M.., am i

cl"lt:rmi,

" d )'llam it: gr(J",tl, of tilt: pr, ..lm 'l i, ,n "p l",r"t","
,,6

of Christian cce momic thought

of t he Middle
basic princ iple was th e su bordinat ion of
pro duc tfvc ac tivity to the laws 0 1
Sud.,ly, in
the rh o uf!ht of the Middleo Ag..s,
a body .-I,mp""';,] hkc all
all

parts, that is, 01 a hicrarlivi ng nrganbms 01

Lhy 01 fun ctions: T ho.: dergy, the
aristocracy and labo r
fo rmed a unified bod y in w hich the component
ofth.. rhi rd
term were subserv ie nt to the o the r t,,'o (as th e t ru nk "n,1 t h..
me m bers are subsercten t to til': hea d ). The prod ucers mUS I SOIlisfy the needs 0 1 the nobles and t he pri ests; in exchange, from
rhe Itlrtn " r lhe y would receive protection, and from the latter th e)
w" " ld rccctcc a share ill the divine life and the mo ral rule to w hich
thei r a, t iv it) had to be strictly StIbonlinaled. The Idea ola n econo m ic world independ"nr of theo
01 th.. clt'rin ;111( 1 the
noble s, having its autono m y an,1 its own law,
d pa rt 01 natu re,
is " lien to t he th ought "I' th.. M i,I<I[.. Ag''. T hc:: sel ler m ust )Xlrt
with t he m n ..-handisc at the ;w.1 pmc. The just pncc is ..lell ned

by t he pus-s ib ilit y of e nsuring t he

of t he providers, (In
a sense , t hi. i, Ifll' labor value of Ma rxism . and Taw ney sees Ma rx
.. I"sl ..,f l he S cholastics."} Money that is le nt cannot be an
o bject of rellt . and usury is expn'lSly pr o hibiled by canon la w.
The scbo tasucs onl) made allowance c.1utiouslr an d bela tedl y for
t he ..Iillc rcncc bet ween loons fo r a business unde rtaking, whid ,
gi\'e rh .. ercxhtor 01 moral ng ht to proflr, and th ose us ed fo r [ h,.
consum pt ion of the OOlTowt'r, fo r w hic h no lnre re vr is justifiable.
Th L' ric h m an has Ilis rt'St'n ..,,: I f L11.. I'</Ur man becomes dcs tinot e,
th.. ri..h
who kee ps him from d)ing of hunge r, wit hout hi m ' d f bt' ing i'K o nv<; Ilit'Il<T d , de mand repay ment of'me re
tha n hc adva nc ed? T his \\'ou ld be tv make tim e pa) ; and t ime,
unli ke
was said to be God 's do main and no t th at of m..n.
it possible
But ti m e is give n in nature: If mu nt') alwdp
somewhere to finance profi table ..
a naturalla w gives to

"7

the f.tctor.. MmuuC) + 1;1111:" II.., add itional value of tmcrc (of..
share of t he
pw fit ). In
,,-"} nlur.al lhou{:hl b IIw oqlJl_
t i"n o f n;1 f Olr.l1 1.:1...,; the Lhurch's mtn"'t:nl ion oppuscll a Irt't'
dcn:loprneut orthc prodOCli.,: fUries. Production. accordi'\1. t o
Grislian mo n lh }. h .. sen icc
modaltttev (obl igations.
re..Vom ihili ti.. s, pnrogath'e;) an: d "'t'nni ned b, r.hc: "ncJ, served
(b,. lhe d eriu . in sum. who 01'" tI..,
of rbcsc cndsl. nOf. b,
a T\alml JJlO\'Cmcnl. This is a ratitJorlOLl a llli nlQra l - bu t sUl ic n lnre pl ion o f the economic order; it is "001 a di , in c, Id t'oI ORical cosrTlOb"'rry is 10 Ihe il \c:a " I ....u lul ion determined b, a pi..}
o f forces. The world of ttw Mid. lk Ages appeared in fact to be
gi'>e n 0IlC'" and for all.
But fo rm..1 jmlgme nh are nor the onl} OflCS. Ami II.... na ture
of rbc medieval c<:onu m) m ;ty nol l:w 1'1111)' discl osed in the " t itillgs of the theol ogians and j un sL'. 11 ma)' not he de fined in the
rca ] pracli<.... d tlw r. howe
removed the latter was Jrorn tilt' ril-l"r
of the t heor),. 1\ ..
d e m e nt may lie in the undc.... t.. Il<Iiog rhar a society hM 0 1 weal t h. T his lJo<l t:r sta mling b diOCl'l; n l
from t he 1l00iuos . olTlIl1on l)' ex pressed by t1lUSC " ho hild il . and
do ubt less il wool[..1 be
as fm ile to loo k for it in l he o ppu:.il iOJl of t he fac15 10 the II.....o r..ti .-a1 m les. It has to do \\ itll t he
str0fl; and
OIptXlr('1lI JT1O'ICffiCIlb t bat, even unli.rmIlJared.
("ilIl dete rmine Ihe m ll iTe o f an eCOllomi<: system.
\ \ e.alth
rnc..nill,'li acc:onIing fO t he ad..",nl.ll&C we b pce t
fnMn i ts possession. l or John it is the
of lnan-iagt'; lOr
Robert. lci511rc; lOr [ ..h\-oIn l. " ha nge of 'IUC i.tl :....ncJ if'll!.. But ill ..
there arc eOllstAr>l'i. The ad\", n... rhoU mencrs must.
in t he .--ap iralisl era, is lhe 1>Ol.Sibilit } of in't'Sli"f:.. Th h is nul 01
partic ular poim uf
Joh n. Robert alld Edward i"' C't lht'i r
sa' ings with diJtercnt im cnliuru.., and Joiwl's im cntion is the same
as Jarl.s, whu i\
a piece: o f propert); bill an ..........ntial portion
o f the avadsble
is St"1 aside COr t he growth o f Ihe prudll'---

" b

rive forces. It is out t he final

01 an)' irnli vidlIill in

11<1111<.l 1.

lar, bur collecttvely that of rhe socie ty InOl I OIn epoch nilS chosen.
It gh-es precedence in rbc usc of the available TC<,.()UTces 10 the
expa nsio n of en terprises amI tnt'
in o ther "urds, it pn:fen an

of e-"pita l c<lllipmcnt;

,ncr,,,,.,,, pJwwlth t"

its immediate U'>e.

But before the Refc rmauon thi s was not yet the case. " he posstbllt ry o f an increase was not !<h-en . A development is induced
by an ope n; ng-up of un" " pl"itet l t"rT;tories, I t ...-I1I1i<<l.1 , hang"s,
or

1' th e appe;uilnce of new

products from "'hidl new needs Misc.

But 01 society Gill 0I1s0 be led to consume ",II its products. llcncc
it m ust so mehow destroy the surplus resources it

at its di s-

IXlsa!. Id le ness is the sim plest means lor th is p urpose. The man
ofl ds ure dcs lmrS Lhr- pm<lll<'ls nc<essa')' lo r his subsistence no
less fu lly tha n dues Flre . BUI the wo rker who labors a t the Lonst ruc tio n of a pyramid des troys chose produc ts just as usclc';.';l)':
h o m t he sta nd poin t of pro nt t he pyrami d is a monume nta l mistak e; o ne m ight JUSI as well di g a n ennTIJIOUS hole , rhen rcHll ir
and pack the gn JU nd. \Ve obtain t he same result if we ingest a
substance. such as alcoho l. w hose consumption cloes not enable
us to wo rk m ore - o r even de prives

fur a ti m e, of our \tTength

to pn}(lu ce. h l!<:ncss, the pyra mi d o r alco hol haW' Ill<' adv,Ultagt'_
of rons uming w ithou t a re tu rn - wit ho ut a p<Ufit - the resoun-es
m atl hey usc: TIlf')' Simply MltisJy US; th e)'

lu th e UllIjfl-

mGty cJ,aia tha t we make u f II\('m . In a society whose prod uc nvc forces d o not incre ase -Ilr in crease li ttle - this satisfact ion,
in its collective form , d c rc rmincs the value of wea lt h, a nd t hus
th e nat ure ul t he CCOfIOmy. TI, e mOI';J.1 pri ncip les OIn<1 rulex by'
w hich prod uc tioo is cl osel y bou nd ( but at tim es in com pletely
SUpl"rnc ial ways ) m C<ln 1,,\ , than th i\ "'Io,factin n that (!t"cirl c \ the
use of prod u<:ls (at least t he use of w h'lt rt:IT"li ns a\-a;la blt: Uey-onJ
subsistence). II was nOI the theories of the Schcolmen that defined
rhc cconomic suciety, b ut rarhee- the need ir had for th e sat tsfac" 9

, " E.
non o r "dthedrals and

"c cuRs eD s .. .. ..

id le priests ,,11,1 rncnkc. 111 o t h'< f

1)1b'ood <lmh solio{nrIfJ to (>oJ ('\Ol tisrn. ti o n

could l1ot l1tJfll;nall } be mat

words. l ilt:
in

the rnotk ur consumption of thl: a.-ai4ble resoerccs.

'n lis re ligitJI.lS d ct enn ination o r t he eC(ltltJlTl) i not ...tnprisirl/.;

the
that Ollolll i
of excess rt:SOIlfCCS, of rather t o thei ,' desme -

it even tlefirl(':l. religion. Rd ig ion

t't). g h't:s

to t he

tio n (.11 least inso rur as t l.....') are u'oC li,I). T his i\ " hat !!h'CS rclig iom
tht;ir rich ' n.'llCrial
\\ hid l unl) ,'e.w:::s to be
" hen
an etnad atoo spiritUill Uk \\ it M ,.,.\ s fro m labor .. ti m.. d"", could
Io.n c been cm plored in pruducinR' The otll) po int

t hc

o f utility, th e BrorllllOt.llnO.l o f these tolkcti. e deter minarioes. T hr.)

true , in that tIIC" crn-ilx nc to t ht''''''
d o r'l'nd c r ol
iKti , il ie., conscquee ces in the real m o fsll pcrna lllr;l1 e ffic olq ;
bu t thr.) are

o n th at pl il llC ptce::isd)

runo os, if1.'>Ofar as

fin;1 and Iurc most.

art; ncctllcss ccnsurnprjons of resou rres

R..lig io us at:1i vi t ie.'\ - sac r!Ii, es, fest h als , I"

t ies Cile}'

are

ri(lUS am e n i-

t he excess .."crID of a socit't)', but a l>I; ' ond.ll) e m is

IIS..... U)

attri bu ted ro a l hil'l{:. "hoM- pri rTl3l) m e.m inl! w':'s

In bJcaki'l: the- c hain ul .. nk aciuus ;actions. T his rew lts tn e gtC.1(

rTl3Llisc -;a '--cling of wr\mg, of dupery - ,, !Itch peon'!> the ",lig io1ls sphere, f\ sacrifice in ,k" of a' n Kle resu lt, such;V, In t Hit}
of t il.. Ilelds, is l'>..peri,,", ed as a c()m rno n p lacc ac tion

t hc Ic \'d
o f t Il<' ai ' loc , o f t hc l(<<:m1. whic h religion ( ails into pia). In rhc j"l,vlJofJ in Chrimanu ) li ber.n o the dMb of rel igio us lili:: from
lho- (Io"",in o f prooJ ucth c ani- 11) , Bu t iI the laithfi Jl 'li .lah"l; o n
is tho- ..
(or Ilis mt Ots . if
' 6n achieve il b)' his de eds , then
he has sim ply brough. rnocc
itl w the , Iornain " I religion
the l(lIlC.lIl' nation tllilt m.. kc:s usefu l wo rk w re tc hed in his 11'cs,
He m-e t1lU SC t!os b,' whic h a C h ristian rrlcs t il win his \.llv.ltio n
can ill turn be nms iile re d pruf.lnat ions_ bcn the me re fael of

no

61

a goal appcar) ' onll'<ll)' to t he tru t h of grace.

Gr.KC alone bringi about all acc ced " it h the di'inil)". " h.ch can..
nol be ).lJ bj c c l cl! 10 ClI.,>",,1 \Cn.... M tlutl(p c an, me gin I.... ' ui' ln
it} m a kes ofi tsd f lu lhc r..i l hl,,1wu l Canno l be paid for.
Sl h Olt ioll

Th e Irlorol Position of Luther

The m ..:d i", 'al pracnre of c hariry , II1\" rel igio lls

and
the mendicant monk s, the IeHivil ics arKl lllc
po' maps
,lid not ince nse Luther so milch bec-ause of t heir
\ \l h"l
Lull....,r
,,'as ma in ly Ihe Idea o f m.. rits acquired
t hese
meam. 4 lit: r ondem ned an e" tr<l' ''Sant cco""mi,' regime fo r its
r-ontrad icricn " il h the
pri nci ple o f Ilos til il) 10 wu ll h
and I" " ,,') ; bill he: did no l so muc h o bject to I,,),ur} it'>Cl f to
o f {:ai ning he.n ..,.n b}' maling an
I...... of
ind hid u.u wealth. He IICCmt:<l to couccntrare his t hilll irtJ; un a
point wbe re a d h inc wurtd appeared free fro m compmmbe and
c om plet od)
" ill . Ih e m.ac l>inat in.... 0 1 th is world.
T hluugh the hU)'ing " f ind ulgcnces. the laithllll Roman Cnholk
could eve n ellll>! I'} his resou rces IU pu rc ha)oC a ri m e in paladi"C
(ill fact the se rceoun e'> c o n tri buted to clerical o pule nce
illk
ness ). T ht: Lut he ran eOIlC t:pt ion
r,)ll lt all)' o p posed [0 lhi, : it
provided 110 means (other Ih<tn _,in ) o r rcmcn'ing weahh t mm ur tl-

the

".'Ki

and rendc ri'llJ. it It l lh t: ' m rl d ofglory. I he disciple o fl . It!wr

could nOI (fCa'ml" isl, a n}lhing Ilcn: 1,.low t hai " Ol' fIO t hmlc _
or cu lpab le - " !wr"." th.. folhm cr 0 1 RIlI1lt: was urjl;ell to make
t he cnu""h lhe "art"' l) r ...liancc 0 1 ( ;oc.l. But in m ak ing d inn il )
rad ialc in the "nfls o f Thili wo-ld , Ro me was redUCing It ' 0 base
arttullS. T he un l} fCCourse, in Inc t:')d nf a l ut hn , dPllC<lred IU
lit: ," ill dt:e.i si' c scp.tr-. t iun between c.n<l and c,c ')uli ng In.a t
Woi;3; nu l the dee p inn,' r life Offilll h, c'CT) thing m at we can do .I1d
if }

can} '"Iu e n e l l .
\ \'o:alth was th us d cpriu;:cl 0 1 me"ning. ilt>an from it, prt)lluc..

'"

t he poor and t lw
splomdur of l:ercmlln i.,s a....1 ch urc hes ceased tn have t he
"urth o r were
a
uf tho- de. ;1. Lut he r's doct rine is
tho- ut{n "'l:al lun o f a
0 1 int cru.c C'"t......n npr.on of rcsoeeces,
An immense ann) o f secular and regu lar d erE} squalldc.....d II...
su rplu s rid ,.;s uf fmu pl:. in. itlllg th... nub les anll tho" rnerr Mnts
10 rh-al !><lll<1.ooerillg'i. This ,WIS 11'10' SC,lIldal l ha t provoked Lutt1<'r,
be n he was orll) ahl.: lO ul'post' it "illl a Ino n- r um p lcl" Ill:g atiU11 of ,he "urld . In 1Tl'l l.. illg a g igan t il , Iaste ,1'10' means ul 01X'fling Ih, gal,s o llwan:n to mallkioo. tbc Chul ch g,I\"C a pilinflll
impresstor u It had succccdc..1 less lll lOil-king earth
thall
ill fllakinp; heaven banal. At lhe ..... me li me it had turned its 00, k
011 all its
Bur it h'ld k<,pI. the :UOOfn}' rdati, .. I,
bit. It a
lact thai the Roman Church. ill ,h.: image that
a m.. dieval ..illagc
Idt " hhc "OfM it (rea te ,I, Ieprc5Cnted in
a It:licilOu5 "a) t he cl l"ct of;m im m ..did lC use of " e.alth. T h i'
came about in a lOlnglc " f
but t h", Ii!\ht it . ast has
k.>und
wa) 10 us: Shi lling Ihroug h d1O' wurl d uf IJUT.. uri l;I) lhat
sucr ced....l it, wh<.:rc "c:.ll th lost it. im rncOiale ' .lIIlC, it sl il l radtales i n O ll r C) t'5 .
I I\\" ,"aim' . \U llt.. mpL..l j,"C idl c n('5s, gh-ing ttl

Catvtntsm

,ie".

l uthe r') " 'actiorl remained st r ic ti ) ncgarh"t:. III h;"

!Y.J""',,,r
ma n "<l!> to please GOO ;n hi, t2tlhl) a<"th "it), the latter
'n usl willbe ' Ul> j'l l ' u mo r..1 I.m" Lueh cr IlPt.c:IoJ lhe C!mrch's
tra. Htio llal C UniC' ag.tinu usu')"anJ geocrall ) had the avuralon fur
bu siness that
illhcrclll ;\1 Ihe arc N.;c co-cepuce "f the: eccnom). l\llt Cal. in ;a Nnd" l.....d lh t' i1ueu ina l COlldcml1at ion
at inte re't anti genn ;ally fl'CDglli /t' d lilt: lIlu rallrr o f e-onunerce,
"'W hat rc,,-so ll is there " h) tilt' iOl"uon", Ircm bul;ine'i) ;,hollid nt.t
he la'l!c r 111iI1l Ihu from lanilU\1ni ng ? Whence du Ihe merchant 's
prufir) come e x' Cpl trunl h is oWn diligence and ind ustT) ;>""5 "or

'"

role in the It ,nn.I

rion o f tM; c..pilalisr Spiril. hum rhe Ii,.,t it ""'" rhe rdigiufl 01
the corn mcrd Al
of C0<:1'1"' " and the f'octherl ands. Cal, in had .I se nse of t be ont.Iil iom and Importa nce o f economic
de\-e1opmctn: he spuk dlI a
and a pl"JClicAl man. Tawllf'), ' ,I
lowi ng \ \'c b.,r,
1M s ign ifka.-.a: 01
tor rhe
IlOtl'llcu i5 "mid 10 which it ga \'(' cXl'n:Uion . Iv. o n l i ng ttl Ta" nc), Iw was III th e bo or,l(coisieuf hh Il m t " hM Marx was ro rhc
prolctarier 01o urs: lie p rovided the organi nll on and the docrrinc.e
0" a basu 1,....,.1, Itw d oct rine has In.: same m eamng as thar o i
I lit her. C . I. in rejects meri t and \\U,k\ ' 'I() lesshrml j (han I mllt' r
.Ioe., bU I his p rinci p les, amc ula ted a litt le diOi..'re ntl ). aIM.>
more
In TawnC) 's , i.. w IIw <li m il> not "perwnal
rea son \ \d le.. g i..es Cahini1.m.l

s;>h-al ion, W I the f/-luri Gcation "fGu,;!, IU be

nul
pr;l)tt
but t, <lellOIl - rhe loOIn, lif'ir<llmn oft he: ""rid t,. srrih: and

labor. r OT CAI \ i nbm, \\ it h all its

"I' J'It.-r.;oII./lI mf'ri t ,
is im e ru;el) prollCl Ni&J. Good worb are not a \\") o f anaining .... 1"'lion , bul
arc indi!tJCnsab!..- Zi a pmol 11l..1I .-.d.'aliu n bas been
er ramed." Dcl)li\'c d o f (he va Iue thai the Churd , llad g;''C1l the m ,
wll rks are
in a sense, bill lhc ) arc dif f erent wo rk .
of p rac t Ires in vo l\ing a nee dless expemlirur.. ' If
' 11'1 less com plete than in the doctrine o f r llt!ln. in d ,m
was " ithOuw n fro m co n lt:m plali,'"

ffUm

O\tCll -

tatious lu xu ry alltl from lhe form s Oi l hotril) that ma in ta ine d

prod uctive po,.. rl) , aud
10 the . il'lues tha I haw their

null-

in u t ili(}: Toc rclonn<..-d Clllistiao ledro be hu",blt-, !>iI\'i ,\!, IL1n )

II((CI to bong the g:re<t lcSI 'ell) to hi s profess ion.

it
in com me rce,
o r w hatt:n:r); ..... t:\(:n had 10 hdp duni
NIc beggi ng hich w" n l
pril'l< iples " ht,!oe no rm ..a\
ptoducli \'l' <let i\ it l . '
w..rki ng (lte

Cal. ini ' m in a ""'me , .....-i"d the

o f values "'...... Ier!
b) Luther to iu. clu n: mc conscqucre C. Ca l. in d id not j ust repe" l

,.

J iat.. Ih.....

.. <;<;LflS C .,........

01dj, ioe lx"ul l 10 ", hich the Chun h laid daim.

w.eful wuM. ,, 1,.11 II(" ofb red .... n

as .. m ean, u f g lnri l)" il1/o: <'; 0,", was the ocgeuon o f his m, n g l"')'_
T h. rrue SMlC lil} urCa h in i", "ur!ts resided in t ho; . hand.mmelll
of
- in l ilt- n:flunda rion o f
lift: thou
11.1" 0 111
world a hal" .,r sp lrllliur. The s;ux:tilic.ariOll of God W;l!o I nm
link-d tu tilt- .1,.".. rali7a1 ioo .,f h uman Iilic. Th i\ was a" tse \0111'tion because (fl(l' lilt'
nI b"OUd "orks ........ Clu bl.ishcd. the",
le m aincd a man " lIh Ihe po....e r, u.. rather the n,-"C.:..
of ac ting. 10 whom It wu no t c n.,ugh ... ....) Ihar dee ds are uN,'a lllllg.
AllolChmt-n1 10 a
to t he lalok l hat tlw w d al complex
t he in d i vid ua l. w as no dling " " ) no.:..... bill uruil rhe n it
had nOI u l..en o n lhe dee p <ignifk;lllce a nd , om hl, h e value that
(",.,1 , ,n h m ga \<; tt , [ho.:
to rescu.. d h in ..
fro m t he
I

man\

fU

in w hi( h lilt' ChUK h bad placed it cou ld no t ha\'l'

had a m ' lr.. r;ul il'al r onceq ucncc t h an ti ll: rcle ga'i n n 0 1 JTla r,l i ml
10 glo ryless aCI" II ) .

The Distant [ lJect of lire Reform ation:

TIll' A u tor>(I my of ti,e lVorld of Product ion
ll: IOlIow ing " c ber, tJf'It!

Ihh ptkit ion as it

to

the spin l o f cepir alism . olle (ilnl1O l irNgine anrt hing mo re la"orab le to the rhe or ind usrr ). A (Ot><Jo.:m llar iur1 o f id le ness M'ld luxUI) on the o n" h';lI1d . olin affi rm.t t io n of rhe n lue 01en terprise on
t he tJlhe r. lm m ('(I1,l1... use o f thf. in finite wealth Ihat is tht- universe bcillJl
t1) reserved Wl r God. ma n lO r
pot" W..I \ unreSC:T\-edl} dc:.l" .. t ..d to I.lbot-. (Q t h e a llocatio n " I ",....It II - t ime .
ma teriel and " ,cl) ki, ><J of resource - to the de....: Inpmcnl uf tl ...
p rocluu i o n ill>par.lIU"',
Ta"l1l1 pL1illb out nnncrl... Iess rlIM ca pi talism
adtIit io l'l;J I dem en t ; It i\ .oil unre SlriCie d gfOtn h o f im pe rsonal p ro. hHt;"t' lOrcts: it is Ihe HbtTat iun n l the rsatu ral mOt'l'mc nt o l ihc

"4

TH {. (; " ,-:; ,NS 0'

whose

'-' ... ... ,T A US' . ...... "

ra1 momentu m

' ''E "ErO'''''A T IO ''

o n Lhc indi vidual

pursuit o f profit. upilili\m is nor [ust an accu mu lation o f ... h..,

for comme rcial, finan ci al

fre e

0 1"

indusrrtal ventures, bu r

Indl-

Ca p ita lism cou ld not have co<.:x istl-d

with the o ld economic lcgislauon, w hu,t' moral pri nd pl e wa \ the

su bord inati on of e nte rp rise 10 sodel}; w h ich imposed pric-e CO IIt rois, c om batte d flnaTK 'ia] sd ";lllcs a m" p l.l, t:d serious ....-smcnons
on loans .II Interest. Tawney o bserves that in l he cou n tries \\' I'ne
Ca lvinism was clom inan l
was th e case in Ceneca , w ith ell l\ ill
and
lien, or in Sco tl.m.l, w id , Joh n Knox], it tended
toward a collective (Ii{:tatorship _'" B UI il was on ly " a minorit y, living on the defensi ve be n eath the suspicious eyes o f a
go\' crnmcn r"; it
t ow anl e x treme in.l i\ i(]ualism. In
it
"'<IS o nl y ill I' ng lant.!, in
".." o n" Ila lf of rhc scvcruce ot b ccnIUI,.-, that Puritans lin ked th e
o h he lree pursuit o f profit
to the Ca lvinist tradition. It
o nl)' a t tl,,1t late d at e t hat the
in<lepenclcllce " f econ om ic law s W aS poxit L,<' , a nd that the abd icati on o!" toc m ural so\"Crngl1t; of the re ligious wo rld in the sphere
of pro d uction carne to pass. flut ti le lat eness 01 this de velop m en t
is a fact w ho se importance
not Ill' ...
Impli cit
in t he first form ul ati on , it need..,1 to
a ba -,rc d ilHcu lt),.
\Vhat was c ruc ially at s take in th e Reformat ion. lrom the econom ic stand poi n t, d id not
nnic h depe nd o n the M.,'1 ling o f princi p les as on the x""'riflg o f
th\: la lln could 1101 e fTe cli vd )
be achieved except O il one Loni/ ilion, Ihal it be concealed at f,""t.
The dlange would be mea ningliJl o n ly it it wa s t he d lling ot men
uf
ble m or"l autho r!t)'. xpl.:,,"i ng to d own-to -earth int e r-

behalf o f higher

\""Ilal was needed "as less to give

com plete freed o m to the natu ral impulse s of the merc hants tha n
0 11

plft ' OC r.;.

to t ie t ht'm to some d o mitMIlI mora l po "it;oll. 1\ was first a m at-

rer o f d e sr Il.'):ing th e aUlhority that lo undcd the mediev al ceonomr

TlJi s cou ld 1101 have been done b y sta ting rhc pri nc iple 0 1" (''' pi-

"

, ,,. " c c ......... "" . ""C

tali\( inl c re,;.t d irectl). \ Vhal
jor
laic momCnt " I,cn
the cum.cqlJcl'lI"-,> o f th e docrrmev of the Rclonnilliufl ..
is the d ifficul t y (If o.kfo::nd ing th."
o r capireltsm (1 fVK'J. II
" re m.oulablc d l.ll tnc \fliril mel rh.c- cUlic " f
ro."t' .lI111lO't
rever been
in a r u n kmn. It eo OflJ) b) ""iI) 01 an t'M f"p-tio n that 0IlC u n S.), as \ \ d Joe r QOC"i concerning
principle<.
-et funh IJl rh.. mi&.lle o f Ihr- eij!hlo::t:nth cenro l)
Benjamin
h a nkl;n, lhal thq e "pt"bS
sp iril of ca pi ral jsrn with .In almost
cbsl;icaJ pulit}. BUI in ' il lll\ them, I " ill s" o" in lact thai it " ul 'kl
ha...: 1)t'C'n
10 gi'" tbem fret: rf"in without a l>rdlllbk w ithout fil"!il gi\ ing th..m rill: mask of all ina< n :....stbl e d O- iflll ).

r ra nld io
Re me m ber t hat lime j< mo ney. IIe t h"t can earn le n
a day b). hi s labour, a rid
ab road, o r sit, id ll. o n.. hal f u f
th"t dily, though Ilt'
bill sixpcn<'"l' during hi, di ...:" io n
o r i, Ile,.,.."-,, o Uj::h t not to n;ckOl, that t h.. ooly expense: he has
rt:all } spe nt, o r r.uh e r t hro w n aw.lIy. fin: shi lli ng' b..
Remem ber, Ih.ll rmm..) i\ 01 the prolitic.
nature.
Mo rltl can bq;ecl monel. and ilS "flsprlng can bLl;"t mere, and
so em.
shill in"", tu r ned is \1" . I Urneo.l again II is SC'"c n and
threepcroa:, oIl'll! S<J (lO , till it becomes a hund r..d poun,h. Tht.
fllllre t he re is uf it. thc m or.. it prodUCC'i e>-ct:\. turning. I,U Ihat
the profils ree tjuid.e r and quicker. H.. tn.lt kills a br:<Ii' l{!'
SQ.... dcstrols all ...... r tlflSpfi' l\ t o th e t hou-..ndth gem rati ot l.
He that m urders a U ('I'\\'I. r1': slmp all that it might Iu\ c pm-duced, .... .:n scores o f pounds.
is m ere c)niCil Il) oppoqd w the Spilll 0 1"
sac ri lia:. " hi. h coorteucd, priOI W the Rc ltmmrion. ' 0 juslif)
1111 immense unprod eu-trve coosum p t loll and the iJ lenen o f all
tbose who had a free choice

ill

lite . O f COUl"... I

,,'

p,in,i

, .. Ie O", ' G '''s

C APH AL 'SU A '"

..

pl .. - seldom formulated - con noues t o guide the ..co no",}

(I Owa rd.m illl l)ilSSC no d ou bt ]. Bll t in Luther\ lime if could not
be stat ed in ove rt upposition 10 that Qf the dlu re h.
If o ne nuw consi.I.,.. It.:
moc emene " h.r
Protln' ss t hrough 111.., ,I,x t rin a1 mcamle l1i
frum r urhc r's scanda li', cd trip t o Rome til h an ld in\ labori o us ca ndor. a pr-v ileg et.l
direc tio n emell;<:S. Bul ' be irnpn;::iSion is nol thitt of a n",u lutc
and tklermincd
am if rlx-TI' is Oil cUCbtiUX1 in lho: direcriOl"1, it appc:an to boo ghen frum lhot' oe isldc, in In-- de m ands o f
tilt' produc rtve fon-cs . The mi nd t ries gro ping l) lO anvwc r th.. st'
dem ands - ill filer n s hesit alion hel ps it to d o so - b ut onl ) the
dcmaods me... th ings
t.,., an:! the.' f:,'Uai . This
is
Conm l) ro the
uf Mu \ \ c be r, " IIU is c rcd itt'll . rxmaps wrong !}. w ilh ha, ing ;tS.\tgncd all ini rinlii i.. shapi.-..c
power tu rcl i/<:io n. But it rtain th.lI rhe revolutton effcct ...1
L) the Rcfo nuau on has, as Welx:r saw. a profc )l ll)d si/<:niHca rwc:
It lIlula:tl l.he passaJ.eC to a ne" fonn o f "onom,.. Rd,tri ng bad .
to tb e spirit of the &,",,,1 rek:rrncrs, lU: CM1 C\'Cn sa} lhal b) ..ccqx
inl! lho: ex tre me
o f a de mand "or religiu us punt}
il
sac rt:t.1 worlel, the world of nunprodueli, 'c r-onsUlll pt io n. and hand l,.'<1 Ihe uauh o ver tu rh.. mcn o f prod uc t ion ,
to the
Thi s does n{ll alter rhto pri mal")' mcanil'll: o l" 1.11OS("
In the spht.f't: uf re lig io n t he) "1.:"": Ck t rc me (;and
a1 N'.-I) imfXlMiMe ;as such). 1..lu....:n-r. in the ct'OI'lOmie order c'-1
a
) el if ca n ntJI: IJot: dcuicdt bar tile}
inaugu rated the world oft hc IXJ.Il'gtor\ i... ...11OSt: accompli, Il/llt'1lI
is c ('Onom ic. ma nkind .

III

Th e Bourg eoi s Wo rl d

The Fundamental Con tradiction of the Sea rch

for Intimacy in Wo rks
At t he o rigin a t ind ustria l society, based O n the primae ) and
autono m y o f com mod it ie s. of thjnf/s, we finel a cont rary im pu lse
t o p lace what is essential - n hat

COUSCf

one to t rem ble

l\ ith

Jeor and

deliBht - o utside the wo rld of ac t tvity, the world o f thines. But

howe ver t his is shown it doe, not controvert the fac t that in ge neral a cap italise socie t y red uces wha t is human t o the cond it io n
of a thine (of a co m mod ity). Re ligi on and ec onomy were deli vered in o ne and the same movement fro m th at wh ich ind ebt ed

'rom

them to one an other. t he former

profane calc ulat io n, the
latter fro m lim its brivc n fro m the o uts ide. But th is fundame n tal
opposition (this unexpec ted c on trad ictio n) is more intc rcsting

than it m ight seem at first. T he proble m that Calvinism so bold ly

so lved is not li mit ed to th e in terest that th e h istorical stud} of
religious matters always arouses. In fact it i" st ill the problem th at
d ominate s us. Re ligi on in general ans we red the d esire that man
al wa ys had t o find h imself, to regain an in t imae} that was alwa ys
strangely lost. But th e mistake of all religion is t o always give man
a contradictory ans wer: a n external f orm oj intimocy. So the successive so lutions o nly exace rba te the prob lem: Inti mac} is never scp. 29

a rated from ex te rnal elements , w it ho ut w h ic h it could not be

siBni{ied. Where we t h ink we have caugh t hold o f the G rail , we
have only grasped a tJunB' and what is left in o ur han ds is only a
cooking pot . _..
Man's c urre nt q uest does not d iffer from those o f Gal ab ad or
Ca lvin e it her in
o bject or in the di sapp oint me nt t hat comes
o nce the object is fo u nd . But t he modern wo rld goes about it in
a different vvay: lt doe s not look for anything illusory and it means
to achieve an essen tial conq uest by directl y ::-.olving the pro ble ms
th at are posed by thinBs. Perhaps it is absolutely right: Often a complete sepa rat ion seems nec e cosary. If we are in ..ea rch o f an object
o f possession , the n we can only propose to lo ok for tlunBs, since
only thlfiEJS are within the province of activity and th e search always
c omm its us t o ac t ivity. T he Protesta nt critiq ue of t he Ro man
Church (Le ., of th e purs uit of activity ex pressed in wo rks ) was
not d ue to a strange scruple : and its ul ti mat e ( ind irect) conseq uence, w hic h co mm its mankind only to do - without any furth er aim - t hat w hic h can be d one in the order oj tmnBs, is Inde ed
the only solution. Rut if man is to find himsel fi n the end , he loch
in vain w hen he fo ll ows th e pa t hs that have led h im t o ..elfestrangement. All he could ex pec t by tolImving them was to adapt,
for serv ice, th ose thwBs that are suc h, however, only to serve him .
It is reasonable then to think that man ca n no t rediscover his
truth w it hout solving the problem of economy; but wit h res pect
to th is necessar y cond it io n. he can say and beli eve it is sllffiaent.
he can affirm that he will be free once he has com plied with the
ex igencies given in tmnBs thar are
in th e physical arrangements without which hi s n eeds cannot be sati sfied.
An o bstacle wi ll stop him, however: He will not be able to
gras p that which he is bere ft of any better than if he had taken
paths more o pen to c rit ic ism ; what he grasps will be n o di ffe re n t fro m w hat was
by those w ho prece ded hi m in hi s
' 30

T H E

BOURGEO IS W OR L D

q uest: A,:,> always he w ill o nly ca tch hold of thinas an d w ill take
the shadow which they are for the prey he was hu nt ing.
I mai ntain that the argument according t o w hic h the solut ion
of t he mat erial problem is tllfjiCJem b the most adm issible one at
first. 1O But eve n if the volution of the problems of life - the key
to wh ich is a man's not becoming merely Q thion, but of bcion 10 a
sovereign manner - were the unavo idab le conseq uence of a sarisfactory response to material exige ncies, it re mains radicall y d istinct from that
with which it is often co nfuse d.
l-o r this reason 1 can say concerni ng Calvinism. having capital ism as a conseq uence. that it poses a fundam ental problem: How
can man find him self - or rq:pin hImseIJ - seems that the action to which
th e search commits him in one way or another is precisely what estranges
him from hims<lj!

The different sta temen ts, in mode rn ti mes, of th is di sconcerting problem help to make us awa re both of w ha t is at issu e now,
in his tory, and of t he proj ected fulfi llment t hat is offered us.

The Resemblance Between the Reformation

and Marxism
Considering the course foll owed by the re formers an t! it" co nseq uences. would it be paradoxical t o conclude: " It pu t an end t o
the relat ive sta b ili ty and e q uilibrium o f a world in wh ic h man
was less estranged from hi mself than we al-e at presen t"? It wo uld
be easy in fact t o find ourselves persona lly loo kin g for a form of
humanity that does nat betray it, shunning those vacant lots. those
su burbs and tac ro rles, w hose appearance expresses the nature 0 1
industrial societies, and making o u r way toward some dead ci ty,
bristli ng w irh go t h ic spires. We can not deny that p re se nt-nay
hu manity has lost th e secret, kept until the c urrent age, of giv
ing: itself a face in w hich it might recognize th e splendo r th at is
pro per to it. Dou btl ess the "works" o f the Middle Ages in a sense

T HE AC C U R S ED SHA R e

were on ly thinSS: They could rightly appear wort hless t o an)'o nl'
who envivioned, bevond. in its inaccessibl e purity. th e wealth th at
he attributed to God. And yet th e med ieval representat ion o f soc icr)' has the power t oday of evok ing that "l osr in ri mac y'"!
Ii" church ic; perhaps a thinf/: It is littl e d ille re nt tram a bam.
wh ich c leerlj i.. a t hing. A thJnf/ is what we know fru m \\ irh o ut ,
as a physical reality (\iC'rgmg on a uu liry, availw hat giv en to
ab le \\ ithou t rese rve). \Ve ca nnot penetrale a !hinf/, and it has no
meaning other than its ma te rial qualities. adapted o r no t to some
u..efu l purpose, in th e producti ve se nse o f the word . But th e
ch urch
an intimate feeling and addresses it self ro int imate feeling. It perhaps the thln8 that a buildi ng is, b UI the thmf/
that a bam reall y is is adapted 10 th e gathering in of the c ro P\: It
comes d own to the physica l q ualities that were given to It. measuring t he coste OIgainst the anticipated advantages. in orde r to subord inate it t o that usc. The ex press io n ofi n timacy in rhe chu rc h
co rres po nds rather t o the ne edle ss consumption 0 1 lab or: From
the start the purpose of the ed ifice \\ ithd raws it from publi c utiliry, and thi s firs t movement is accentuated in a profusio n o f useless o rna ments. For t he co nstruct io n o f a church is not a pro fitabl e
use of t he ava ilable labo r. but rathe r Its consum pt ion. the destru ctinn of
uti lity. Intimac y is not expressed by a thin8 exce pt o n
o ne conditi on: t hat rhl s thins be essent ially the opposite o f a thin8,
th e o pposite of a produc t . o f a cOlTl modit y l2 - a consum pt ion and
a sacrifice. Since intimate feeli ng is a consu mption, it b con'iumpti on that ex presses ir, no t a thl118' w hich is its negation. T he ca pita livt bourgeoi sie relegated the co ns t ruc t io n o f c hu rches to a
subord inate plane. prefe rring tu co n..truct fac roncs instead . But:
the Church dominated the whole ')yste m of th e M idd le Ages. It
erected its stee ple, w herever men were grouped together for commo n works: Thus it was clear and " b ible fro m afar that the basest
works had a high er p urpoS(', apa rt fro m their tangi ble intere st ;
IJ2

T HE BOUR G EO I S

WO R LD

thi s purpose was th e glo ry of Go d , but is no t God in a sense a

distan t expression o f man. in the
of th e depth:') he perceives?
T hat said. th e lo nging for a bygone wo rld is none th el ess ba.. .ed
o n a lim ite d judgment. T he reg re t that I mi g ht have fo r a ti me
when th e obscu re int im acy of t he an imal was sca rcely d i.. . ting uished fro m the im mense flu x of the wor j d indi c ates a power
th ar is t ruly lost , but it fails to recog nize w hat matters more to
me. Even if he has lost the wo rld in leaving animality beh ind. man
has n one thel ess bec ome that consciousness of havin g lo st it w hich
we are. and which is more , in a sen.. .c , th an a possession 01 wh ich
the animal is no t consc io us: It is ma n. in a word. being th at which
alone matters t o m e anti wh ich t he animal cannot be. Likewi se
the ro man ti c lo nging for t he Midd le .Ages is in fact on ly an aba ndon ment. it has the meani ng of a protest agains t the rise ofi nd u.. . t ry. ven us the n onproduc t ive use of re sou rces ; it co rrelate.. . with
the o ppos it ion to the valu es given in the cathed rals o f capita list
interest (to w h ich m odem society can be reduced ], Th is lon ging refu se-, to see , at the basis of t he indust rial rise . th e . . . p irit of
contestat ion and c hange , the need to go from all parts to the limit
of the wo rld's possibilities. It ca n doub tless be said o f the Protestant critique of sointlv works that it gave the wo rld ove r to profane works. that the de mand for divin e purity only managed to
ex ile the di vine. and to com plete man's separation fro m it. It ca n
be said , finall y, t hat sta rti ng t he n
dominat ed man, Insofar
as he lived fo r enterprise and less and less in the presen t rime.
Hut dom inat io n is never to tal. and in a deep se nse it is only a
comedy: It never dec ei ves m o re th an partly. w hile in the propitiou s da rkness a new truth tu rns . . . rormy.
T he Prorevtant positing of an unattainab le divinity, irreducib le to t he actio n-bound m ind. no longe r has any real mea ning
for us. O ne co uld even declare it absent fro m the world (h aving
lost its connect ion to th at unco mprom ising demand, t he current

' 33

THE A C CU R S E D SHARE

Protestant '\\'3) o fth in king is more human ), as if the pos il ing we re

itselfbo uncl to re..emble th e divinity it d efined . But t his absence
may be i1J uso ry, an alogous to that o f the t rai tor w hom no o ne
deno unces and wh o is everywh ere. In a li m it ed sense. the Refermario n has ceased to exe rt any ac t io n ; yet it s urvives in the rigo rs of conscio usness , in the lack of naivete, in the maturi ty of the
modern world. Ch en th e lethargy of th e m ult itude, Calc in's subtle demand tor inlt.>gl-ity, the sharp-cdged tension of reason ( which
is no t satisfied with little and is never satisfie d w it h itc;('If) and
an extremist and rebellious wa} of t hinking take o n the appearance
of a pathetic \ igil. "l he multitude has surrendered t o th e sornnoIen cc o f prod uc ti on. living the mec ha n ica l e xtsre nce - halflud icrous, half-revolting - of thi"f}j. But conscious thought reaches
the last d t:grec of ale rtness in th e same move ment. On the one
hand it pu rsue s, in an ex tension o f technical acti vit)', th e investi gat ion that leads to an inc reasingl} cl ear and distinct know le<.1ge
o f thIngs. In It se lf sc ie nce limits co nsc io us ness to objects ; it
does no t lead t o sclj-COIlSCiouSIJCSS (it can know th e subject o nly by
tak ing it fo r an o b ject. for a th ing); but it con t ribu tes t o th e
wakefulness by accuslo mi ng us to prec isio n and by disappoin ting
us: For it ac kno w ledge, its limits. It admits its powerl evsness to
ar ri ve at selj-consctcusness. On the o t he r hand , t ho ught doe s not at
all aband on, in th e face o f ind ustrial develo pm ent, man's basic
desi re to find hi mse lf (to have a sovere ign exis tence} beyond a
useful ac t io n that he ca nn o t avoid. This desire has o nly beco me
more insistent. Pro te stan t ism re ferred man's e nco unter w it h his
tru t h to t he o ther world. Marx ism, which inherited its rigo r, and
gave a pre cise form to di sorderly impulse s. de ni es even more
than Calvinism a te nd enc y of man t o loo k for himsel f directl y
w hen he ac ts ; it reso lutel y ex cl udes th e foo lishn e!'..\ of se nt imenta l act io n.D By reservmg ac t io n lor the c ilanging of th e material
o rgan izat io n , Ma r x cl early form ul at ed t hat w hi c h Ca lvin had

'34

THE BOURG E OIS WORLD

rn crc iy o u tlined, a rad ical ind e pende nc e of thln8 s ( of th e econo my) in rel atio n t o o ther (religi ous or, generally, affec tive ) concem s. Co nversely, he im pli ed th e in de pe nd ence . w ith re sp ect
t o action, of the return move me n t o f ma n to hirn sc lf (to t he
profundi ty, the intimacy o f his bei ng ). T his mo vem ent can take
plac e only aft er the liberation is ac hieve d , and on ly alter t he
ac t io n is completed.
T his specific aspe ct of Marxism is us ually ove rlooked : Marxism is charged w ith t he co ntus io n of which I speak above . For
Marx, "the solu t tc n of the material pro ble m is sufflClem," but fo r
man the fact " of'not rony merely like a thln8, but 01 brin8 in a sovcrei8n manner, " in theory given as " it s un avo idable conseq uence,"
nonetheless remain s differen t from " a sat isfactory re sp on se to
materia l dem and s." Marx's o riginality in thi s regard hes in his wanting t o ach ieve a m oral result o nly negat ivel y, by the e li m inatio n
of mate rial obstacles. This le-ads people to attribute an ex clusive
Conce rn w ith material goods t o him; they fail to nc rice, in t he
provocative cl arity, hi s ut t er di sc re ti o n and hi s aversio n for religio us forms whereby man's t ruth is subord inated t o h idden ends.
The fundamental propositi on o f Marx ism io; t o free t ile world of
!hin8s (of the econo my ) ent irely from eve ry e lement that is extraneous to thmEJS (to the econo my): It was by going to th e limit 01the
possibili ties implie d in thIn8S ( by com plying w ith t heir demand s
w ithout re servat io n, by replaCing th e govern ment of part ic ular
inter ests w it h the Ugovern me nt of th ings," by carrYing to it-, ultimate c o nsequences the m ovement that red uces man t o t he condi ti o n o f a thiTl8, that Ma rx wa v de te rmi ned to reduce thin8s to
the co nd iti on of man, and man to t he free disposition of himself
In this perspective of man libe rat ed th ro ugh ac t io n, having
effected a perfect adequation ofh rmself to thiTl8S, man wo uld have
the m behi nd h im, as it were ; they wo uld no longe r ens lave hi m.
A new chapte r wo uld begin, where ma n wo uld finall )' be free to
IJ S

"'SO:;

return t o h is ow n in ti m ate truth, to lreclv d ispose o f the being

that he ll ,/I be, that he is not ne w beca use he is se rvi le .
But by t he very fact of th is po sition (wh ic h, as far as in t irna cv
i\ concerned , d isso lves a \\3)'. o tters noth ing ), Marx ism i-, less th e

co m ple t ion of the Calc inist p roj ect than a c ri tique o f capitalism.

whi ch it reproac hev w ith havi ng libe rat ed

\\ irho ut rig or.
w it ho ut <my othe r e nd . w it hou t any o t he- r 13" t ha n c ha nce an d private in re rcs t ,

The World of Modern Indu stry. Or.

The Bourgeois World
Capita lism in a se nse is an un reserved su rrender t o

heed -

le ss o f consequences and sec-ing not h ing be yo nd t hem. For com-

mon capita lism . thinn f (prod uc ts and productio n) are not . as fo r

th e Puritans, what b beco ming and wants to beco me : if things
are w ith in it. if it is ihcll t he thinB. t h is in the wa) t hat Satan
inha bi ts the soul of someone possesse d. un beknow n to him. o r
th at the po ssessed, \\ rth o u t kn owing it, is Satan hi m self.
Sel f-d en ial, \\ hic h in Ca lv in ism was th e affirmati on of God.
was an u nattainab le id eal in a sense: It cou ld be t he act of ' t ra ng
personal ities, ca pable o f imposing the values \\ ith \\ h ic h the) ident ified . but excep tions always ca me into pl ay. On th e o t her hand ,
freed om g hen to things " as t he com mon possibility. T he re was
n o n eed

to

m ain ta in the pu rest - and poores t

c-

spiritual it ). which

alo ne was rigorous enough in the h:-ginn ing to counterba lance the
subject io n at th e " hole bo d y an d o f ac t ivit}, t o

Bu t o nce

th e pri nc ipl e o f servitude was g ran ted. the wo rld o f !h inss (the
world o f mode rn industry) cou ld devel op o f in-e lf. w ithout any
further tho ught o f the abse n t G()(1. T he adva n tage

W 3:)

c lea r, in

m ind s 31""a)'5 quic k to g r<l!o p the real object. 0 1allow ing in t imacy
10 rece de beyond t he threshold o f consc io usne ss. T he re ign of

tl1 ings

\\'3:)

su p ported . mo re over. by the natural propensity to ser110

THE BOUFlGEOl5

WORL D

vit ude. It corresponded in the same movement to t hat pure w ill

to power (to grow th fo r its own sake) th at . o utwardly contrary
to the serv ile spirit, is ba.. .ically o nly its complemen t . In the service
o f a power t hat is not use d - the pe rfec t form of t he absorpt ion
of resources in g row t h - is fou nd the o nly genuine nulli fic at ion,
the least slippery renu nci ati on of life. But th is attitude is often
d ifficult t o disn ngui sh fro m that of the pure Calvinist . although
it is the latter's opposite.
At least th e Calvinist was at the
point of alertness and
tension . The man of ind ustrial gro\'vt h - having no othe r purpose
than grm...-th - o n th e contra ry is the expression of so mnolence.
No rensron arou nd him, n o desire to adapt a world to his sta ndards. T ile m e n w hose ac tion re sul te d in modem ind ustry were
not even aware, the idea not having occurred to them , that such
a wo rld m ight be possibl e: T he) were utterly unconcerned abo ut
an impotenc e in the movement that carried them along. that co uld
not red uc e th e wo rld to its law. T hey eve n used, for the development of ente rp rise, t he opening.. . that were maintai ned by the continued ex istence of varrouv move m ents contrary to theirs. In the
ca pita list wo rld th ere was no princi pled prefere nce g iven to tilt'
producti on 01 th e m eans of producrion (this preference was to
appear o nly in com m unis t accu mulatio n) . I he bo urgeo isie was
unaware o f any o pposit ion be tween the primac y of growth and
its co nt raries : un productive expenditures of all so rts. institu ti on s
and values that create ex penditures. The o pposi tio n only concerned (and o nly affec ted) the amou nt of the expendi ture. Bourgeois capitalism was opposed to luxury. b ut only in a fee ble and
illogical way: Its avarice and irs ac t io n did ac tuall y re du ce luxur y. but if one excludes the uncalcul ared effects, it never- departed
Ii-om laisscz-faire.
Th us the b ourgeoi sie created th e world of confusion. It wa..
essentially a wo rld of thjnBs, but as man's redu c tio n was no longer
'l7

T HF

A C CU RS ED S H A RE

linked to his nulltficati c n be for e God , all that di d no t enter into

th e sleep of growt h suffered from the abandonment o f th e search
for a beyond. Ho wever. no paths were closed: Precisely because
things generally prevailed and dom inated the move m en t of th e

multitude , all th e abo rted dreams re ma ine d availabl e; life ( th e

global m ovemen t ofl ife] bec am e deta ched fro m the m no do ubt,
but th ey st ill serve as consolat ion for tro uble d bei ngs. A c haos
began. w here, in th e most co nt rary ways, t'"ve ryt hing became
eq ually possi bl e. SOciety's unity was mainta ined owing to th e
unquesti on ed importanc e and success of th e dominant ac rivrty,
In this un certai nty, t he te mptati ons of the past eas ily su rvived
their invalidation. The contradictions to which they had led ceased

t o be feh. in a wo rld w here reality wa s all the more hateful lor

being publicl y the measure of man. The ro ma ntic pro test itself
was free. But that freedo m in every sense meant that man, regarcle<!
in his unity (in t he undifferenti ated agg regate ), consented to be
only a thine_

The Resolution of Material Difficulties and

the Radicalism of Marx
To the ex tent that mankind is in comp lici ty w it h the bo urgeo isie ( on the whole. th at is), it VlgUe1 y consents to be no thi ng mo re
(as mankind) than thinss. Yet it is w ithin this confused m ultitude,
and tied to confusio n as a plant is tied t o th e g ro und, t hat the
spiri t of rigor proliferates. Its essence is in wa nt ing - through a
co mple tio n of thinf/". an adequation of th in f/s (of pro d uc tio n) and
man - the access o r return of man to himsel f. And to the extent
that this rigor has the goal of developi ng t he pure sc iences and
th e techniques, the bourgeoi s wo rld leave s it an o pe n field.
Within the limits of strictly eco no m ic activity. the rigor has
a precise o bject: the dedication of excess resOU TCC<i to the remova l
of life's difficulti es and to th e redu ction of lab o r time . This is th e
Ij 8

T,.." BO URCCO'!; WO" LO

o nlv usc of weal th that coinci des with an ad eq ua tion o f m an to

thiny! an,1 it retains the negat ive c haracter of acnon. w ho'c
lor m an re ma ins th e possib ility of bt:ing cmi rc l;.- al his ow n <.I i,posal. The spirit of rigo r. li ... <1 to rhe ,Ic,dopm t.nt " fl h., "":Je nu:s
and tt:e 1ll1i'I"cs, is w..11 erluipp.. <1 lor this lundamcmal operatio n,
But th .. lIst: of lhe ' o",for t ...m.l t h.. m) riad services of ind us trial
<CannoLbe limi ted to a sm all numbe r of pri,i1eb>(.,(1 pers""s: Sllmf'tllal)' usc had fu nc rio nsj it m anifested values and it
implied the connect io n be t ween wea lth and the rcsponsibilirj of
ma nifesting those ,-alu es. But th is m anifesta tio n resulted troll' th e
erro r that makes us want 10
like
that wh ic h i, pr..diof rigo r is rhu s corncared o n th e negatio n 0 1 thi np . T he
mi tred to destroy inti: t he r"m nants "f ' he an de n' wo rld . T Ilt'
capitalist law leaves tr In:.. to ,I" ,'d o p the m"'... ri,,1 pu ssll'il iti t s
th :lr it bears " it hin it , Imt at till: same time t ole rates pri vileges
that hind t r t his ,lc-velo pmen t. U nder t hese cond it io ns , the rigo r
leads o ne to d raw lrom the sciences and tec hniq ut" t he
conseq uences th at red uce the c haos of t he pr esent wo rld to the
rib-or of tIIH'f/! the msel ves, w hich th e
of .111 t he o pe rat io ns o n 1I""y!. It then has a revol utionary
ca nce that Ma rx fo rm ulated in a
way.

Thl' R cmrrorr b of Peu do t ism a nd ReliBio rr

T he necessity of Iirsr
the , alues o f t he past m ust be
mad e cle ar.
In the t:<':o!lOm k system o f rhc M idd le Ages
we"h h
" " ew'" nl ., di stri buted oct \\ een those w ho m anifest ed
the accepted values, in the na me o f w hic h wea lt h
wasted ,
and th ose- who furn ished the wasrcdlebor.'? T he work of the fields
o r t he t owns rhus had a servile q ua lity w ith respec t to t he calues
m anif "stoo , bur so di d Ih., wo rke r wir h
( 0 the clertcs and
no bl es . These latt e r claimed no t 10 be thin8s, bUI th e qualil ) of
thinyhooJ, ve rba l protesls norwirhsrandinp, fell squa rely o n th e

'"

WQl kt'.
nri/o!Ina l silUat i"ll lla!> .l spt"Cillc eonsc.... uc ex e: O ne
cannot CApt"< Ill ' hberate man by
to tl, e- li " ,ir of rhc poseibilhl e- of Ih'"81 au d uonethe!.. leave Ircc. a, 1;"pil"l h m docs.
Ihulo/' ,d,o han : Ot! o the r lea.' nll lo r being than tile lwg.lfio n 01

" or\... " I'idl i , 1),lS(', in fll'ur 01 mo.... d"">ltt'11 ilCfh 'il . ..ssen ed
t o be t he
c"pa ll ie o f restllrmg ma n t o him \<:lf. In a
....nse, the rem nallls . ,f kt.rn.lh m .md relill' t1n. whtch u piulhrn
" , ....looks. re p ro-em t he rm m utab le a nd euc o nsctous t!""irt' t o

nla\..e a th,,'R (li lhe worker,

the- wo rker can
be a 11",'1/ if ""t hberate ou rse lves
d e \'llI ill/o! ou.....elves Il , an
ilCth it ) tha t le pucJ l'll es II,.. laOOI of tho.: wo rke r. 11,.. Iulfrllmcn r
of lhi ug.\ (t he co m ple te OIuell',al inn of man to prcxl' l< li nn) can
hav e a librratinj:! eflect
il li... old values. lied t o Ut)l1prod uc tic c l" lo. JlC ' Klil ures. arc de nou nc ed a nd ch'>mallt kd. as th e
Roman .alucs we re
II'e HelOflll.lti oll . Ind eed. rhe re is 110
,I"ullf Ih.ll m..Il's re t um I" hi m14:l f im pl ies first llf all d un (he
d"'UII Ii.,llaces o f t bc arisn x , aL and of n:liJl.ion be unmb Lt'11. lor
tI.C) are nut rt'all ) {hl' fac e of man. hil i hiv ap pe arance leu r III
Ma n\ return 10 hi m seJl ( .0111101 be (nnfll\t"ll w it h the e rro r
of rhese who claim to gras p inli m acy <IS o ne
or

loaf of bread

Communism and Man'! Adequa tion to

lilt! U tility 01 ThinO!f
A ratliC"a l positioo. 10 " hit..h Ih.. wOrl..illf!.

woeid hob /o! in'n

ib pc"',{ical cnll\C(lu cncco;. c m"rge\ lro m Ih f' above. In a ....IN lt
a
It is firsl of all a radic al :.Ilirrnatio n <,f real

rild ical negat illll o j spiritllal values.

mat e rial forc es. dlld " no
T il e- comm umsrs al" <I)S gin' pn 'eec!e nl;; c t o th,,'(}s. <IS
tha t
" h.d. ,!art', not
t heir subt'r<!i nat.. c haracter. T hh illl ilUlkh based
( n 11M' ras... 01 tile p",lr tarialls. who
lac\.. a sell\(" 01 'pi rim al \<l l\les... ho o f I"'...ir Own acco rd red uce
0, 0

man's in terest to
p lll" and sim ple, <100 w ho see rhe human
umcerse as a sys te m of thiny5 subordinated [0 one .,,,,,tllt"T: tilt'

Held, the ti.. lcl prod""." wh ..at, th.. wll....t f....,b

t he bla d :., m irll, ",I" , t<,,'g'" t il.. ph,.." rl li ' i ll no
(;xd u(lcs the
plow ploughs

til t'

h ifh<>r "'pir"t io n" bIll l h n o.: <in:: d,allgo::ab lc, '-<lgllC, o pen. by c o n-

tT,,,r wit l, th" ",,: o f d,e "ld lype o ( pop ula tions , wh ich an' u su-

ally traditional and irnrmnabic. Indeed, the prolnallan, undertake

man's li beration Sl,llting from rlm'lls (to " h ie" t hey were reduc ed
bv a world W / lOl>C values were almovt meccessible to them). T he,.
do not involve h im in ambitious p rojec ts; t hey d o nor co nstruc t

a rich and \ ariegat ed wo rld, modell'(] o n t he anc rcnr my tl,o logi ..,
o r t he m e diccal the ologi es. I heir at ten tio n is apt to be lim ited
to ..-h"l ir thele , b u t

are no t cl osely bound

the eleva ted

ph rases rha r e x press the ir fe eli ngs. In rhc h unlvt- ....... lil..r..

no

lirm limi t o p pos ed 10 rhe gene ral li nbg.. of ,hinn< <lJ/xJrffiTj(l\inO

our onorMr. A

prac t ic al politics, a bn' la l

!'t',h'l-

inl/: it, reasons trJ Hriu r..

i, , t ill ",h" l bo t co rr"' I" lIlds t rJ
t l'e ir pass io n, a pu li t il:\ ti M' r.., ..,lIs II,.. in tt' lltior " rJf .. , d fish

!;r<lI'p, a mi is " II rhe m o r" rlll1,[o;" . A m ili l.." , ol this pe rsuasion

i, ..",ik n:,lrK;t';{l lrJ a , l r;I;1 .\ I,lxmli llal;" n. H.. readily auc:epu being
rt'd uc..<I, b) tile work of libera tio n. 10 the condit io n o f a
rhino, whi ch is the case, fOl exam ple, when di sc ip line pre<;cli bes
t wo conrrad ic ro rv slq;:ans in successio n. '1his radical areirude has
a strange' co nseq ue nce : It I/:ives 10 the bo u rge o is, to t he cx ploitat io n " hi dl th e workers "OI nt 10 abo ltch, II,e le t."l ing Ili llp h" !rling freedom to r m ankind, of <I\'oid ing the reducrion rJf ill,li\ ir\ll"b
to thinnr. A" , I \"el, wh<l t i' Involved i, onlv ..n CJlormous e l len
"
w hose "im is sell-de r.. nnindl io n.
I" ar; t" " l f<ICt, d ,c bOllTgeois uan norrcally forgelthJI rhe free ,10m of the ir w"rl d is t he freedom o f confiiston. I" t he el1<l
a IT m e rel y hel ple ss. T he immense res ult s of wo rk ing-c lass poli t ics, rhc ge ne ra lized provisional servit ude rhar is its o nly sure con-

.,'

" C C " RSE O

St(ruencc, lrigh t""s rlwm, but

Call only be moan the si tualio ""
T hq no lo nger bd\f' i\ wrrse of their h b lOrical m ission: the Iac t
is tha t as a re-sponse 10 tile ascendanr m ovement of rhe commu-

nisrs, tI,ey CiI.'lll"r gi\"e rise to the I..as' h" P"""

'4'

PART FIVJ::

The Present Data

Soviet Indu!itrialization

The Dist ress of Noncommunist /-lullm"ify

It has always been
tn
"The m oral

of rodav's

world is appalling." To ,nme degree the lacl of n O CT Leill<il: assur ed

define- the future, ju,1 as that of having an im pe n t>trabl e nigh l
ah..ad of one d efines th e I' l'e ; O;' nl. Yet t here arc gflod reaso ns at
pr"""'l t fm d w ell ing

0 '1

the di stress. I am th inkill/! not so m uc h

o f th e inc re ased rl.mger o f ca tast ro phe - more ilWigol"ilt ing tha n

it appcal"S _ as of Ihe absence "I fait h, or rMh el' the absence "f
ideas, th at

mod em tlloUglll 10 impot ence. Thirty ).",t'<

ago a n umb e r o f conflicting spo.:r.:ula rio lls ill umi nat ed a f"lmc
that was adapted to man. T ile ge nc'ral bchet in ineiefinil t' pr ogre ss mad.. the c urlre Illanel and all time 10 com e a domain tha t
see m... l at one's disposal w ithou t rest rict io n. Sine.. rlrcn the siruatiou has g rcatly d lallged. \ ,ylle n a c rus hing victory e nsured tllC
r"!lIlT' to pcace, a

of inftriilnf;1 vis-a-vis tllt" Inevitable prob-

I.. ms graduall y seiz ed hold 01 the- m ajorit y. O nly the com munist
worl d - t he USSR and affil ian-><:l parties an e xce pt io n, a
mono lit h ill ti lt" m idst of an anglli, hc<:I, incolwrent hurnanitj;

,,, >V

no ot hel' uni t y than ;mgllisllo

r ar trom hd pin p; to m ainta ill " fragi l.. opt im ism , thi' bl oc -

which p" ssessc's an un sha kea ble assurance o n its

,"

O Wfi

behalf - is

ma" ifll; tile di\tr'C'I!> ( onrple te-. 1\ IXlu ncll e.!> hope for itself, it at
dlot" s.lme ti me d lenOl" lor II"O'>C \\ bo rcj eu it<; law .lJlll dn not aurom.Jlt icitll) conc ur

irs pr ;l\e.; pi n . '-loIn. and l ugels

in 1847
oil" Ill.: firM words (II rhe lItJmj <"SltJ): " A \ pt"Ct l'T;!>
hauming [ 1lR>pt" - lilt' 'pt'Ctt:' r o f Comm un i!im." In 1949 cornmun is m c eased to be iI phantom: II
and an
far
the rrxet
lillpplemented 1.,- .In ' It/;,mm:''d m('lOlt'
me nt and lTI<'Iintained in 01 rnu llC, lithic ("uhrsion b)- a
of
jorm 0 1
;nt r rf'Sl . And E.urop(: is not alene ;1I 1X.i ng
sha l.en. bu t .o\5ia as we ll ; . k\p ih" it S m ilil3 l') and ind us trial supe'
II i I h

nuti ty, Amc:rica ilscll is

kn"". a nd the il H.II/;ltill io ll it

e" preliM'S in rhc 1101111<' n f nan,'"

;n.-Ih id uahsm poorl j conce... h

all exasperated rea r. Tori,,) rlu fear ol the

n b<-f"S.\t"\ amI

heartc uv the w ho lt" nuucornm un ist world . No th ing h

lu re o f usclf, cndowcJ w itll an

1'0 0 1\'(.'(1 ,

w ill In O'l:i1n;7(',

the re st of t he wo rld li nc ) up

e"lcpl for 1111" USSH. I

th e 131u; r tllrough ine rt ia: It w ill ing l}" I"rre nder.. to t1 1('
nmtrd<!ill;(ll\S th ar u bears " ilhin it; it lives frum dol) t(l ILt). blinc-I.

ric h or poor. (kprecJ.

p'n u-st - even 01 g ro an.

311C\

us speech

11.... become a n Impo" :,,t

TIl(' Intdl('Cl ual P05irians with Regard to

Communism

I n t he absence nf aSCl"llfLu lI ielt:il\ , in tll., al:.....:" c l.' u f a hope 111011

wo u ld u ni t e am i d ...
Am e nca is ",",,\
rrine and Ill<-

"t..,. h uman tholl!!h t ill \\'"",rl"n1 I urup<"and

fI....t and foremost;n relat ion to the d(lO:o l l he Sc" il" t Un ion. That doctri ne has rtWl)

prupOlll"llts who molil.<- the c1 k lOlt(l M ip o f the pr" letariat a nc.l tl1l"
OIbolit io n o f capi tal i\m Ihe 1',,li rni'larJ condit ions of;ll satisfied
hu man liw. T he bas ic aim or the So--iet sla te is, ;u.cordinJ:. 10 tilt"
Constitu tion 01"1918. "\Il p pc'f"oSing all .... ploitarion o f man b) 111311,
o f societ y into classes,
a bo lishing foreve r t he (Iis uppressing all

bringi ng about the

'. 8

organi:.ca-

Un ll of socit'ty and the tri u mph o f

in "II < ouomes," 1 he

goal of firs t au ,i""illl/ " MX ial, '>fll in one country," and the "...t hl;
that II... Russian l"e\'(llut iun has
YJlU:" 1918

the l.ppul>i t ioo o f . t'n.Ji" c om mun ist .. I..menu . Bu t tbus Iilr on l)

tht faithful
of till' Soc ie1 Union, dete rm illt"!: l tu remain
" ilh it a nd carry out the- U'\u h lrion in Ii,<-Ir country,
1101'" been abl e 10 deri n ' h um lhe ir opi n ioll the force to tillite
in

t h.. \\Uni'l! rnassea. 1ltr comm unist diSl;i<!CncC has wlTtl the
su,-i li t) of the c aher ecuve ten"{"lIc it.'S within tfl.. .!e lnocr.lcics.
Fo r it is inl ormcd U) an .a\ e r<ioll.
IUh ' ho pe drising from its

0\\

il

re jection, and n m b)." re l l)-

J\10R:O\cr. tile r{"an io n l' ( the o pponen ts has Iwo con l ra, )
5<' 111'( es, III the fim p lace. the ram ilk .. t;ons of the p rinci ples o f

t he Sovie t Un ion h oi\'<' been limited by the g iH:1l cond iliOflS: The
d omain 01 soci alism ha s I>>n lim ite d not [uvt to a single connI ')", b ut Ul a ll und erdeveloped ind usartal COUlI l!"}', Acco rd ing t o
Marx, sociali!)l'll \\'Ou l.1 rcsu h from an c ),uemc d e \"{" I.' pmcm o f
producti\"e

lOrcO'S:

i\mfTicMl societ), UKl not the Rus-

sian <;odetl' lJI 1917 . ,,"01.1111 I'll' ripe (or soc i.llhm. Furthermore.

Leni n sal' ill the Oc tober revolut ion tilt" hegm ning mcvc eneruediverted - II I world r..\,o lut iull. Lar..r,
in o pposi tion \ 0
Trllts!.:)', ceased t o ma ke worl.l rC\o lul ion a pn"C-o oo il io n lOt rh...
of S<JCial il;(!1 m
I" all) case till' S.,..ier Union camr
to accept the gamc I t ha<! m ...lru 10 a\-Qid. Rill apparcntl )'. cont r.ll') to Tm tsJ-y's optimism , th Cl"t:
110 c ho ice in rhe m auer.
Tile c Ul1SCq lJC l\('l'S nf "J;()(;ialism in one c oun try"

be dis-

"ll,vdcd.
Jln. 1lint o f mal..,ial diflic ulries, wi thilul any eonnecnon t o t h. l!>l:' a g lo bal socialism wou ld eocoun tce, the fact of
being bo.....d to one nali o n could al ter Ill.., n:\'Olutioll'l'hi.'ig il a
compllSitc fo rm d jffic u lt tn dtt iphc, and dccch"ini! ill apl:>e.lr"'tICe.
!'lUI h e re it is til<' reactionary a spec t o f " Sfdl ini sm " that p rovokcs the C'tlposit io ll. f rom another ang le, rhe- crtaic fsm 0 1 til<"

."

.. f,n in " ,,11 thaI 01 ant ico m mun i,m ill general.
A rcschn... <;<lfl lo.:lll p l lOr ind ;.,tc luali nt erest , lor t hooght . for
concen tionv and
has c harac l o.:ri f.t'<1 rhe Rl ,14 f'\ ,I.
reIo ol ut ion from IIJc. stan. In tI,i...
Sla li,,'s po lit: ) hrin" nut
the traits o t Leum's, bur dOf'lo nl.. bre.l.k new i!ro ooo. &, I<;.I ik
f1 r mllO!;n
Ita rred o t co mmunism,
so general and so SHang
iI' priffldT}
In l hal
compfeu' nql:ation. pushed to j(... r>. tr...ne
0 1 incti, it}.,;d """ if) . For tht: ,roncO! tlm un ist \\url,1 in
11 >(' iooi. " IIJ.l..I i... tJ1f" " ltima' .. "'NI;
and m nh ate refe rred to thc solnud..
o f a p riva te lite. d \ ,,1 alll l bliml tt> Ihal w h ich it i' nOI (t h,,-) an:

"anti

reklTC'(l, mo t e prccbcl)'. 10 its " .. onomic i'Klt'pt"ll<l" llce). AI th e

OO'i \ 01 th e democ radc idu , [ tfu- bourgeois i,k,,) ..1 ti ,.. ;lId; I'irlual , there

" '>l lr... 1] ) rh-e-e-paion avaric e and .. llo:galiml o f ma n

an clemen t " f ll"'l l") (IJI th.. universa l acti on 01 l hat "l. lch
i, ); ti le modern
"ppeat, ", rhe
or a pe r
so n thM humanity has assu me d . bu t to this " person" mnred t o
rhe .. lati Oll - and mc.Hocril) - 0 1
lite, CU IllIll\l(II\m o liN'; "
dea th leap. To I"' lo llte. t he " pt'I:IOI1" refuses to le ap. bill do.. not
become a sti n ing hope fnr Ih"I I:":I. The r...uluriomrics ho concur in h is

.an' e m barrassed b} it. Bur St3.linhlll h so radi-

QlI that ;[5 com munist OppOIlCflIS ha ve e nded up in <<<IU' r l " ilh
the buurgco is. I

c ollus.lcn, whe the r co nsc ious o r n Ol, has

and inert ia of a ll lh.,l'>I.; "he

wanted t n ".'>Capt' the t l/"'Ot o f Stalin is I com rnnmvm.
",,>'O m ";mpie Jc.clirl' sueh.n
l'lflX%'i lioll or hatn-d.
the c om plexitj nfStalinhm. the ilKIec' phcr.ililc ligu rc rhet rh..
condit i()1lli o f its dC\c1ul'mcl1 l ha,c Rh'CIl it, .apt 10 prO\* thrmosr confused mtdluJlJ/
\ >"'idKllIl a <Inum . o ne o f lhe
mcst serious problf'1m for I he $m ie l Uru.... Ind,,} i , lied totbe
narfoeal 10n11 Ih al Snt iali_m
lalen there, Fu r a !I.ng l ime: a
conmburc d ro IIlot'

paralld "as d ra wn bel w.... II c e- ,ta, n enema! Icatvres uf H;I k ri II:

reo

socia lh m , so-called, an d

tI,OS" of Sralinist socia lism : a leader, a

single p"rty, Importanc e 01 the army. a }'ollth otga n izatinn , negation 01 individ ual thought , and repression. T he aims and rhe socioecono m ic seru cru rc s w e r.. ra,l iu ll)' d iJfe rent, s..lt inl-( t h e two
systems in mortal o pposi tion to eolC h othe r. but tilt" similarity o f
methods was strik ing. T he .. rnph... t hat was plac e d o n tI,,:; form
and e ven OIl the natio nal t r..dhions focu sed atlt'll ti,," on d ,e st:
dubious comparisons . Mo reove r, rhis ki nd 01 c rit icism linked the
o p p<lSit io n com m u nists

to

!>ou rgcois liberali s m : A m,we me n t o f

" a nti to tali t ari a n" o p in ion has Iormed whic h

t .. nds

tn paral jv e

ac ti o n; its sO-id ly conservat ive effect is cert a in.

T holl ght is so d eepl y dh tm bed by thi s paradoxical s it ua tion
that it is g ive n over; spo rad ica lly. to the m ost h""-ilr<! m ls inte rp re tations. They arc not a lways printed. I will m ""ti",, rile foll owing nn c , "ltic h is brtlliaru it not so li d . It seems t hat Stalinism is
no t at all t he analogue o f H itlcri sm ; on the contri\ ry. it is 1I0t a
IWtional LII I rather a n imperiQI.IOCiClliun . Mor.. O\'.. r. JmpefJal is t o be
und.. ",tno d in a sense o pposi te to that of rhe im pe riahsm o f a
na t io n : The word would ....f..r to the necessit y o f a ll emp ire, t hat
is , of a ani versot da//' tI ,a t w'lUld pUI an end to th.. economic and
m ili tary anarchy o f the pr eseru ilge. /\'Q/iQII<JI Socwli!/Il WM bound
to fail. for it s very principl..s limited its scope to one I1<Itio n: Th ere
was no way to inc o rporat c t he c onq uered cOlllllri..s, no ,va}' to
joi n lh c adventi ti ous c..ll s to t h t' mother cd!. fhc Sov iet Uni o n

" n me <:Olltrary is a fia m..wor!< in ,,',idl any narlon can be inserted:

It co uldlate r inc orporat .. a Chilean Re p ubli c ill ti, .. same way as
a Uk rainian RCJlublic is alIT",l y inc orpo rate d. 1 his "-ily ofthinkilll!: is II0t o p posed to Mi\rx ism; it is d iffere nt,
in th at it
gives t he state the p r...po nclcrant a nd d e fini ti ,-.. I' la,"C rhar J lege l
gave it. Mall as d efined by t he Hegelian id ..;\ is not an indi\iduilJ,
IlIlt the st ate . T h e indi v id ual has die d in h , has be en absorb.. .!
into the h ig her rea li ty ancl into the service 01 th.. sLIte; in a wi de r

-5-

Ill<' "SIJ It"'-m aO" Ill<' sea " '10 "hich O"W1; Ihe nvce ot btsIOn.. Insu f;,.r as he partiei"...I.::. in ri ll'
ITlo'm la ' t'$ lx'll, an i-

ma liry arNI indn 'dual' l) bt. 111110 hi m: He is no I""ger "'P"'"".1te Irom

u n i,O'r-;,t1
-, bc') isol.lble parI of til<' " 0 '1.1 rd u -.; to the- lo:otaI
. Iy, bu t II... su p rem...
ot thc ..." rld seate can o n ly refe.

10 itself T11is ,antell' ;011, wh ich is C\u ill: tonr r.v) IU 110., populao- ....a lit ) of comrrarrnvm and fn r.. IT\O\-t"<I tr o m acl i,-,,,t
'"SOl , is an
paraclox. but It is
1<,. Ihe \\ "y i'
ulldenc l'lR"!i rh.. re!n;'T
and
"I IIwc indi vid ual rcse ....e. 0".. canno l mis._ II... occasion ro place the human

illdi,idual in .. pn'>itiun o rh.... th.l n IIIt;n...tc ..nel .mel 10

hsrn h y
hi m a less narroc, horivon . wh a, \\1' k now of
x".-iM lift rclato. to till: limil3tiOll' {lfl t:m..-peisc ami to the muic
I ion" o f !>t<l'W"",1 frccII(JIll. h"1 OUT llilbiu arC turned upsi de ,10\\"11
in il and in an}' ca se " ha l il l " lh in to
1>l!) <'' 'l<1 duo
Il./I fTOW
III w hich we w ill ingl)' ton ful(' Ollnches.
It 15 o f r c urse il'\e, itabh: that til" r rel>t'J'lC(, - "rI. ll lle t h re al -

of lilt' USSR cause diverse r..acl ion,._ P-!r'" Ilj"(:I;O" end h'lIred

smack of llCf!l igt"IIC C. III th is ins tanc l'. the courage 10 prt"ft:r t ill;
silence of thought. contempt 1m a failed urgani/ "til>ll "Old l\.1trcd
10.. rbe OO rtlt'1'1i pu t in
v.a} ,;I peo ple. h-ad ( l llO: to (\t"sire hard
and I\o>ciSil e I
Uk t he
bellcvce who o1CQ']> h rh .. worst
"heOl<.I o f time. b" t "hO'>e pr,,}er
10 11I' O\,-cn. some ..."it
res ignt"d1y klr II ,.. OCtemc.101 a
inrr;v;t"b!:t: alt itude, but ll;,n.Un
faitl1ful to Ihe e.t""1 111.11 "ppedrt:<:1 III rhc rn 10 be compatible ....ith
a peac., lul l', o lu liu l\ of the worlel. Q lhen find ;1 d i8it::uh
inc thi,. wor ld c( ,m p!e u:!)

all "'pamion o f lhe

but the ICilSion the laUt"< nl<li Olaill'> '<Ct:'lb 10

ti lt" nrceuil) of .111 econom ic I"'nsf"mation. In ...."lit). a " vn-

So-'iet Unio n.

Ilerflll men ia l chdO.'> co mes l..lIn Ihe acl; o n of Hc,lshCloi, m in t ilt"

"arid. an<l lrom rhe

enccuutered. But hi-lOry

the rnoea l ocecxiste nc e , Ih.-ll it

j,.

pcrl lOlps tilt: only thi ng C<lp;,.hle o f

'p

r"l-

SO V 'FT

"OU S T " ' '' '

ting an end to su c h c h aos, thmugh some milirarv decisi o n. \ \ie

ca n
propose to seek the nature o f that acti o n o f
w h ic h upse ts t he esrabltshed o rd er unde r o ur \'er} eyt::s, much
more th oroughl y th an I Htler m an aged to do.

'Th e Workinfi -Clon Movement A/luin sl Accu mula t ion

T he USSR Gin change the world direct I}; Fhc 10KCS it co mprises
c an prevail over th c American coalition.
IT C;tn ;tIM) c hange it l hm lJgh the re pe rcussions o f its anion:
TI lC com ba t dte cc rcd agains t it would bring its e ne m ies to c hall;c
th c j u rid ical founda t io ns o f the ir eco nom}.
At all events, unl e ss a t otal cataMm p he occurs, a c h anlle o f
social struc ture is nece ssitat ed b} a .try rapid developmenr of lhe
produ c ti ve fo rces. \\ hic h the c u rrent reg re ssio n 01r urope is slacko nly lo r a ti m e .
TI le precise so l ut io n 10 which o ur troubl es " ill lead rna} have
on lv a secon da ry m t'Olll illg tor us. But c G Ul be c ome aware o f

rhe natu re o f the

rOK CS

involved.

th.. mostco llsc, /ucn tla l change in the di sp osal 01

cxcess re sourcc s was thei r allocat ion ma in l} to the deve lop men t
o f capital eq ui pment; it opened rill' ind usn-ia l era a nti it re m;\ins
th e basis ot tbe
e c onomy" W I"' t is called "accumulat ton"
sign ifles that a nu mber o f we<lh h}" irl<lh'idua] s d ecli ne d

10

c nga,>:e

in the un p rod uctive uxp..nd uurev o f an os renranou s lue -sryle an d

..mploved rheir available fu nd s lo r rhc purch ase o f means o f pro

duc rion. w hence t hc pOSS ib ili ty o f all ac cele rating d c \c1o p m c lll
and cvcn. as

rlc\'c1 opmcl1l ocr u rred , the allocation of a pan

o f tlll: inc reased re so u rce s to ncrn p rorluc rive expenditures .

I n th e last an alysi s. the
m O'"em en t itsc]f llc aT".
essen rtally o n thi s p ro b le m o f th.. d istribut ion of wC<llth in c ont rar:-'

W <lp .

W hat is the ,leeper signillc<loce of th.. smkes. the q rug-

of wage .. <ltrlCI'; filr increase d """b'CS andthe red uc ti on o flabor

'n

time ? T r.c

of wllrl..ers' da im s a ugments

(031 uf pro-

duct ion and reaoccs noI onJ) the d ""r(' reserved lQr th e IUlC UI)
o f the !.x):S$O>, hut thai

for accumo la t ion. One hou r III

labor less ami ,,,, inc re<lSO: in 11M:: cost of ho uri}' [ahor. which l he
growt h o f n::5O Ul'CQ
made pmsib le. shu" up in the dhl ri bution o f wealth: I r Iht' "on.t'r had .... orked more a nd earned less. 3
large r quantit ) of capn..l" t profi l could
beefl u'iiCt'llOr lhe
develop rnenr o f t he prod UCl iH: forces. Soe-Ial ...." t Uril) g tt'.l ll)
inc reases Ihis effect in I UnI . In rhi, wa}. t he
1I1O\'C m e m and
w h ic h a re OIl least Iibcl';ll toward
"''\tC ..... rners, maifll) signif). in opposition to
a grt'olIcr
share of wealt h devot ed 10 'lIJ11 pnxloc ti \T expendi ture. True. this
alloc ll t io n d ocs not have some s hining value as ib aim: It mere!)
le nds to g i\'C ma n a !"TeMer di 'iipou.l o f hi msel f, T he , Ilare allo tled 10
s.lrisfact iu n b ' lIl1ll'thelcs.\ increased at the expc"!>C
o f th., shan: allo tted to the coocern for an lmpro vio!" Iur ure.
is why the lett th.'1 we arc tamlliar w it h gcncuJl )' con\ep .l !It'IlSC,
if no t o f lOO)CllCSS, 0 1 n: 1;tXoitlnll ; t ht' rig ht , a sc n!>\: o f tight nc .
o f parsi m o ni ous calc ul a uo n. In ftwO') t he p rngrcM he parti e<;
are a nimatt'<1 by a
\\ irho ue deJay.

' llO\'t:m ent and a fo nrlnbs for li- ing

l 'h e In o bility 01 the C70n t o AuunJulot e

o nd Comm unist A ccunJullUion
The n:onocnic del't'lopmen t of Russia has dirJUeJ prol<llndl) from
ours and the t;on"idt' r.u ions I have introduc ed Colnnol: be applie<l
U) it , h 'en in t he \ \e n . thr lefl -w ing fTlO\cments d id noI af firsl
h'I\-e the meaning l hal I Sl id. T he t re nch Rc' olu l illn 1"ClI;"lced in
a re " oc tion o r the: ..umpl "" ')' expenditures 0 1 the court and l he
nobles on
of ind ustrial accum ulat ion. ThP revolution of
1789 remedied lhe had " lIn lllt:oiS o f l he Frct'Il. h
re lal ive to English c.lpitalism, Jr was m uch late r, " hc'11 the Ic h nn
'<4

" '-' '-''> T'' ' A U LA '

10n12er o pposed a sq uande ring nobi lity, hut rather iln in dus trial
bourgeols le, th at it became generou s witlm ut mdintain ing .. g reat
reserve . No w, the
was no r '"Cry dilTcre nl from
the Fra-ce of ill.. A ncien Rt-gim e; it was dom inated
a da'i.\ th at
incapa ble o f acClmlllla t ing. [he ine xhaustible resourc es of a
territo ry were une xploitcd fOTwa nt of capital. I I was o nly at
th e e nd 0/ t he ntne reen rh ce nru l)' that an ind ustry of some scale
de, e: lo pe d. Mo reover, t he ind ustry that (lid d evelop was overly
de pe ndent o n fo re ign capital. " In 19.H, o nly B % of t he funds
invested in thi s imillsu y " e re
And Ihi ' .l.., d"pm..m
was sO inade<lua te that, in almost eve l)' bra nc h, the Russ!a n Infc riority ilK .."".,..cl YCMly in relaoon IO co un tries like franc e o r Ge rm any; " \Ve arc falling Inrrhe r an.! furthe r be hind ," wrote Len in.;
th e
U nde r these co nd itions, the revolutionary si rugglt:
o "r.; andIandcwners - from the dr-moc ranc p.1r1y' ( K.D.) to Ih e
Bols heviks - for a ' 'IT) short time was prope lled, as in a whi rlp()f) I,
the same set ofcomplex m o ve m ent s th at in I ranee occupied
the pe riod trom /7 89 umil rc c.."l1}. But
economic principles
predete rmined t he direction it was to ta ke- : It could a n i)' plll an
e nd to nonproductive spending and reserve the resources fUl" equ ipping th. <'; ' llJntry. It wa.> bo und to ha ve a gO.l.1 o pposed to t ha t
aimed fo r natu rally. in the ind usrrialived stales,
the work ing
masses and the part ies that su pponc d the m . It was necessary to
re d uc e tho se nonproduc rtve expenditures lor the benef u " f a, CIJm ula t jo n . No doubt t he reduct io n wo uld affect t he pro pertied
classes, but the share thaI wa., levied in thi s way could nu t , <>I'
nOl prim arily, he used to im prove tilt' lo t o j th e wo rker,,; it had
to he de voted above <Ill to ind ust rial eq u ipmen t.
The Fir.;1 Worl d V\-'a r showed fro m the outset. in Russ ia. that
w he n the com birsuions of indust rial forces that constitut e natio ns
increase o n all sides, no ne of t hem Gill ,tay be hind . The Second
World \ \'.l.r comple tcd tile de monstration. \V hil" th., devel0pllIent
'If

"",,"' den-rmined from within,

of rhe leading inrh l\trbl

il

WdS

rnainlv determined from tlw o utside in rhc ease 01 one bac k-

ward cou mI)' wharcccr one may '>IIy 01 t hc in t f'rM I nt"ces' ity for
Russi.. 10 ex ploit
its resources, it needs to be added
that ill an)' case an i)' that ex ploi ta tion e nllhlf'd it to overcome till"
ordeal o llhe recem war. TIlt' Ruwia of 1917, ruled b)' mnl w ho
lived d'l} to <13)', could survive on ly o n one c onrlition: It must
,I...dop ils potelltia!. To do so, it called on t he leaders hip 01" a
class that d espised

S<]uanderillg. lhe cont ribution of

fO reign capitalism .1ml t he incfl>asing l<lg in RU'5i,,'s ind ustrial devel opment arc dear indications that Ill(' R usvi an bourgeoisie d id no t

ha ve th e q uan titative im portance no r t he <lsct-n<\"m character

wou ld

1..1\"('

e nabled it

I<J

that

prevail. Whence the parado >. o f a pro-

lcta riat forced t o im pose its "ill int1c'CilJl y 011 it....lt, to renounce
lift- in order to m ake lilt- povsible. . A parsimonious bo urge ois
loregoes Iht: vamcs r luxur}. but he neve rtheless l'njoys well -being;
by contrast, tilf' worker's renunciation too k place unde r co ndi{iom of
" No one;' wrutt" I

"can su lkr like 3 Russian;

no one call die like " Russian," BUI th i\ ex treme e ndurance appear>
\'CI)' rliffi.rf'nt (m m

c.<llcuIMion. It seems that in 110 other area

ofE uro pe was m311 so igno rant of the rati o nal virtues ofoourgcois

lite . These virt ues requi re conditions 01secumy: A r-aphalisr 'pecula tion rcqurrc v 3 rigo J'Ousl} es rabhs hed o roc r, w here il is poss ible to see a head of o ne, I o ug be inj.( e xposed to tilt' iucurvio ns of'
barbarians orer vast flat expanses, haun te d by rhc specter of hungel' and cold,3 Russian lift' gave rise ins tead to the co nt.rary virtues 01 insouciance , to ugh ness and living ill t he prcsc m , A Sevier
wo rker's ren unciation of im med iate "dvant<lgt' lo r <l Iurure gnod
detn<lnded rhar trust tw place-d in third parries. And nol on l) tll<lt:
l ie must also ) ic ld to constraint. Necessary t Horts h<lo to respond
to st ro ng and im medi3 lc incc mhc\: Originally rh esc were given

'so

.",,,

.....'. ,

in the na ture o f;l danbJt: rOU'i. poor .l.oo immense I.. rod; tt1C) w,;re
10 remain cormJl(.muraIC w,th th<. t
and lhat JX1"crt}
The m.-n "
.;It lhe hc;td o f the p ro k LUiat . respoodcd ",'h00"1 jmanoaJ moons to lilt: necessi ty o r industrial iFing Ru,-, .., COIJ1d
11m in an) ease
the cal m and c.lk ul at ing mind thaI (l(e:.ide\
O\'l: t the
e n terpr ise. B) ' I rt ur ol tbe revolut ion the) had
ma de and the t.Olllllr) in whic h t he ) " erc bo rn , Iher bdonj,(t'd
.."tirel y to th e " odd 0 1 W.Jr. Bt>i njo( rn fxture of te rro r and :m lor.
with the
code on one side an,1 lIlt: Il.ljo( on the ot her, this
wor ld WL\ g" ' lCtall) opposed ro rbar o f ind usl ry, to tlw cold COIIIptlSilion 01 inl erests, Pre-soc i.. t Ru\s ia had a basically agrio;;ullu r..l
ce onom) d ominat ed bv the needs of Ih.. army. "hue the use of
eesousces "as more or II"lS Iirnired In
an,1 "arf.',e . TI ll::
ar my' bene fited a n i) slightly lrom rhe indus trial com rib ut i,' n,
"hich is /l.i\'Cn to it
in ()Ilwr co unt ries.. T he abrupt
kap In III <'7a rism 10 co m m un ism ntC<lnl t hat t .....allccan cn
resources 10 eq uipment co uld nol bot- carr ied 01.11 iD it ,,-a, d Sf'beee, ind epend e ntly 01 the IlI<.CTI I;'C co nsr tt ured b). the b rut al
necessity o f war. CapHali sl
in/l. ,-,,"cs pla< c in a sort of calm
rt:St:r....e . she ltered fro m the gales Ih<. t in toxicate or tcni f)': It.. larively spea" injl,. t he rich boulJ!.C(lis i... f..arless :lnO dispassio na te .
. he Bolshevik [catle r 011 t he cont ra ry bel onged. [ike t h.. l'7ariS I
proprie tor. t o li lt' woeld 01 fear :1Il(1 passion. But . Irk.. Ihe c;apilal ist uf the Iirq pe riod , he wd5 ' lpp()'Cd to wasteful
\ Vh.lI is more. nO' . . han-<I rhese tr" il\ " il ll
Ru'S.\ian wo rker,
,lil1ering from thc worke r onl) to t he $.IiJl,h t e" tenl lml. ill \\arlilta chid stands apan. from Ih(>\>t' ht' c oenrnands, On t his
point the 1l1Or.tI j(lenr i,:. at th e c e sser, o f the
il leaders

and. the w ori..iJl.(

is unden iable.
\-\- hat j, rc nw-Ltble about this " 01) d dc,ing th i'1!s is, in a ceru i n sense, the hol<lill(l. of all o f lil e und er t he "'''',1\' o f rh.. pR'sent m rc rcse. Sebscq ue n r results an: doubt less the jUSlillc"l io n

'<7

"'C C u " SEO S "A ''''

for I"bo r, bll t th e}' are im oked to

cclf-sacrlfice,

asrn aDd
and sim ilarly, threat s have t1w acu ity ofan ir rauonal con tagion of fcar.
on ly o ne (>'Irt olrhe pic t ure , but
a pa rt o n wh ic h t h.. " lllphOls is is plaecd. LI nde r these conditio ne,
me cli'p"rily be-tw..-cn tl,t value of th e labor fumh h"'fl by the worken; and t hat of th(' wages di stributed to t he m can be ('1111.,j,lenbl.,.
In 19 38, " t he prod uc tion total to fw reac hed was '>Ct at 184
bi llion ruble s. o f which 114 .5 billi on were res erve d for the pro,lu ctio n of II,.., means of produc tion a nd o nly (,4 bil lion for that
of o bje<:t, of consu mptio n.t'v This proporti o n d oes not exactly
co rrespo nd to the d h parit) be t w",en
and 100bm,
it cv ide nt that t he ob jects " FU)IIS11 m pl illIl1U be d istribute d, w hich
had 10 en te r iuto Ih.. rtrnl lJlt"Tat io n olthc labor that was used
to produce chem. could not pay lo r m o re rhan a
of the
has ten d('<:! ro dec re aset h.. ",,,r,
to tal labor. The

nrst

but hca,y
has k pl its
place . T he man in c harge
of
plann ing, Vrollt"'S'>l: Il,k i, ad m heed thh o n Ma rch 15. 1946;
"The rhvrhm uf produc tio n o t the means of pr oducti OIl envisaged
b, the plan." he Mid , " is somcwlrar g reater
lhat of I/w
ductio n of objects of
T1w Rusdan enmmny as., umed it., cu rrent form as early as 19 29.
at th e beginning of t he Ilvc-year p lan . It is chara c rc rizcd by th e
al loc atio n o t ncarly all the excess re sourc es to prod uction o fthe
m eans of procluc t io n. Capitalism was the firH sys t., m To e m plo,'
.a subs tantial share of the availa ble reso urces for t hat pur lXlSC, but
there w,l..' nOlhillg w ith in it th at opposed t he freedom 0 1 !i(1U<lndcr (the reduced sq uander rClllaine<l free , and mo reover it-, occu rrence could be ad vantageous to ca pit<l lism). Soviet co mmunism
cl osed itself firm ly to th., prillc.iple of nOllprml U<;ti\'e cxpendjture . h did no t . Iu away ",ilh [IX" hil er by all) m eans, but the
soc taluaes formarto n il brought about eli m inated t he m ost eost l)'
for m s of suc h '> pe nding and its inc essant ac ti o n t..n.ls to de man d

,,8

th e maximum prod ucti"ity lrom each in di,i d llM, '11 Iht:' limit of
hu man powcr,. 1'10 previous fonn uf <:cu llu m}' was able TO

such a la rge sha re of the excess available resources fo r lilt' incre-ase

ot rhc prod ucuvc forct.'>, that
for the wowth of the systcm. In
c'Try social organization. a, in
Ih ' in,io: 0llla ni,m, the surpl us
is d istribute d bel " e c n II,,,, growth o f th e 'ptem and pure ex p('n dtrurc, of no usc e ither 1O the maintenance of Iite o r LO ,l1:rowth.
BUI the very nation that had almost pcrtshcd lro m
inability to
rese rve a
e nou,io:h share for grow lh. b)' a sudden ime r.;io n of
its equi libriu m retl uc e" to a minimum the share that used In he
g i\'cn over to lu x ury ,lIltl in e rti a: ' Iooay it only lives for rhc limitIe" growl h o f it s p roduc tive forces.
We kn ow t hat a lte r ha'ing lcfi Ru S>. ia wherc he was an c ng inecr a nd a parl)' member, Vietor Kra,'che"k" publis hed in t he
Un ite d States "sensat ional" memoirs in which he veheme nrly
denoun ces th e re g im e . 6 whatever the value of' Kra ccbcnkots
dLracb, rhis descriprion of Russian ind ust ria l activit \. oflf..." a haunting "isioll of a wo rl,1 absorbed in a g igan t ic project. The au t hor
disputes lhe value of til.. m ean, employed. There i' n o dou bt rhat
they were vcr)' ha rsh: Aro un d 1937, th e repression was r uthless,
the d eportation frcquem; lh.. res ults announced were someumcs
a fac;ade fo r propagan da pUlpose.,; ,1 portio n of the wasted
labo r wa s d ue to disorder: an d t he con trol of a pol ice that s.a"
o;.abot.Jgt: and oppossuon everywhere tended to
th e lead lailings are wel l known [tom
..Nhil' and hinder produc tion.
othe r source, [ there was even a subseq ue nt rcedcncy 10,Ic Ho unc e
the purpe. o f t har peri od ax Ilt'ing too se'e re): \-Vc are- only lIn infonned o f their irnportencc ..,,<It he r(" h no sufliciently re liable
testimony tll,1L g h"CS predsc dcr.. il,. Hut Kravc h cnk o's accusauons
cannot be c ited agai nsllhe , uh' la n<: e of h i, eesnmony.
iI.'......", b l..tl ill whi<h indilidua l " ill
An im mense machinerv
was minimi zed w ith a .. iew 1O th e grea tCl;l outpl Jl. l\ o roOlll was

'"

le ft lOr .. hims).

,,'Or\.(>r

In

this

n-ocrc ed a labor

pa.'6--book a nd Irom d""l momCIlI o nward ho.: could not meM' from
laic could
be sen tenced t n iorcf'd labor. An mdusrrial m anl,>cr. o r milia!)
leader, could be loC nt .. llOOUI 'lrJ,!umcnt to 'iOme IOrs.ll rn place
in Sjberia. 11K- >e!) example o f Kr;t>chcnko """ 'als the C\'ieT'Itt
of a world in wh>ch
Ofll) pussibili!)
10ibur. th e const ruclion o f a gigamk
for Ihe benefit of a
linle. In suc h
a world , passion . be il ha p p, or 00, is onl}' a brif'l c p i'>()(jt . le a>
ing fe.> traces in mt'1l'IOl). l'olil ic.ll despair and IIII' '1ccess il} of
silL'Tlt"c com plere thl'" piclun:: In the end. all o f one's w.lkinl'! hours
are dedicated to the fc>-cr of work.
O n C H'T) etde , amlcl t he g rincl ing 0 1 tee t h lin e! the ltOIlgS, rh..
h'-.lv}' , il..,><: e- or the I"" ise 0 1 the speeches. the po\l::n) "ncl llw
cx ahat ion, day aftcr elil) ;\0 e normous labor fo tCl'. " hi, h lh e t:/a r'
le ti- powerless, convt " !CI S rh e edifice on whic h t he 11Mbk wealth
accu mulates .1 11,1 mu lt ip lie,.
one luwn or K:t or) Iv 'Lnolhcr. A worker 10

Thf' " CoJ1f?ct h i 71J' i on " o[ L ands

1his seme rcc.lllc ti \'C dfurl "<IS "rutJght Iu bear vn th e coum r) s tde.
lhe eollccli\ i/-",tio n ofb mk III t hf'Olj t h<' mn,,'
q uesueeable JWrt o'- the c ha nJ!-e.. in ecooornic st ruc ture. There
i5 no d ou bt trn.t it emt
indeed. it is rt.l!;lHICfl as the: crudest moment o f an
that ,,;u nC\'cr mild . But if one
this d("\'Clopmt:nt of 1tlJ5.SiMl n::sou rc-c:s in a go-... ral ".). "'M:
forv:Uing the corl(!ilions ill which it "OJ'> bl'gun m (he nc:<cs
, itl lhal compe lled it , One fails 10 understand the: " 'l-'Cnc- ) " I a
liquidatio n t hat d id oot tM):ct m;h lancl......T... bUl raLhcr (he
o f l ulals. \\hrn.c su nc.la rd u f li> illg ...as
t han that
o f punr pl..
It would ha> c been w i:sc. it seem s, nO( to upoct
agricuhuft" just as an incl u, ' rial task ,,-as bf'ing
t hai
de maodPd d n, m"bili/.arion o f C>-";' } resource. II is d iflkult to

:.;,,,,AU 7A T ' C N

judge fm m so far aW,'). but Iht', foll"w i ug t'x pl.'nation ca n ne r be

d ism issed w it hout good reason.
At t h c s tart o f rhe first five -ye ar pIa" it wa., nece>.."IT} tn p rovide fo r rw J com pensat ion for the ag ric u lt ural
t ba t rho
worke rs wo u ld consume. Since the plan had to neglect light ind ustry fo r heavy indush} fro m t he beg in n ing. it was bard to envisage
the
objects needed by t he ta nn e rs on a substa n
I towcvc r, il was feasible 10 se ll them tractors , the sup-

l ial

plying of which

w,.., ,tll lht mDr" in kecp iTlJl: WIth t he plan beca use

the p lants that pr<K l" c e d rhc m ,,"oul<1a l, o ....n c to ma nufacture

wa r m ilC h ines if the ne e d arose. RlJ l lh.. , ,,,all h o ldings " r Th..
kulaks h ad nO use fo r Tractors. W h cnce the " e <c." ily of replacing
their pri vate ente rpri ses wit h m uc h larg.." "nCs <: fltru'lnl l" as",..
c tared peasan ts. {Moreover, t he n cc c ssar) and verifiable acco un t01 the se c ollective farms Iacifirated re q uisitioning : wirho u t
the latt e r, the peasants" consum ptio n cou ld not have been regu
1'l1C<.1 J.u;o n ling to a " Ian t ha t t e nded to reduce the sh are o f con,u m ab l.. g{)t x h across rh e board. And e\'tryont is aware o f the
major " "Slaclt- I" t"C<I" i., it im ls Tx " e d b)' sma ll er ncrp rises.}
T h e se considerat ions ha.1 a ll th.. m ,), .. li1<c " smce in nu stri aliaati cn always d e m ands a large d i'p lacem..n l " f the P" lx ,b tion
to the cines. If in d ustria lizat io n is sl"w, the <lisp[dCem.. u,

OC <;l JrS

o firse ll in a balanced WilY' Agriculruralme c han i / al in n makes up

lor the depop Ulation o f the ru ral areas. But a su dden developmenl
crt'..re s a GIll lo r manpower to wh ic h t he

cannot lo ng

be dela yed. (l nl )'

a n "collec tivism," coup led " ith mechan i,ation, could e nsure t he maintenance and growt h of <wriculruraJ
p roduction; wi thout th e m . rbe p rolifcrarion o f lacto-ies would
o nly

ltd TO dbequ il ibriUIIl.

But t his ca n n ot, it. is said. JU\lif)' rhr- <"wIly wi lh w h ich rhe
k ula ks were tre at ed.
It is ne cessa r) at t hts point t o pow the question m ore full }.

,6,

The Weakness of the Cri ticism AnoillSt the

THlJon of Soviet Industriolizotion
In the pt'-<lc,.eti m e worM to w hich th e !'rcnch are accusromed, one
"0

lon gt'r

th"t nut' I!)'

(';\11

lJ ll.wo id ablc. Bu t thh

world of ea"" has it, limits. RC)'0I1J ii, si1Uatiom ..rise in w h ic h,

wro ngly or rightl y, ects o f crucltv, harming indh iduals, seem n eglig ib le in , jcw o f th e m isfort unes Ih c)' arc meant 10 acotd. If one
considers in isolation th e a,hanlage th at a ma nufacture of rractors has over rha r o f sim p le imp leme n ts. it is dif]] c LJh to unde r-

the e xecu tio ns and deportations " hose victims arc estimated
b) so me 10 be in t he mi Jlio m . Bu t o n e irnrn cdiarc interest can
be the co m ll,,'1' "f an'>thcr " ho<.e vital character ca nnot b.: denied.
10 sec rh..1 til<' Sovie ts organ ilillg p reK.!ud ion wt'rt
Today it is
re plying in adva nce to a questi on o fl ifc and d eath .
I do nor mean to jusrify, but to u nderM ann; given t hat purpose. lt seems supe rficial to me 10 dwel l o n horror. It is lO as}" to
affirm - for Ihe sim p le reason th at tilt, rcpn>s'io n was re rrfble :111(1
rhat (jlle h ates terror - t hai gell tlene11 WOLJ ld have sue:etxelf'el le rter. Kravc henko argues rhi-, in "- hap h azard fash ion. He aho says ,
wi th o ul d ,le com id.-rat ion , rhar th (' !l-atll-...,hip wou ld have prepared more dll.t:ti u;l)' lilT war using rmm : hum aile methods. w hat
Stalin o b tained from the workers and peas-ll ns went again,r many
particular inte re sts a nd e \'tn. in a gen eral way, aga ins t t he ir nmc diate

o f eac h person. If Ill) me<l n ing is clear, one will n o r

lm ag ine thai a una nimous population yielded w it hou t resrsrance

to suc h a ha rsh renuncia tj cn. Kravchcnko c ouk] on ly u ph olel hi s
cri ti cism s b y d e m o nst rating the fail ure o f fnd usntallza uon more
c onc retel y'. I Ie c onfinf's htm celf to st ate men ts concerning the dis<>reler allel Ih.. ,,:Ire

-n, .. proof o f the futil ity' o f rh e indus-

tria l ach ic"el1lClll' wou ld fo lio " tro m th .. hum iliari ng d e feats o f
and 1') 4 2. And )el th e Red Arm}' c rus hed th e WCrm adn . 1"0

doubr w it h th e aid 01 le nd-l e ase. But h e letv th iS

,"

sen-

- --

' ' ' O U S TI'' '''L 'ZA T I O t.

renee slip o ut: "The Sralinl/:r;ul triumph was c!illd'eu befor e 111<'
g rea t now o f lend-lease go l statt e d; but American and AJl ieti help
belongs immediarelj the reati e r ill t he est im ate ."] Thus, in Ih..
decisive baltic of lilt war it was R ussian ;,rm s, it was tile result
o f l h t' ind ust rial effort, th aI came ; IlI O p lay. ""Iorem er. te stifying
in \ Va,bi llgttlfl befo re the c o ngressional commruee c harge d w ith
in vestig at ing ;lIlri Am erican acci vitiu s Krac c hen ko m akes t his
no less s urprising st ate ment: " I t h as to be und e rsto od," h e says,
"tha t all the ta lk ,Iboll' t h e irn possilnlitv of Ilian u fK l u r i njo!; th e
dLOITIIc bomb ill the USSR becaus e of the lag in technical devolo pmcm o f R ussian illcl" st ry cOlllpi.rc<.l with Am e rican o r British
da ngerous. be c ause it
indu st ry is n ot on ly tiresome , 1,111
,Ic<:..
pub lic opin ion:'
Provided "-c 11o n o t adhe re too c lose ly 10 t Ile
o f an ant iStalinht I' wl'agand a, Kra\ c hc n ko \ wo rk 'l ui le inte re 'ti ng , but
it is dcmi,I of the o re ti c al \allle. Ins o far

it>;

it does no t e ngage th e

re ader's .. m o tio ns, b ut his intell igenc e , tile author's c rtrtcfsm

IS

unsubstant ial. liMla) it serves America, p u tt ing Americans on g uard

(in th c sratc m e m to t he
com m ittec ) dga il151
in ing thaI thc Krem li n 10..., g ive n up

us

p lans lor wo rld rec olu-

l io n; ye t it d e no u nces a m u...mcllt toward COlln te lTC\o lu tion in

Sralsetsm . Ifit sees a po litical a nd ffOllom ic prob lem in th e current c o m m un ist o rga niza tio n, it has "nl} ""l' r"_'ponse: Stal in and
his
arc responsible for an in adrntsstbl.. s tate o f affairs.
Thc implic ati , ," is that o t her men and e ther m etho ds WOlJltI have
succeed.. d " I,cr.. St.llin is su p posed tu have failed . [n rea lit y il

c.'arles the pain fu l ;,d ut io n "f t he problem. Ap par e n tl y th e S",i" l

Un ion, and even. sp.... k ing m" re ge n e rally, Russia - ow ing to Ih..
c zarist legacy - wo uld " ot ha n ' bcen able to su rvive w it hou t a
masstve allocation olIts rcso urc.._, t o incl 'Jst ,; a! equ ipment. Apparrigo ro us, even a
..n l ly, if ch is all ocati o n had been en,,, a lit tl..
lilJle

hard to bear than Stalin ma d.. iI,

o luJd have fo u n-

dceed. Of course t h.,S" pruposilio lls C'lII no l I,., cvrablishcd iu an

absolu te wa)" b ut th e dppedr<tJlCe is com ind ng , and Kravchen ko's
wor k docs not give th" lic 10 it. On the contraTy, it soppltes evi01 that massive,

dellee in

and S("a r I\" bearable

allocation b}' showing ib results: Al Sta li ngrdJ, Russi" saved it'ie lf

b} '

'Is own means.

It is no usc dwel li ng earnes tly o n th e Iac rnrs of e rror, disorder and produc t io n shortfa lls. I he..., facTOrs art" "m]"niable am]
no t d e nied b} the n'g im t' it..d! , b"t h ow e v.. r 1'.... 'dl<;"l II,,)' wc re,

a dccis.ivc result wav ac.hiece rl. Fhe </ uest ion u l' le ss U""T<JU \ mcrhods , o ra more rati o n al p roduction, ;.. rhc onl y one lcft ..t<1n rling.
Some wiU say: l!'the oars had ccnrinued, the capiralisr ri .. e WOl Jld
have fi., 1I"wc.:]; others w ill,pt><lk

ami t he least jool-

ish , o f som.. o ther f(lrm of'Bclshcvis ur. But thc c-ars an<I the ruling d :ts' on w l' i<,h they r..li ed were like a lea k - a crack - in a
d 0 5c<I spte m ; Mc n, hc\ i..m cal ling lo r an ascenden t bo urgcmsie
w JS a cl) in the wiklerrcsst an d ' [ro(';kl ism im p lit's ,Iistmst tow",,1

th e p""ibili ti,'s " f"""" ,,,li, m in o nc eOlJnt r)... lt

o ne to defend

,IIC Ilrcalcr eflecriveuess of"

remdi " s li,r

callous Stalinism,

fo re se eing t he eflecr o f it s ac ti on.., a nd depen d ing on volu ntary

c onsent ror the o n it y n e ed e d to o peT<l tc a socia l mach ine! Fhe
tlllt lt is t l1,,' wc n"bel aJl:ainst an Inhuman ha rthiess. And \'>c wo uld

rMh..r

.u.. th'lIl

r....g ll ()f t e rror; bu t a sing k ma n c an

, Ii<:, ,"KI illl immense popu lat ion is Iaccd w irh no o rbcr possib ilitJ
th an life . Ttl c Russian wurld hat! to make lJ P lor t tlt'.. b;,d ,mm l","s"

""",ril}' so pain fu l, il <l"milllflftl

iln c OOT! so g rc.u, rhat Liw IMn l w"'y - in c\'cr)' sense the most

o f czarist society a",1t his "a,

Il ...

c o s t ly wa} - be c am e its u n l} sol u t ion. If we h ave t he c hoice

between rhat w hic h appeals 10 us and th at w hic h inc reases our

re so urces, it is alwil)'5 h ard to g l\'C up our desire in exc hange fo r

lilturt' benelitv. II rna) be cas}' il \'C arc in good condition: Rational in rc tcs r o perates w itho ut hindranc e . Dot i f we are e xha usted ,

liT

'TA'

o nly t"lTOr and exall<l tion kee p us from

slac k. Witho ut .a
\'iol..nt ,tim lllant Russia co uld no t have recovered. [ France's c urrem t r""hles ullder less unla\o rab le condt aion s , 110\ \ ehe exrc nr
til.. Ou"Jof t hat nec c", it v: I-ro m material standpoint lite
patt o n was rclat i",l) ..a,} (Iu.. to the lee k o f accum ulanon _ WI'
wil] al wap find it n,ry difficu lt t o work lor the furu re.j Sta linism
worked as wel l as it could. hut a]wa)" rOllghl), wuh the clements
of tear and ho pe that We n : prt'\t'n t in a /lraH" yn promhing sn uation. lu ll of o pen possib ilities.
Fur rbc rmore, the c ritiq ue ofStalini,m 1.1ile.1 when it tried to
p...., .." t t ile po licy of tile c urre nt leade rs ii' an ..xp....ssio n o f the
inte-r.._' t" if IIl,t of a class, at least of a gro up t llat is .11001 fro m
thc m il" " ' . N.. itll ..r t he collecrivizanon of Iands no r th.. o ri..ntanon of imlustrial
<;< mrspond ed to the im crests of tI,e !t'ad ..rs
as a g ro up ha\'iJlI; a d ilT......nt eco no m ic position. Even eXlrcmt'l)
host ile au tho rs do nol d.. ,,} ti lt' qualities o f Stalin's entourOlg".
Kravchcnko is clea r abouL , h i" am I he personally knew men at
t he Kre m lin w ho we re ncar the to p: " 1 "a n attest . howe,cr. d ull
t h.. grea t maj o rity of the leader-, w ith w hom I carm- in co ntact
" ..r.. a hl.. m en w ho kne w their bu siness; (Iplil m ir men deeply
d.. ,O(.. <1 to the w ork in
In abou t 19_\1, liori, Souva rinc,
\\ hn Knew Ih., Kre m li n fro m t he fil'>t period , re pl ierl to III ) ' ' llll':Sti cru " [n
opi nio n w hat reason could Stalin have: had fi,r pllSlting him sclf fo rw;lr(1 It.. did, and shoving aside all rbc nt lt..n;?"
"Undoubte dly;" SOIJ\'a rin"
" he believed he was tile onl}
o ne, after Lenin's death. "I",
t il.. ' trengrh to carry o ut th e
revoh nton,' Scuvari nc Mid this qllit.. ,,[ain[}, with out a trace of
iro ny, " he Iacr is th at Sta li ni st po licy i, t it.. rig orous - ,ery rigo rnl)' - respo nse to OIn o rgan ized ccollolI,k' n..n ':,\siry. which ecruall}- calls lor
extreme rigo r.
1 1w sL rolng.,sr th ins;! is that it is judged to h., t..
<Inri
I hc rm ido rian at th e ,arll .. time. There could not b.. a mor.. art-

IC"iS
duce..,."

10 Ih.. c
tNt an in ncAlble allllll<l. m rro; 11 t ht" minc ls o f Ih,' o ppo nents, -, he tru t h is lha t W.. hal..

rcadil)"OItuibutt" il to a TNCtiona l') polilia. nul the

agreement berweeu n,u io nal'sm OIl.! t.l an.ism rC'pmwk d no )('$ ,
terror and

di rt' t l) than ram pant irMI ustrlali1ati on t o a ' 1" <'"Sli on o f liIe and
death:
coo\ in io n would no t h>l\ e be en ab{t
lu fiJ<hl unan im'''JsI) lor th .. m m m un ist rC\"Olul ion. lil he rev ohnton had n....1 linlt"<l u \ clcstinr to t hat of t h.. ."'I iclll. it \\ oulcl

Ikl\ e had to consen t to perish. U n tI'is poinf. \ V: H. C hamberlin

recalls an inc ick nt , hiU mad. a strong irnprescio n on him: "Tht. rr
had be en a t im(' "hen nauonal tsm W;)!i contrn b.1 l1cl, ahllO\l cou u-

inrb e Slith ' Ope-ra I louse in

Ii" the unl ailing burvt of"ppIOluS(' rha r fol-

rcrr evolorjouary, I ...-member silt ing

Moscow anel
10wcII an aria in Mnus\orgsl ) '5 K lw n llll sl ,inn, !ha! op('r<l of old

Goo

R ussia. The alia WI!.\" prayCf th at

would send some bri ght
s pirit t o saw 'Rill' (tl u' old I M IlI .. lor Russia), T he- a ppl ause' \\iIli
the
lhi ng to a ck'ffi<mSt ratio n against th .. Sodl't rt'gimt......,
\ Vi lh t he war appru ac hing. it ..... ou td nfll hil,.. be .. n reas ona ble 10
ign u..c such deep rr Kl ion , . hU I is it neco!iar) 10 in ler t he abandonrnenr 0 1 th.. inl<'Tllilllonalist principlc' of Mal,. ismt TI,, ,,--port.,

o t ihe d osed mcct i"'lls of the Part) Ccm mtnee of 11l('!loo na rl..oln
(go-'cmmcnl of In,. HUS!oian Federated Republic], {!.;um b) Kravcben ko, leave litt le mom Ii,. d(ltJm. lv \ Vilhin the Kre rnjin prcpart) dc:dsio n-makcl'S spolc cunst.l l1ll) o r lho. " Il" trc.;(t
from Lenini sm" u a "temporary racncal ma,,, 'U\er."

The GJolXJ1 Probtem

, hf' RU,u;an Problem
would ha,... tel blincUokl 0I'l0"\C1 1 no t 10 sa: in ti,e iet Union
0 1 (0001), ;llong with ils har<;h and intole ran t ;lSpt"<:Il>, r... n;pr"",, ion. not 0 1 iI decadence, bur 01 a terri fi, ' '''l5.i" n, d ,kte nnlllarion that fu,;; lIeW
bar !.. iII,,1
not draw back lrom 31l)lhinJ{
in o rder to solve the rool problems of rhe Re\ ol l/rio n. II i ,

b le to o ffe r " m o ral" criticis ms aga ins t t h.. facts, strt'ssing that
w h ich, in reali ty, d epa rts from th e " id eal" 01 s"<'.ll i,m thM th ..
Sovie t Llnicn on ce a ffirmed, Iro m the no tio n 01 indi , id u.ll intercats and ind i vid ual tl",ug!' I. T !wst' con<1irio ns, however, arc th.."e
of t he
a lso

- n o t tho se o f th e c ut ir.. m, rI<' - <l m l o ne wo u ld

1"1""'" to cover o ne's eyes in o rde r no t lO sec the conseq uences

ofa rea! <'pposit ion betwe en the doctrine and method s 01 th e SoviCb (t ied to circum st an ces pec ul iar to R ussia) and the econo m ic
proble ms o f o ther co um ne.....
In a fu ndamental ", ay, t he cu rre n t spt..", 01 th.. U SS R , hei ng
geared 1O Ilrod uci nJl: t he means o f p rodu c tion, ru ns counter to
t he wor kers' move-m eurs 0/ o tlle r cou n t ries , ti le effect of w hich
te n ds t o re d uce lilt' pro<'uct ion o f (ap ita l e quiprnen t , inc reasing
th at of o bje c ts o f consumption. Rut . 'It least on rhe w hole. th e se
wo rke rs ' m oveme nt s arc respo nd ing to the economic necf'ss it)
th at cond irions th e m ju st as the Sov ie t app,lI'atus is n"po m l,ng
1O its own. T he "meld econom ic sit uat ion is in fact do m tnarcd
by the developmen t o f American ind ustr)" that is, by an ab unda nce
o f t he means o f produc tio n am i o f th e nWan, for im ....' asillg the m .
Th.. U n ired Sta te s even has. in theo ry, th e capacity to even tua lly
p lac e the iml " stri.._, of it, allie s in c onditio ns ap proxima rinp irs
own. T h us in t he 01<1 in<' ust riill n arions (i n spite 0 1 curren t con[rilt; aspects ), lilt: eco nomic problem is he c o m illJl: a problem no t
o f cutlers {alreadv to a lilrge ex te n t q uest io ns o f nu th-ts have n o
po ssibl e an w,er ), b ut o f consum pt ion o f profits witho ut compensanon. It is dou b tful rhar rhe jurid iClI b.lsis of production can be
m aauaincd . [n any

CiISC ,

the prescll1 worl d call, for r:lpid c hanges

on all sides. Never before

tl lis

WiIS

th e canh a" im" t..d

'lIl}tlting like

of virtigmous move ments. U f ecorse. ne it her did

the

.,, 'e r ap p"ar to threaten such Jl:reat a nd sudden c atasu o ph c s. Should it be S<l i<J? l f rile)' come to p.1SS, onlv th e m eth-

ods o f t he U SSR would - in a wo ndrous sile nce of the indiv idual

."

H H

" C C U f1 S E O

voice l - be eq ual ro a ruined rmm ensnj, {Indeed, it may be thar,

in so me obscure way, mankind aspires to bu ild 011 J USt suc h a com ph-to " "goHio n of niggan ll y diso rder.] Ilut , w ithout ma nifc,ting
n10 l-C lear - , inc<'
soon p ut s an end to inlOk rablt ,ulk ring it
ti lll. ' 10 come had, 10
wo rl d and to take nOH' o f its
in<;r...as<>d
Nol/l ing is d osed 1O aJl}'o ne who
re..;og ni7.es t ile Illdtn ial conditions o f th oug ht. On all
and
in even', wav,
the "ud d
m an to change
man
'
0 11 t his <icle is nOI necessarily bou nd to lollu\\ t he illl perio u, "'d)"
of till' USSR. Pe r th .. movt part . he
ex ha usting
the
0101. lcar ful a nticommunism. flut if he has hi s o" n problems 10 solve, h e has mo n- im po rt a nt thi ngs to do than b lin d ly
10 anathcmari zc, rhan to com p lain ofa
..., ca used by his manifold con tradicrio r . I d him rry to ll", k n.ta nd , o r beuer, let him
ad m ire , h... c rue l e nng}' of dlOW w ho bro ke the Russia n grou m!;
he " ill be closer to t lte tasb lh at awai t hi m. " o r, Of) <lll lJdcs and
ill e,er}
(1 norM in mOliOll w<ln t , t o be d J<lngcd.

,68

Tb e Marsh all Pla n

The Threat of Wa r
Apa rt frofll the coeurnuni sr

and decrrin.. . the human

m md ac<;.. plS urK:cn-aint ) and

wil h shortsighted ne5S.

Uu tsi, l.. th e Soviet \\o d d . tll ere is no thing , h"l has the value 01

an ascendant movement, no t hing advances wlth

, i"..eu. Tln'Il'
p',- N Sts ill powerless c1is.sonance o f m oa ns, o f
allT3fl, hearel.
01 bold le( lillMII', t o resol u te inc o m pn::he ns. c> n. '- 'his disor der j"
more f<J\'orable no douht 10 the I>," h ()f an .."tha ltlc
tlt't< lhan is its 0 ppo"il ... Mid o ne mig/II ......n .... lha' w ithou l this
- and wnhou r 11ll' (f' nsioo lha t IS m ain t;line d b )
cornmunisrn 'v ;Iggressi, cucss - consciousness wo u l, l nOI be tree ,

wo uld nor Ilt' Ok'Il.

In Inl lh, l he si luati on is painfUl and c e u din l) 0 1 a nal ure 10
b l ing indi.'- iduals OUI of tllcir apart1}' A "schism." a com plete rift ,

not jw.t minds, bu t the nund in {:enf':fa l. for bet wee n rhe

parties in (IU..Slion C\ c')'rhing is originall) in common . T he- d i' isio n and I he hat red art" nonet heless o.:ornpr.. t c arn l " ltat the, IK)r-

1('1ll1. it appears. is war: an Incxpiabk- war. ine-luctably rh.. cruelest

.10l1 most co stl) in
f\-\orC()\"t"r. reflectio n .at , h.. threshold 01 war i\ .su hjcci to singu-

lar cOfl(litlOfl\.; In deed. hl",..,..,r one

,..,

il. one cannot imag-

lne - assu m ing it takes place - pUr.iui ng it beyond a ,-onflagp l;Ofl.

W hill ",,,,,1, 1 be the rneaning , in the C\'"n r o f a Ru ssian

, i,,-

texy, o f" \Vorl,] generally ruill"d, where the l ln it.-.:I States, lar from
as,o;ist ing Ollw r coun mcs , ,,0,,1l1 he m o re comp le relc
than Ge rman) to(I.lyt I he USSI{ WO Il I.-l then also Ill' ravaged, ami
Ill..

' hat wou ld ht c St:lhli' he d in t he wo d d wou ld be ar

no rescrnblam-e

TO

the o ne d emanded by th, d e velc pmenr 01 pro -

,l"clive to rces. Wha t wou ld be 1.1 ,.. mU lling of a dest ruction o f

capitalism th ai ",0111,1 be at th ., '<arne ti me the <I...st r uction o f captit wo u ld be the crudes t posvi-

raltsm's ac h it'"t' men ts'

h i.. d en ial o ll\1.lrl<\ l u c lIJ it )'. T h e h u m ani l )' rha r wou ld ha ve

,1,,-'lJ'O)'cd the work o f the iJKhJsmal revolution \\uu l,l be t he poor.
e st ol"all time; ,Ioe memo ry o f tl,.. rec em weal rh wo u ld finish the

"
"

job 01" lllilkillJ;: that humani rc unbe .arabl e. I e n!n dell n ed sO<:l;,Iism as " UIt' '()\ ' l 'I S, plus elec-t rilicarton," As a " "m e r o f/ac t, socialism docs n<>l iust require tlo" po we r cf rhe
but wealth <I.'
well. And uo re aso nabl e perso n l:iln
it base d on a wo rld
in wh ic h sh an rj tow ns

rake th e p lato.. " f t he c ivi li,.a tio n

symbolized by t il(' na me s oI" N.." York and L" ...Ion. Thilt civtlin t ,o n is perh ap s d..t csub lc ; it some timcv seems to be only il b,u l
dream; and the re i , I lU qu estio n rha r it J;:c n..r"tt;:s the boredom
amI irrttarion thar la' -ol;\ , lid.. re wa r d ca ras tropbc, Bu t no ont'
ca n re asonabl y c cus idcr so mtol hilljl; lh"t on ly bas the au r,n;rion
o f un reaso n in its lavor.

O f course, o ne sti ll has til<" " p tio n of imaJ;:illiI1J1: " viLtor) 01

rhe Un ite d SWt." m cr Russia tha t wo uld

110 t

d evastate rhc world

"" com pletely. Rllt tIl<' "sc h ism" c-ould not h., reduc ed for t1w
f.K t t hat tilt' \-iClo ry was
lit littl e cost To tin> vic to r, Ap parf'Tlt ly wo rld d o min ion would the n belong 10 Ihe single ho l,ler o f
th e decisiv e ,,,,allo n s, but ill thr 1<"')" I1K'1 fhl: vxttm belolly ' - to the
CACC IJtioffl:r .
bu rde n IS 'if , un..
t he awa re nt:ss t hat such a b lood y so lutio n wo u ld certainl -, poi son sccial Hje
'7 0

..

.. ...

illC so su u'lf!. there tht'A' ,lotos nor Ui\ l, o n the Arnc'ric;an ..KIe, ,In}

o pinion in f,l' or o f wa r in rh l" near fut ure . Hence it h

d t'...... , r at least probable, that rime bon Ihe side of Russia.

Thr Possibility oj 6 Non m ilitary Corupeu tio n

Bf'toveen Me' hods uf Production
If o ne CIl\j""gc's, on lIlt' o ne hand, the silence o f r om mu uism unt\('rsall) im posed Il) co nc e n t ratio n ea mps , aml, on rhc o r her,
frr!om
the co uunu mvtv, rb c rc c an be no urnain
ing doubt: " he
c o uld hardl ) be IX:ttt'T for ;m a"al en'
ing o f rhe m in(!.
RUI ....Iiile il is t i ll' resu lt o f m.." ace. a nd t hough it was o ne..
linke.:1to the
,,, iI useleil> eITon, or me !-",n w
10M, lhl:'

alert con.o;c;:iOll.\.nt'M. canner in ,In)

do minated r.athcr

idN thou
lkll.

up

10

b,

).lJ roendn to anguish; il "

the ..." Ur.lIK.... or rh.. moment (the
e
" iI )

alorM: wtll be t he ilns"cr 10 d uo" "ill 10

ehe l ;\lo l , It will nc r be able 10 };i.. up tilt' froTlt/l,Il / pur-

'I' ,il of yooJ fut urw. It " iIIl,'h"t' u p o n!) ill the h.JPfry C\'etll

of k:.ltll.

In 1M .JJl uatiM (lJ a l:lOIUlr u:ham. \. I..,t

from k lH" i"B
,.." to be irw,'ita b/r 'I 1#W i lk" I/",t untkr ,hr
,ortdJIKHlS "'Iw
rc/lfJO'1l.I; " to a/rtf
phraY, mIl/ill
il t, OlM 171M/IS."
Tlw conflict
is t>ngal,,'C'd in I hc' eronorruc
lllt-' world ofi ntllJH'i,LI development accuurularionc10 that o f de-el opc-<I inclustry.
In a fimdamenral sense , Ir i1> !rom I'W side o f exubeeam producrion that I hC" c!augcr c l "<I f comes: Ir e "p'''lal itln d ifficult.
olld if ' 10 mhu OCJfkt i1 <pm. o n ly " a r Cil 11 be the chent of a p i...
I h" ric inclu stl').
Am c n Cil n econo my is in r<o<:l the I;rc;31 t
expio.i", TJIii'\$ l hr "0f'1d has ...-er ll"lOl'n. 'Irue, ih
pro

me

!>lITe

is not favored as II " as in r..-rman), bot h extcrnolll)

l he

p ro ximi t) or dense mil;r",: popu la tions .Inc! infi' mall) b) a discq utffb rtum l*tw C"cll IIl'I: .I irk rc m parts o i lhe- d .,...,lop mc:llt o r

'7'

t hc prod ucrtv e
III re t urn . the idea 111"1 11\.011 CIl<) nnous
machitlCT), Iln \ t"1l Il) an /on"iltlbk m oo.-cmcnl o f gl1M"lh. h . ialdf"b.ilinccd ;md ""tiornl - ,ml" in. alllhc
of
lbe !act lhal ;t ""<1'!1
in rwc wOrM won is nol e.pt.-c:: i4lJ}
....3SSuring. In Ml) case il is pai nlill lo ..eo:: a d)1umk '>OCict} J;i.'CIl
,,,...and
plans to the fllO\"emem
that pr,,,.,I, it .
painful to 1t.1lO\' that it la'1,>t'I} unacqm inted
" ith d ie: la... o f its ,1C\'t'lop mCtll and Iha t II proc.l ucf"'li ... It hou t
th.. coeecqveeccs o f th e pmduetio n. n ,is ,:,c,:unnrnr "";1';

apablc of Iwu " 01....; a\.\Um il in moccmcm 01 gTO\\ th cllnri"u.....

" hat sudden
Illigh l wal e it cdpablc o f fW"l:c ? ' 1huw " I,,)
keep it ru oning al e lI,1.i...I) Cllll\'irn:ed uf Iw ring no OI I\('r purp.lM'.
Rut should the) no t be asked " I..-th..r ti ll) ' arc nOI utICo rnc.:i ousl )
pU I>uing the o ppoehc o f w h;jl Ih..ir c o nsciousne ss ac1mils? ' I he
A"'e ria\ns arc used 10 5C el llg " 11,p ts s lm -r ...a rs, and l:l\pericnct,
has show n them rhe- oI,h anl age " f " .til ing.
K ' tl' is pcastrnlsric .. ..} of loo king at tI 'ing, h'Ml:\"cr, it is nee..
CS5ill) I. , " PI" )'," a clear vic.. , based on t h.. idea III a vavr pro jcc t
whose r..aJil'. ,l iIJll has
While it is t rue- d ldl it is IlMII ro
itTlill:ine the llnned
l>n.l!ipc ri ng lOr lo ng " 11 hou r Iht" ai<l o f
a hecat om b of rid ....... in ,1..-lQnn of airpl..nc...,
OInd <lll,.. r
milil Ol. <) cc/uipmctll. on.- t:,ln conceive of an cqu iale nt ht'C".Illlmh
d ...w oeed to nonlet hal
In other words , if "M is
to rhe American cconom). it .kln. ,1 10110\\' t hill "ar I\;&S I Q held
to
t.,.l,tional lorm. h"'k:nI . ON: e ....,,;I} imagit"le'\, oomil'lf( Iroeu
til.. A, lanlie, a resolute movement ....rw.in/l; to 10110\\ the
routi ne: A c<mflici i... not
rnilitar); 0 ..... can ..n' lsage a
vest economic <-' omI'Clil ion. \\ hjch, fo r the eompt' l illlr with the
in itiall\"C, "-olll,1 1:0:,;1
comparable: to those of ";\1', and
w hk h, from ;II 1JlX1b>t'1 of t he: 'Ym.' scale: .II.'> war budb't'h, ...." dd
i nvolve e cpcrxlitu rcs thai '.ould not be coeupensatcel by "11) h" p"
of c.lpilalisr profi t . W hat I ha. c said <-"()flCem ing the inert ia of t he

'7'

w csiern worM requires atleast rhis nne qualificariom There d o<'s

no t ex ist in th at wo rld either iI politi G,1 current (in th e

of

propaganda) o r an irucllecrua l movement that reacts, bu t th ere

is a specific d c tc muna non that is rQ;ponding to rhc So.' id pressu re. T Il<.: Marshall Pla n i, an isolated -reac tion, to be sure; it is
the on ly undcrtaki ng rhat re sults fro m a ,)" te mati. vie w 0 p po'ing the Kremlin's will to world dom inatio n, Thc MarshallPlan
succeeds in giving a deal' focus

to

[he cu rre nt c onflict - It is not

essentially the st n lgg le o f t wo military powe rs

1'01' hegemo ny; it

i, the struggle o f t wo economic met hod " The Marsh all Plan o fICr..
an org<lni7<llion of s urplus a)';a i"'t the accumulation o f rhc Sta lin
plans. This docs not nec essarily impl y armed struggle, whu-h cannot le'lll to a rCOII decision. 'fthe opposed toroes OI re .Iiffc rcn t in
natu re e conomicall y, the)'

TIlllM

enter Into co tTI l'...titi on o n the

plane o f economic o rg<l ni7<l t ion , This is w hOlt rhc Marshall Pl an

ar r-omnlishcs, it would seem , as the West 's onl y rcacuon to the
move ment o f the Soviets in th e world.

Th e l'H un lw ll PIon
O ne of the most o riginal f-re nch ...conomisrs, Fran c oi s P..n oux,
sees the Marsball Plan as a histori, 'al e ve n t o f e xce ptional im porrance.t! In his j udg m e n t , the Mar,ha ll Plan "begins rhc g rea tcst
economic c.\peri me nt on an intemalio nal scale that h..., ever been
attemptoo" [p. 82), Ami its . unscquc nces, " u n tl'e g loba l scale,"
are "bound to g" tilt bc}'o nd th e boldest ami mo ' t pl'Omising srructu ral reforms a,!.o t'a IC,J by t he vari ous

parties o n t he

( p. 84 ), Moreover, it wou ld const itu te a ve rita ble

n;vo lut ion, imlc.,d, "(h e revo lution Ihat
in thi s season o f
History' (p..l 8). In tact. "the revol u tionary rransjormation" it initiatee ("hanges " th e cus to m ary ..lations betwee n nartons" (p. '84 ).
r or "there is more nwo h, t ionary spili l in averring rl,..
of nat io ns t han in p reparing tor th orn in th e name o f class st rug'71

J!.lc" (p. 34). Th us, hom tI,c dOl) t1.,. r General t-brshi ll\ underwking " wou ld be (TQWneo.l "id, it beginning o fsuccess, it would
..ndlcasr " nsue
eclipse, in its b. ncfi,"", th e most
o fthe
revolut ions" [p, ] 8 ).
T hts opi nion based OIl
Fbe t-4nlW1
Plan in t .. ,. lal lo rt'rncd) the
of p;t) mcn b ,k:fi. II ",f the
the Uni tal Stares.
.. maller o f (.let ,
European nal,t.Hl!l
It., deficit is o ld. "The Clt p0I\.'lIion surplus
tiM: imetcrone beha>ior o f th e befance 0 1 payments of t he Llnited Sla tes,
From 1919 to 19 ] 5 il rn.e 10 .I to ta! o f Ihirt ) billion fou r hun..d red and firt) m illion J"l1 al'S " . h (po 215 ). BUI for Ihe mCJ\1 part
it was o ffset b,' gold p;t)ln cnt.., m ..l the- remainder
cove red b).
a ptU"" n credtr,
10
cajculablc
Thc.o;c resources
are no 1000ge r available. Luro pe's povnty has given a ' I'r) urj:tCnt
c h arac ter to
nl'I'(I lor Am e rica n prod ucts. and lilt' lanl'r\
importation nccc-, .... leads 10 an increased delich. hut there
is 110 m..ans of COmpenVlUng fo r it. Not un l)' j.(nM a nd credh, lout
l:urop<:i1n hold ing' in the l lnil e.l States hace J
Tnuetsm
is just beginni ng to ,'c,-i,'I:, anil th.. p', rtial des'rlI(.-ti<.!u o f !ll(: r urope.an merchant fleer has
in incn:ast.-d spcncli'{\ in
Furthe r, the disappe arance of an intense trade " irh
areas as
Sou theast
\\hc l';C.
tu the United Sta h's wt>f'C sizeabl e, deprives Europe Clf ooc o f the meil"" It IlaO "I miligating
its excess of i\ mc;riull impons . A,. a rt::'iult , the logiC o f n jlnmcrc iai <l<-"ti"il)', " hic h
dd i,cl) to the prnllt 01 the kJPplier.
mack ir impossible lor a millCtl r lImpc to rerum
to a "iable 110lit ICai en lflOnl).
Rut w ha t wOIIlc.l lkl' C be"11 tI..'
o f 50 lire,lt ..
rium ill tM ) 's "orM? -nl(' Unitc,l Slal t'S was con frOOIC..l " ith
this problem . It w ...,
ei tl,cr 10 adbcre blin.n, 10 11ll! principle o r profit , bur bc"r ti ,t" . o nscq uences o f 311 inIOh:r.. hlt" siruanon (il Is eas) to imag"lc ti lt" fare of Ame ricil awml on i.g li...
'74

rest of th e v.orld to barred ] o r 10 gi\<e up the iulc on ,,1,i. I, d ,c

cap ilalist "orlJ is besed. II " ' " ntteo;sal) 10 .klinT g<JOO.h. "idl'

pill mcnl : It was

(0 8"'" O" tl, till.." pro<lun r,f labor.
>rJ,e Molrshall Plan is t1,(; solUlion 10 the problt:m. It ;s rI,(,
way to transl;'r t o Europe t he products whhout whic h the
world's jevcr would rise.
l'nrou... tm)" hi: riglll to SII"t:S'o ii' im porla nc c _ In
full scrse o f the word. It is
not .. rnnhmcr ,. But 10 ""') rhar
the rt:\"O IUlio nar") sillnifkanc'e 01 the f\'Olr..I,alt Plan IS .Ioubt rul
would in all}' case be an imprec ise remark . OnC can more , impl)
ask whctJ'lCr it has Ihe rcclmtcal
anJ tI ,e fur-reachhlB.
polit i...1sign ifiGlnce_ lhat f M author
tv it. III
th i!> w"Ud. he Joo not tal.e ace OUIlI of the plan's mtegr.tioo into
the politica l Ro" Ille: thn o pJlO"t's ..a mcnca and tI,e USSR
out the wo rM. l ie ('onfl nes himself 10 cOllsidering t he q uite l 'ICW
economic prind ples t hai il
into t he relat ions be tween
nations.. I k does not consi.x-r tllCe.'ohmon of these relations due
(0 the real, poli ti cal impfernc nt.a tion o t the pla n, '101' 1110< cfkcts
of
on . he: inlerTl.l tiorud struanoo.
I will rerum t o a q ucsuon rha e the au thor I,,,, dc ltbcrareljk it o pen . But il h first necessa ry 10 show th.. inte rest 01
te:d mk aI 3ualp ii:s.
OU f

The

"G enera l "

ond

"Cl fl J.{icul" economy

h <lrw;ois PcrTVU >" s["rrs Irum Ihc Bretton \ Voods dgreemellu, - and
Irom t heit failure . lie has 110 trouble sho" .ng t har u Breno n
\ \ Oods notl ling ofi ml'0n.lncc WOJ.\, [onsid....red th<Jt W;&l, not eun5isll:nt with the rules o f MdMsi ca1 cc
... By Ihi!>. he means
.. gCl1er.ll doctr il1c which not loo nJ ill irs " I;Ot In 311)' 0 1
t he rlassical fnglisll Cconornis ts of II,c eighlce nth cent ury... bu t
which " springs from rh.... m .. oo follo,,"s
unbroken

s" ... ".

" "

m ea nd ers, from Ad am Sm ith to A, C. Pigou."12 h ,r tho; das'kal

eco nomists the rat ional and normal use o f re source s " pn" 'e nh
fro m iwlatru calculat ions ." Ll These calculati ons "arc the wo rk of
finns" and

" ,1S

a rule exc-lude 1I 1l" LrdnMKtiom tklt prt.><..", .. J h u m ,

o r re su lt In, <' gTOu lJing .'ln o t her

th e km ln ;mJ th e borrower vie" t he tr,lIlsaetion, "eac h in terms of hi s own inte re st
and w itllOUI " omi'!c ring t h O" repe rc ussi o ns on h is n eig h bo rs "
(p" 97 ). U", kr t he se ccnd irto ra, rhe tra nsactions rema in uncon'

nccrcd " il h ilny gel/Cluj interest whatever: rhus, poiirtonl ends and
gTlll'p m te re srs are not taken in to accou n t. rhe on l} tl ,ifl!s "ort h
conside ring are t he CO'b. the yid d an,\ the Ii,b. T here is in fact
no o t he r law than th e profit o f the i,;olate. , e ntit i!"'. o f the fir m s
im 'oh'ed in the transactions. C rC(H I is g ran ",d in,;o (;" a., the calc ulable in te rest o fthe cre ditor can be
to h i",. N"" .
th," Int ,..rnMio na l Ban k for Rec o nstruction a na Ec on o m ic Devolop mo;" t resrricn-d it 'itlf

10

princi p les defined in this way. " Instead

o f su pe rimpm ing on rh.. anarchy " f mdrv ulual Ioa ns a coherenr

and coord inated incesrme r u based o n gcner.d calculariuns it aiflls

to pcrp.-IUate th e ol d wa}s of di stributing int e rn a tio nal credit.

as a lu nc ti on 01 individ ual Imt tartves" lp. 155)" Doubdcss, " b}

it s w I) existence, the lute rna t junnl Bank
a first artcrnp r
at bri nging abo ut , if nnt a grou p iflg o f " ....d "
o r pa rr fev
selves" ( p.

<It

leas t a

to nego tiat e loan "!!l'eelllC llls ilmong thc mHut a statu tory d ame "ob liges it to
each

demand
eOIl, iuc ri"g the demand's partic ular ad vant age alone , without cund.J.t iu" to the ensemb le formed by lilt'
aggrega lt' ,, / n eeds or even by the aggrexate of demands actually

formulated" [p. 155 ).

It c o u ld be said in short t hat th e Rrf'tt o ll Woods ag reeme nts
gave a Precoe d e fini t ion t o t he Im pa sse o f t l,t' int e rn at io n al
cco nomy'. Estabhs hc d w ith in t he limi ts o f the capitalist world,
aa:md in{\ to the rule " f '_'illJared p,olit - w it]'out "hich no trans-

action is cOllcei\'able l4 - it had to renounce i15 fo u nding p rinci pl es, o r, in order t o m a intai n t he m , re nounce the c o mli t ions
without ",bid l it could not ' "onti nu<: to " "in, T hc inadequacy

o f the Int e rnati onal Bank an" tilt> Monetary FunJ present,'r! an'1@-tin: vc -ston of t he
Plan's posi t ivc initiatic e.
It is the para,]o" of ti le ca pitalis t e cono my that it i, o bliv ious
to gen eral e nds, wbu-b g i,'c it its meani ng am I \ aluc, and tha t it
is neve r able t o

be yond rho lim its o f the

enJ. Furt her

o n, I will show tha t a basic er ror o ll'cf'iI't',ti ve r.. sults Im m thi s:

Our view
e nds is a re flec tion o f holate<.l e nd s. But withmak ill too hasty a judgment oft he practical conse q uences ,

OUI

it is

interest ing to cbs..rve thh sudde n pasSilgc from o ne world

t o anothe r, from the l'ri m;" ,y 01 the ,wlarw int erest to rbar o f tI ,c

f/CrJcra l in terest.
Francois l't'rrot' x

," ry riglltly d raw n a defi nition o f the MM-

shall Plan from

hmdamc ma l o pposition: It is, he '''po "an
invest ment in the w orld's ime res t" ( p. 160 ).
In thi ' operation , " t he na tu re ami s,"le o f the risks ru n, the
anJ fate o f th e sta kes Involved wOlll,] make ca lc ula tio ns 0 1
net Inrerest ill uso ry." T he o pcra rion

pre pa re" , d ecided, ar nl

wi ll be conduc ted o n the basts 01 politi,al o p tions and macroscopic calculations w hich
us ro und erstand" ( pp.

ana lysis docs no t rea lly hell'

] jc nceforth , th e de mands fu r

di st rib ution of cr..<l it depend o n collective calcotaooos t hat b ,'c

no rel ation to d ot' isolated calcu lat ions on whi l t. lib..rdli\m liked
t o dwell" (Pl'. 99-1(0). T he re is a "collecrtv..
'-'ol1ect i"c demand," Of cou rse, " ,h i,
" ema", ls ,s in o bvious contrast with the
ri,e o f investme n t" (I'. 16 7 ).
T he economic ensr m bl .." the

meeting a
o f su p plies and
doctrine anel prac-

t ha r arc in teg rated in to

th e g lobal o perati o n 3re leI' to d 'ange o ver from the

their "ol"ted int .., ..st to t he inte re st of regional

'77

01

THE "''''' URSE D S ... ...

T hc pl'Olt rt ionism o f imlu, tries, m ain tained OUI of ign orance, or

in negat io n of ti ll.: ""Jghbo rs' inte re sts, is replaced 11)' the need
for ,ptematie Jgn:ements wi t h a vi!;'\\ to the
"f ldbvl'.
Bu t th e regio nal ull<ll' r\mndi ng IS its cl! o nl\ a , I age' in wo rld inte-

g rdriv " . T he re is no isolated ('no t, awa re on ly 01 itse lf ami t he" o rld - o r thc Sla te in a world

by the ....."

K) m } -

bUI

a ge ne t<lli 1e.l r" nlesting 01 iso lation, TIl{" w ry movement t har

" ma lt', it .k p.,,,,1 o n us neiphbors" integ rat es each eomol1ly int o

the worl d lp. 11 0 ).

Unde r these r-ondirio nv. " tl iC distri bution o f v c.lil l'28 ceased
to b e a prQJcnwfl and has become a jUI1HJon" (p. IS7 ). O ne m igh t
say m o re precisely rhat m,mkin.\
ill g<'''' 'ral woulu usc
credit lo r c nds ir would decid e on ' \i lh u ut a ny lo nge r having 10
,to rY<" the inte rest 01 that c redit, withou t havi np. to Slay w ithin
th e limits de fined b} th e c re .li ro r's intt'l"t',t . Man lin d (' ll1b<J<licd
10 a manager. an ad rniniw rat o r 1,1 rile c,C A. [Economtc Co op"r"tio " Ad m in istration ) wou ld .,],iI'-" th e imestm e nt th rouRh constam neg otiations
to " lJa,ic law .l ,ar i, t ile nega t ion
of th c ru le 01 profit , T he o ld ex pn '"ioll of this ne w la" is fam iliar. An ope rat io n in rhc in terest ,,/"t he world is necessarily based
o n this unquc vrio nab lc p ri nc ip le : "From t'.'lrll arcon:Hng 10 his
nt t .Is."
abil ities, to eac h acemJ ing to

rrom the " General " Interest An:ordinll to Frun fois

Perrou to the Perspective of "General Economy"
HOI"CI'cr bizarre and o u t 01 place (in every sense) (;om m" oi"n\
basic form ul a rna)" be in ],i.< r-onn cc tion , lur li lt' Marshall P lilll a lo gi (;al " in \ esrnlt' n t in till' ,,,, rlfl's imc rcst," o r eve n a failed
aHempt at s uc h an " le al operation - no othe r form ula wi ll 110,
NC1..lles-, t u SOl}".

iI

1l0<11 " imcd ftlT is no t a bJOaI roochcJ, bUI. con-

o r no t , 11](" phm cannot aim for any o t he r goa l.

<.) lwio llsly thjs can not' " el p but bri ng in nllnlf'l'OU< ,l iffi e ul!i ,,,.

'"

."",, .... , '

r rW>oi" I-'en-oo ), is no doebe ....arc of thc'it, bu t he does not f on'

them. ;o t lC3.1.t nfol wi thin rhe limits of his !<hOlt book.
He inlent ionall)
l he alralol") d urKu;,- of the pla n
,)00 ou r unccnainr) as to i lS ""I*n u""i",,,, 00
pollcj,
He also o....
th.. fan that die plan implies a corurihul ion 10 it . In
il It..s to he llnano.."'l.1.
on the: na ture
of
cOfil riUtJl ion anJ the extent of th.. mobih/ ,)lio m, the effect
of the plan rna be hmnc d , its Olca ninM Old) be altered.
Here it may he useful . in o rder to , t udy the qualiry nf d Ial
c ontri b u t ion. 10 ir urod ur e, in a rhrecrion that evt ..
tl,;,t 01
I r,)nt;:ois P.. mltJ),s "ork. a whule ""1 o f Iheo n t ir;al 'on,iJcnl ions.
Fi,S!" of all. the plan implies a mobili7al ioll Clf
iaI anti its c>;cmp'
t ion fro m the common I,)w o f profh. 1 his tapi u l "ill come.
Kcoroing to
c" pt'Cssion. from the reserves 01
domi mlll ecorootn):' Indt-t-tl. Ihi> """<Juirt$ an
econorn)' so Jc,dopnl that the
of
til an- I..., ifl(l a Iw.rd
ti me oIDsorbing its excess resoen es, It .711'>0 demands 01 rwtiMW
income ou t of I,rOpOnion wlth d ,al o f the other nanor, "0 t hat
a relatively \ m,,11 ded uc t io n fro m it " ill mean a .....Mi"'l) lal};t'
amoun t o f aid fn.. the defic ient ecceomtcs. T ile cont ribu tio n of
five billion dollars is vitally " "pt'Tt;\n l
Eu rope . but the sum
is le ss than the C(> 5T of alcohol cons um prirm in the U"i tCI\ $1";l1t'S
in
Tilt: am o uru in qucsricu ru ugh l)
10 three
wet"ks 0 1 ""-ar expenditures. h is ap prox ima te ly 2 pt'rn :nl III the
Ilr'OSS na ti o nal p, OO uCI.
\ \'ilho ut t he
Plan. this 2 po'rec nl could b.a., e gone in
pan: to if"lCT'ea..... non protlUlt i>'C corY;t.lmprion. bot Since it is ( fli..t!>
a mailer of tlur" bl.. b'OOlls. in thenl") it would have be..n ll...-cl lor
the !?JU" th of the Amt: ricM> forces of proJuction, rhar 's, lOr
the.. W..:a1t11 of tho: I lnilt'tl SuIC\. This is not neceuanl)
and ('\'Co il on(' is shut ked. h
t hat one must be
so merely from a
"ilflJpoinl. l.'1
tn 10 {onsiJer " Ilat

ncem

',)r

'79

mea ns in 0
J't'1/K. TI,i) i1"l< , .. ase of wealth "ould IWH."
the combocd
of IfWl}' fStlInrtd interests.. I{CI U.......
ing 10 t he viewpoine oI"gcnerd.1 cconom)-o" bc)'OI1J lhe (!rrwral
opentions COfl5idcrt'l lJ) I ' ''"too Pe rroccc, isvIornJ il1 l(:fOC mc:;ul!>
precisel) this: that exh IWIoIM enl;!) on earth. in all of Ii-'iog
nature, rends t o gR)\,' Am! t1l1:oretic:all) can Jo so, In f.Kt every
isolated li" lll@;partici e com usc a scrpius of ' t":'>OUR "C!> - "Ilkh il
has a t its J io;pos.l1 und er ....
conJitions - either lOr an illt 11:'_
rcprooucl iul1 or lilt ib in,lh irlual gtm\ th.
necJ
10 1,'1'0"", to Co1lT}"gf'()\' til to t he lim ib of flOMibilil). is dl.1l fac tcr
b t i\..- o f isolaud
it defines iwIofcd inlert:!it . It is
to consider [Fnl"Ml inh',,,sl in terms o f iV>WIM in tCl'c:. h ut til..
world is not so simpl.. Ihat one can alwa) s do this "it!JOfJI int",..
<ludng an en ol' of
It b cas)" to m ake thi s error pcrceptibje. Conddercd in t h e
aggregate, Ihc growth on i- i llg particles , 'alln OI be infin it e. Th ere
exists a puint o f S"lurMlon of" rhe space o pen to h fc.
rI,C 0 p<;: nness o f
10 . he PJo,, ' b of active forc es I. liable
to Vd' ) w it h the Ilo1lUrc Of l hc: H' il'l; form s. T h e w mgs o r bir. l,
ope neJ OJ more ex rens tv... space to grow th. T he sarne is nve o f
human techn iq ues lhal rnatk possible
k4>Jll'i in t ilt' dC\t loprneJlt of li lt:
o f s)lolems that consu mc and protl\!( e
en..'ID"- [ach nC't' rccluuque itg:lf enables .. new
u ftllc
proJut:"t.i\'C lOn:es. But th is tTlO'loemem of grow lh run, up
li mi ts at e.el)
o f Iile. II is continually stoppe,l dlK! fon ed
10 wait b- a dwtge in
Cont:lilions of lii: bcfOrt: I'C$lllltl l\;. 'n..
(cs.,.u ion o f d e.oelol'n'lt.:llt d,,(,.'"S 1101 tlo "\\<11)' wi th Ilkt.hat coulJ ha..
the volume uflil"r fiJlf..es. lJul the cnctI!'
that. migllt hit\1: pro<lUl""t'tI.", incn:asc is then opendetl to no pur_
pose, As
llUman ... ri,iti.... itre concerned, the resource, thai
cou ld have been itCCUmula1ed (t,;tp;t;lli/ etl) as ne w lorc C'> o f pr,,duction arc
ill one \\01)' o r another. As a
rule.
1\

,80

or wealt h (.<IIlnot be in<lf'f mitd ) proJific

ande hat the momellt ..lwa vs
rhq m uSt SlOp RTO\\,ing ,,00 begin to speed. The neuse
....tiorJ of imrnoetalhvin{l lx:i "WI- L1,c simpleSI IK:i tl!,'S - succeejs tI,C luxurj o f death
atltl sexu al r(:pro<l ut t io n. which maintains an imme nse endem ic
"'Iuant lcr. The
o f ani n", ls b)' o ne anot llel' is ibl::lf a brake
on 0'I,t:raI1RJO\\llJ. And similarl). OIl\. C domi nation ef rhe a,,,,Habl e spac e is ensured at tI,C expense o f ani nws. men han: thc ir
\\ atS and the il rholl"-lnJ fOnns of usel ess (;otlw mption. f< lank illJ
is it t the sam e t ime - t11ro ugh itlt lubtry, which
c n erg ) fo r
ti,e Jcvd opn lt' m o f tile forces o f product ion - d manifol d opening o f th e possib ilit ies o f E;rowth and an infinite capaci') 10.wasteful cOIlbu m ption.
But g ro " th GIn be ,iC1\cJ in theo!) <IS the concern o f rhe tsolared inJ ivklua l, who docs no t measure its lim its, who bt ruAAIt:S
Il;litlfu lly ro ensu re it , and who .Ioes not \ \"0( 1)' abc.,ut ir s consequcoces. l11C lO m lula for ".r", th is that o f the iso lated k odel:
" e.teh in llis own meeresr and without consiJcriTl{! t he repercussions on OI )C 'S neiRhbors ," ' et alo "" the gtntraJ n:percms iOflS. On
ti le ocher ha nd, rbc r.. e x ists (be)o nrl the ecerall human in terest
wh ich, conceived juS! as I lJa\e baid , is
an a berra n t m u lripUcatio tl o f th e ssolared illle teSt ) a gronal !)Oint of \ iew. fro m
whit.1I li ft .s seen itl a ne" light. Of coarse, th is point of ..Ic...
nol imply a ncg-a tio n o f t he a(h,m uges o f growlh. but it
oppose s to individ ual blinJ n.,ss - and
- a n range, ClI. Ul)Crant . sirnultancous lv bcndk Cllt ana d isastrous sense o f wealth .
This int'l"O:"t is d rawn from an experjenoe ('()Ill"', ,') to thoU in " Ilich
selfishnO$
It is not t he eepeocncc of rhc in<:Ih idual
an x iom 10
hllllSClf b) de>'tloping his p.;rsonal forces. It is
t he contnl r) awareness of Ille fUli li l )' o f 3n1'liet). The
of
cr o nom bs e nab le o ne to
rhe nature 01" t his int e rest . If
one condde rs rhe holden of capital as a
one q uickl) peril hu to be gTamec:l t!lat

,',

, ..

"SH)

c c ivcs th e co nt radictory characte r 01" the se lutcrcsrs. Each ho ld e r

d e m an ds an in re re sr from h is cap ita l, 'loll this im pl ies an un li mil .,(1 development 01 t he lorce 0 1 pmd uct ion . What is
d enied in the con ception 01 these esse nt ially product ive opel-aHon, t he
-not u n limit.. ,1 but sl,b , t;lO ti.,1 - o f p rod ",..., " 0 11-

sumed

wh,n is sau ly lo rg olle n in these calc ulartons

is, above a ll, that fab ulo us nchcs had to be dissipated in wan . This
can be e x pressed mon ' clea rly by ;.aying - paradoxically - rhar
e conomic p ro bl e m ' in which, as in "class ical" economics. the

q ue stion is limi te d t o the pu rsu it o f pro fit are Lwl"uJ o r IimiWJ

prohl..ms: t hM in th O"
.. m th..",
th O"

essence of rhc biomass , which m ust consta ntly dcs rroy [consume]
a sUllJ lus of en e rg y.

Rcrurning to rhc Ma rsh all Plan , ir is new easy t o be pre cise.

lr con tras ts with ,w klft'd operauons

01"

"classical" Iype , bu t

not th rougl , in g rouping o f co llec tive s up p lies and d e m an ds; il

is a ge ne ra l opt'fati o n in that in 0"" rrspeet it h a remmci atiol1 of
th e grow lh o f prod uct ive forces. It ten d s t o solve a gener.11 p ro ble m ill th a t it is an unse c ur ed inve stmen t . At the same li m e , it
ne ..ertll..

an t idp.ne s an ulti milte urilivarion for g rowt h (nl'l'd-

t o lay', t he g<:neral point 0 1 view Im pliev t he w two ilspeetl

at the same li m e ), bu t it ca rries this

w herl'

- a mi tl'd m n loglc ill

over to an a rea
- hal le ft

th e field o pe n. In o the r wo rds, it, con t ri b ut ion

of

con-

demne d "ealth _
B)" a nd larg e, l hl' rl'

in t h l' wotld a n

n-scurce-s ellal carmot contrtbnte 10

gmwlh

share of
hil'h thc '\p.x;c"

[ better, the possibility] is la l'ki ng. Neithe r the share that it is nee e ss;o. ry to sacr tflce, n or t h e mome n t o f vac erfice are ever gh-e o
n n:t1y. BUl a [JC'lcrol point of vic\\ re quires th at ;,1 a n ill-d e fined
lime and place groo., th be abando ned, wcahh negated , and its possi b le l"ec lJn<la1lon o r

p rOli lab lf' in ves rruent ruled out.

,"

.".....

and t he MonhlJlI Pion

I n om)
a fo nd.lmemal rli llicu h) t anl104: be
HO'l'
the
rc be ser fn-c? l-lo" e.tn Ilve bill ........ rlofl<lo br
"ithd n " n from . h" ru l" n f i!>Olate:t.l pro li.? I low Collfl it be
Ficro ? This
the pl<ln\ m h l\",lllln i nto d w real pcllncal
game becomes the' question - " hich, "!I r have 53id, was not' tn:att"l l
in Perro ux's work. En'TYThi ng wo uld
ha, e 10 be: res-onsidered st;lrling [rem there. I r.lJ,\ oi\ P"nollx has defined th,' plan
if th,' cflJ1 l1i btlt iu n's libe ra tion from t he c o m mon n Ile we n:
gin'n , as if it " ell' t hl' effect of tt u- com m on inten " t . I
nOI
been able 10 ag n 'C.' " ilh h im "Iltircl)' on th is point . I he plall ln<o>
be an " inW$' mt' lll in rh... "orld's inn-reo' ," bur i l also rna) b.; an
iIlH:,>.menl " in
imcrcsr," I do no l !loa' 11),)( Ih,s is 10e

but the q uc-:.rio ll arises,

II
possible Ih,It, oclllg
Min rh e wor-ld') intc rl:"\l - al tM (M11St:'1, It "i ll be ""rpt:d in the
d irection of rhr Amcncan intent;t .
Tbeorct u-allj, II "a pnllourw! nt:g.ll ion of capi talism: in
reseoc tcd sense, I'lOrh ing is 10 be laLcn . ".1) loom th e llNJ'Ol'ltlOn
bm ught out ill I
Perroux's .lIlal}S i'" But in
There is not ft't.l
Le t us nlt;rcl} pose th" <1,10'\(10 11: It
be t hat in wa nt ing 10 J ell)' itself
w ill " '\eal at
the sam e l in ,.. that i, c ou ld not avoid dnillg \ 0 and t ha t il [ac!' cd
the
for such
And y"l. for lht' American world , it h II
o(\ife
death.
rh is aspe-'Ct o f the mo< l" m \\tlriot is overlooked by J1lO!;( o f the _
who
10 undcesrand
III a
the situa l ion
gO\"enlcd ." rhe li\llCt that Wilhout
l>Oilu taf)" fe nl rhO' 51...tees
[or some
t im:: "'Qu I.! be no Marsha ll Pb n, r he
is tha.t Ih l'
of t he .... n. m li n
rtw I..C) 10 rbe
American coll.'n.
tlK"
it 1TlOIi nnil15 in the
i" " hal
the larecr's 0l0\t'11ll- 1llS. Such
o ul<l ..
slip in lo abs urdil}. btl! (Inc n il
t hat " ittoo" t l he
"1

USSR, w it ho u t the politi cs o frc nsion it adbe rc s t o , th ", capita l

lst wo rl d cou ld not be certain o f a\"lJ id ing

T h is t rut h

do m in ate s c urren t
n ot ce rt ain tha t the Soviet

lt

at

Is a nswe r-

ing lhe economic demands o f t he world in ge nu a!. On", ar lcas t

imag in es that <I plethcrh- economy docs IIu t
req uire
th e dic tatorial urg"" lllit iun o f imlu sl rr BUl lhe po !Ulml "Clio" of
lhe Uni on and rhc Cominform is ne ccssa l) tn the world economy.
He re the ac t tc n h The consequence n ot onl) o f a di fference ill
su perstruc tu res ( in t he ju n ,lic,,1 systems o f p roduction}, OuT
<I

, 1iI1., re llc e in eco no mic le n k

In othe r won l" (h,- poluu - al

rL-gime in One p la, e , rhe R us, i'lIl worl, I, ex p re\SCS rhe inel]ualil)'
o f reso urr-e s [ ot the movement 01

by' an "ggrcss i\e agita-

no n, an e- xt reme It'n, io n o f the class struggle. lt goes" lt hc ut

5a) ing that this te nsio n is favorable ro a less uneq ual d ist ribu t ion
o f reso urce s , rc a c ircu lat io n o f wea lt h that th e
unevcnncss o f lcccls paralyze d . [he Marshall Plan is the collscquence
o f a ,",'Orkillg -d as.; agita t ion th at it n-ics to rcm c J y w ith a rise ; n
t he Wes tern st" ml" r<l o f! i\"ing.
'rne Gl m m lln ist opposit ion t o tbe I\litrsha lJ Plan itsd f prolong'
th., initial se tt ing in mt lti on o f tl... pbn. It, t.,n, Is

pla n's impl er lle lllatiu n,

ates the

bU I

10

im pe de th "

, 'o nlrdl)' lO OIppeilr'IIlI'C\, h arc-e mu-

moverucm it c o m ba ts. It acce ntuates an d contro ls

tnd ccdrhc
il ; in theory, " iel to Europe imroduccs the
ne c essity , o f an American in terve nti on, but the Sov iet o p posi tio n
makes any irregulari ty o r excess d ifficult, reducing the risk th at
th.. lIlten 'en tllln m ig ht tllm into a
Trlle, 'so..;t't So1 ho\;lge co u ld <l imini,h the effect, o f t he pl..n. But on the o th e r hand
i( inen-J'..." the f..clillg o f n... "",i). if IIOt o f d istrt'O<.s, IhM ..nSllr.,,;
a

lu:!.ildll t i mplc rrlt' ll ld l ioll.

One cannot ovcrcr nphasize th e importance u f the se mov e ments

o f repercu ssion. T hey go in the direction o f a profounJ nansfor-

'"

manon of ttw
It is not IXna in thal the ir resultv " ill
sutbce, but tf-.t.:w p.i.ToIdoAin l e"char,; pro,.-e d'lolt the
l:Ofil ooic ttons "1 11 not nccee..... ri l) I,.. resolved
WOI r. In a 1....-ncr..1 "'a). \\ hethC:Tsociali" or nmlITltlll i",-. th ('
uti on is aU \lalll rOllelun\'C wa peaceful
- wit ho u t
re volution - o f
economic im li turlo m . 'I. pri maT) .... or is in
that a moderate, reformist agil.1, ioll wou ld e-ns ure th is
evolution by itself. If th e <lw tat ion Ihat IS due to the comm unist ,
revol u tiona ry in i, i" t h t' <Ii,I no t t ake "- t h,c,.ltcn ing t u rn , t here

would be no r nore- ,, ,, Iul io n. Bu t o lle wo uld be

10 i mag o
inc that t h e (111) success ful effec t <)1' communism would be the
seizure o f fXJ"cr. Lven ill pmocm. rbc r ommunists would connnoe
to "d13nge tN- world."
itsrlf. ;11\ dl,oct such as the Mar.Ju1l
rbo is considlTablc:. but it shoukl not be SCUl a hmit." 11w econo m ic celm pt"t ' tlC>Il
from subversive action roeld
e mail. OC)o nd changes in the disltibuti oll 0 1 we..lrh . .. dc.-pcr
dlolnge in

Where Dilly the Threot 01 Wor Ca n S t ill

"Cho llBe the \Vorld "
From t he o utse t . th e Marsha ll Plan
le)',\ ;... 1 J ra isillg ofth<sta nda rd of li"illg wo rld-w ide. / II nla) ,ow n have th e cffeer of
ing rh e- So\iN sl.mdaru of living, 3t th e h.pe ns... of t J,e grcl" t h of
p roclu.-r i, .. lo r(t's. ) Hut under
iSI co ne! i n o n' rh e(.1
th e standard o l lh illg not a sutticicr u rdi e I fro m th e continua l
grow th o f t h<. prodlK"t in " f orces . I he "'Ianrnl l PI..n is also, from
th e sr..rt . .. rneans ntemtJl I i> (opttollSffl o f ...
the Slam!,," ! (,f
Ih ing. (In
It does not mail er whether tN- to lfec1 (,lcctln
nol'iide of Amcric...) Tbus a shift
a SU lJU U !C'
difkRIIt from thaI o f the
t(Jl,tOlld a rt"J..u , .. n atc-cOlllrolla.t
economy, the onl) ' YIX' posst ble \\ hCR . rhe grOlonh of proc!lI("ti n ' torr."" bt-il'f(
capitalist acetJmuliltion. Jnc! rcoscqccmll
" I

profit, would no longe r have a suffi cient margin. I\lo....owr, th e

form o r aid ro e uro pe is nor t he o nly indicato r or a dndopment
th at is generally favo red by wo rking-e lao;s agitation . The Unit..d
SLa tes slruggling " it h insolu ble conrradicrtonv. It defends free
enterprise, but it th"'rc by inn ",ases the impo rtance 01 t he sta te.
It o n ly adnnc ing, as
as it ca n, W"<Ir<J a point where th e
U SSR rushed headlo ng,
T he sfllv iJlg of social problems flO lo nge r depends on street
uprisi ngs, am I "e are f.ar fro m t he t jr ne
expamli ng pop" I;,. nons, short o r eco nomic resources , we re constrained to i' l\'ad..
Lhe " ....althiesr ''''gio n.s. [ Besides, m ilit'lry co nd itions work in favor
of rhc rich nowadays, t he opposi te being true in th e- pas t.] Hence
the co nsequences of po lit res apart fro m wars '11-" of utmost interest. \Ve cannot be sure rh at th ey w ill save us lro m disaster: bu t
t he y are o ur only c hance. \Vc cannot de n} t hat war a li-en prec ip it ared t he developme nt otsocict tc Avide Imrn th e Sevier Union
itself , our Ieasr rigllt socialrelations, an,] our nationahzed ind uerrjes and services, OIl'''' the re_ulr of two wars t hat s hoo k Euro pe.
II is eve n true that we come out of the [a,t wal"" it h an inc reased
pop ulati o n; ltv ing standards th.. mseh-es arc sti ll im pro.-ing ove rall. Nevertheless, it is hard to see w hat a th ird war wo uld bring
us, o ther than the irremedia ble rcduct ion 01 til" globe to the con,Iition ofGennany in 19 45. Hencefo rt h we need 10 think in terms
01 a pt' iICeful evolution withou t w hich t he dest ru c tson o f cap ita lism wou ld b.. at the same time t he dest ru c tion o f t hc lIvrks
of capitalism, the ct<'\\a t ion o f eco no m ic development. and the
diss ipat ion f) f Lite soclalts t .Iream . \Ve m ust no" expect from
th ", Ihroo l of war that w hi.:h yesterday it wo uld havc be e n callous
but correct to cxpect from Wdr.
is no t reassuring, but th e
c hoice is not givcn.

. .
"Dynamic Peace"
We o n ly need to b,; ng a clear principle into pol itical judgments.
II t h.. th reat o f ...ar
fTIajo r p"rt "f lhc .. x"..ss

rh.. Un it e d State to comm it th e

III

military manufac tures, it

be use-

le ss to st ill speak of a peaceful evolution. In actua l fact, war h

bou nd to occ u r. JIaJlkjnd ,,-in nJO>-C pmJulh lo...." d a [J('neral resolu-

tion of its problems

'f this threat ("(fuses the U.S. to moan a larne
share of the <'.\'55 and lIithour return - to misilllllhc 8/obal
lWII<JarJ vf 1i.;n1/. ,XOIII.JnUC veti,,11 thus 8"il18 lhe surplus energy prodvced vn ollilel other l}wlI \\01. It no longer a matter of say'ing rhar
th e lack 01 dlsarma rne-nr m ..a ns war; but America n policy' hevit<lt.. , bt'tw..., ,,
1"'lh" fi l her r.. arm Furopc Wilh LIlt' h.. lp o f.l
ne w lend-lease, o r u'c, at Ieact partially, th e \lars ha ll PIMl lo r
equipping it mi litaril y. Disarmament unde r t he present cond itions
is a pro paganda the m e : by no means is it a
o ut. Hut if th e
Ame ricans abandon the specific character o f t he Marshall Plan,
the idea u f using <I larg e share of the su r plus for no n m il ilar) c mls,
th is surpl us will explode e xac t ly where
" ill have decided
it wou ld. At th e moment o f explosion it "i ll be po ss ibl e to sa}
rhar the polic y o f rhe Sm'ie ts
rhe tl i...a., t .,r iI\Pvilabl" . T h"
but fil lse ..., we ll. It " ..cds 10
, -onso bri"n will b" nllt only
be srau-d . he re a nd now, that, o n rho
LO leave war as lh e
on l} o u tlet lor the excess 01 forc es prod uced is to acce p t rcsponsibiliry for that resu lt. It is (rue t hat t h., USSR is pu tti ng l\ m t'ri<:a
through a d ifficult trial. Bu t what would lhis world be like if rhc
USSR were not there to wake il up. tes t it and force it to "chanI;('''?
I han: presente d the inesca pab le conseq uences of a precipitous arm amen t, but this in no ""y
Ilf whi"h i, lJllr"al. A

i,'...

for a ,1[""tmament, t lw
..n":ll t is So far fmm b.,i ng

a po:;.,ib il it) l hal Oflt' "<l nn"t even imag in e the cftccts it would
have. To suggest thar this world be g iven a rest is fatuous in the
extreme. Rest and slee p could o n ly b e , .1t best, a prt' limim, r) to
"7

proce tS

wa r. Onl} a
is rhe on ly form llb

Gill

a c ry ing need lo r c hange. It

opposed to tfw revo lut ionary ,leter-

ruination o f the S<>vit,t<;. Am! .:!l'lI<lmi(

t hat their

I'C \ -

o luce d e tenn inati on \\ ill ma intain the th re at of war; it means the

ann ing o f o pprn.itc camp.'.

Manki nd ';J A ccompt lsh m er u Linked to t h a t o'[

th e American I'c olllJlny
T hat

it

to re"" on lIl.lt " nl} ;J. success o f the American

methods im plies a peac efu l evolutio n. [ti s ro Albert Camus's g rat

c red it that he so d <,;J. rly demons trated th e
0 1;J. re vo lut io n without war, at lca vr a classic revol uti o n. Bur it is not neecssar) t o see an inhuman \\ ill embod ied in t he USSR or t he wor ],
o f evil in the po li ti es of rhe Kre mlin. II is c ruelro d esire th e co n-

unuauon o f a r" glln.. rel Y'ing on a

.. (;ret polic e , the muu ling o f

thought and n umerous co nce ntra tion cam ps. Bu t there wo uld be
no Soviet Glln p \ in this wo rld if an Imme nse moveme nt 01 h uma n
m asses had no t responde d t o a pressing ne ed. lt wo uld be uscin any c ase tu pretend to
the

><:l/-<.OI\5doUYlo>

wi thout percei ving

tht> troth a nd the crucial value ofthe te nsio n main -

tai ned in rho wo rld by the USSR. ([ f thi s tensio n wc r.. to Jail, a
fecling of calm would be com pletely unwarrantcd r there would
be more reason th an e ver to be <lfra id. ) AnyOn<' \\ ho lerv him self
be bli nd ed by passion, so rha r hc sees o nly excess in the USSIl ,
],im sclf to all e<j u h'ale n t excess ill t], e scn"t' of b lindness : He g i\'e'i ull his claim to th e c omplete luctdlrj- t], rou g], which
man hils the c ha nce to be, finally, a wl/-w/lSooultl>5. To be sure.
sd j -eOru;;kJuSMll i, al so rule d o u t w ith in th e limits o f the

sphe re. MOl"Covt' r, it carmoe bind iT'ie1 f t n any rhing t],ar is ;J. [read)
g iven . It impl ies, under t he threat 01 war, iI rapid change and the
t l l rhe wo rld 's domlnan r pm , e r. '" O n t], .. o rhe r hand . it
"I,"t'acl)' illvolve<\ in

;I

subsequent choice o t t],e American democ-

racy, and it ca nnot he lp

bUI

callfor th e la rrer's

war. T h e natio nal pu inl uf,i .,w

w ith o u t

ir rclc vam. J?

Consciousness of til e Ultim ate En d of Wooflh

and " S elj-COJlSciOWiJleSJ"
Doub tless it is parad oxic al to ti e a tnJt h so inrimat.. as thai o f

sdJ....oflMllWSneM (rho re rum of be ing TO full ani! irreducible seve re-ign t) IR) to th ese c om plerelv ex te rnal d e te rrnina rion s. Yel it is
easy to pcrcci.e th e de e p m e an ing: uf the se de termt nat tons - and
o frhts e n tire book - if o ne returns t o Ih (' c,,-wn dal " ithout furth er de tay
In th e fi"'l p lac e, lh.. paradox is carried

TO

to rhe fact that pol itic s co nside red in te rms

an extreme owing
dominan t inter-

national e(;o r\()m)'" o nly aims at an improveme nt uf th e gl"b.11 stand ard o l li d ng . J9 lt is ill a sense dh a ppoi nt ing M\(l d epn :ss ing. RtJI

it is ti ll' sl<lning poi nt <lm l the basis, not th e co mple ti on,

COJlSCioo<nl'i' . This ne ed s to be presented in a rather precise way.
If sdj-COruiG UStll'll is ..esen riilll) th e fill[ possession o f i nlimaC)'.
we m ust return to th .. fact t hat all possessio n o f inrimac v leads
to 01 tl ec ep t io n. 20 A sac rifice can only posit a sac re d IhinB' The
sarred thillfl ex ternalize s in timac y: It

visible o n t he ou ts ide

t hat wh ich is re all ) w ith in . T h is is \\ h)

fin a lly th at , ill connecti on w ith intimac y
f" rt h..r ca n
occur. Th is does no t in any wily in \'o l,.. an in te n tion lO eliminat..
wha t rt' m ains: \ Vho "nu lll th ink o f
or o f pot'U}! But a point

be

rid o f the " OIk 01art

1JlWUH:I'..d

where d rj lucidi ty

coi nc i<lcs \\'i t h a "..n".. of t h.. sae red . T hi s imp lie s the re d uc tion
o f th e saCK " world to the com pom:Jll most purely opposed to
t hin(/S, its reduct ion to pure in n mac j . T h is comes down in fac t .
as in the experience o f l hl' mysncs, 10 in tellectual co ntem ple li o n. " w itho u t shilpe o r fo rm ," as aga in H t h.. ..tl)J cth " ap l'..a renccs of "visions," d ivini ties am i myth, . Thi ' m.."llls
fr om

"9

the \-i....., point imrodu..re d ill thi.. book. t hat o ne m Ul>t d e e I J C

a ' u nd.l.rncn tal deb.t iC ,
T he bt-ings t h;, t Wt'

II I

an: 001 g i.-C ll emu dIlel ".,. all; t he)

apJ>CM ,1i"' ignC(1 tor an inc reese o f thei r
r!:'Wu rr O'S . The,
boeocr.\ll) male
inul'iN:, br)oorl mere wbstsecncc, t oclr goal
and their reason lOr
But \\ ith mis w bordinaliorJ 10
tht'
in q ucsl:lon loses its autonom}; it suhonlil1illl"o itSt'lI
to " ha l it " ill be in the fUlure. o \\ ing t o t he inn c: ,I.'>C (' f il;,
rcsoeecc"'1- In rea lil). the- i ...... reese shou ld be s ituo\tld in re lation
10 thC' moment in ... hich it " ill rc..ok., into a pu re ex pcod lrure.
But Ihis is preci.H'l} thO' di Uk u l1 lransition. In fan . it
;If.!ainsl
conliCiOlL'\lless in thf. Sf>n"l' Ih,)t the latter trr cs 10
o lJj I'(:1
o f acquisition, JrIf1!rrhi"fj, nnt the noI hmfj of p u re c" p'llll ilu n . It
h a ques tio n o f arrr\ ing .11 I hr' rnonu-nr "hell c o nsciousness w ill
a'o\.. ... to be a eonsciou...
of JOIncthi1lfl; in other words, beccroing: ron"dou s o f rhe d ecisive meaning of an inst anl in \\ hk h
MC

0'

lncrcas.. (Ih.. i!e:qllisi ti ol1 0 1 w methi'W) " ill resolve in to c" pcnelirures and
" ill be: pre
r..Jf....
rbat is, a conscious
nC'>5 that henccfnrt h has ' >ot/Ul'fl lU IfS 0I}('(t. 11
1his e omple ti on.linl..cd - the re " Iwn; I' Kicll t}
to t he

it s

" ith an upward ad.jusunr.Tlt of

as...

dards, im plies tho' l .tl11.. o f 01

SI.an-

in place o f cocie l exisecuce,

In a sense, th is K1f'tlfI In pkxl! wo uld be com parable to . he tl;l n$i

li o n from an imal to man (0 1 w hic h il wo u ld be. m ort> pel':< i....l).
IN-

"";1 ). It

", if, ill this

\\.1)

of lool ing a t

go.a.l \l cn;: !liven. In the' ('nd,

rh.. final

fall , into place .1t'1l ll.. te,

u p its ornigncd ro le . l or.b ) Truman \\"Ou ltl appeilr to be

pl"epari ng lo r the flnal - and secre-t But thai is ob- iOlld}

ai'

ilJl)5iOll. !'Ilorc "pt;n. 111,.. m inJ eli", tTll'<,

instead of a n ilm icIUilIt"(II..I..

does nol betTar.

the truth Ih.u ' ilcnc:t, alone

Notes

I'REBCf

I. Thi, fI,...ul.mlC "'ill h.,,, a

..

Funhu, it i. be ing

l h" I rTi ,e<t, d,id' ;"te",h tu p ul>li, h.

"/lene",1

""""'1'

in

uth" r<, "...".1-... in

><l l hirc1 ,-,.,I utllc' 01 II" 1" " " ,<15/",,, ...e

fort hcoming ]inm Zon e floob . 1

2. I ler" I Tlm.t th>.nk ml f'i end

Am bro<.in,."

d i'r<;tQ. n t lh.

X_ I<..- b bora tor;', "ithoul "J.orn I cou ld not h" e co""runed ,hi . boot.. Sdenee is ......''''" th e " ork of OIle man; it t'e<J" ire, an
,ffon . TH, l>"ok i, . Iw in I..

01 "ew., a Imn.

PO" ttoe wo<l ol !\m bt05ino. I re ...,nalll rel'J"t

, h. , , h,-arumic ","'",eh tn ",tich he panidp..,," I,.., remO'..,d hi m. for a time.

)",,,, "'''-'drU' ill
..1'"u>'lOtm-.n I ' lK '''' ... p.-c ,h " hupe th., h, will ":>ll......
in pa"kular th

\Iud)

he h.., b...gu" wi,], " " . ur tho JIlun-mn,h o f " ' K" gj' un

'he , u,tan' ohhe J!lobe .

P.,,,, O...-L
t. OJ the

materialit y of the ' mi , C""', ",Heh doubtks in it< proximale ;u><l

rem<.J 'c a. pe ct ' . i, ......" , "" ytHng bm " beyund or th o ught. h<lfJJ1mfflt

,h., "hkh julfJI,-'tld f.

llOt

,b, " hieh" (lJlji/lM. InJin". i> in Of'l'c"iti un both

'" ,Icc li",it...d ,let... rrni,..,;u" d,.1 ,,, ,hc ;w;;b"""\ <nd.
2. 11 i' .,,,, med tl w if in<lu'''J
",me i. not

trt>C

"""'lO' b n ',," ;,,,I<1' ni,... ,I,,,,-I" I'''''' n' , lilt"

o fcbe "'e" lee,' cotlSlit uti"!1- ,,1"'1 i' e, lIed the "-rti") "",u,,-

'"

TH E ACCU"SClJ SH""L

" f ,h <."Cu llumy (tI ... pr; m.ry l>cing .grK:ult ure and Ih", sc<:ond>ry',
WhKh indu,'.., 'P"r.;,,] ''''.!

,.

v.-ga.,.,...,.",,, ""

"el' "" ,ho wo rk "f an i",,""

3. See f"t""s 35-6.

1 , U"luftu,,,,d,. il i, nvt 1"",iLk ' u ,Ii-.( ,-,,,.II th..".,

p'c1>I" ",

wilhin II",

I,.mew",,'" ofa lir<l - tho'etica.l and hi" orical - e....)'.

5. SeE-

v.:

L" B>e<phf", Par i'. 1929. wh"re 1OI11e of the c()f]sidu>--

,h. t fnl lc",' .'" o ", li,...,1(f'un , a ,I,R.""", " ie" ruim).
6.

n e .....--.:;"t;o,- i:I 'ppal"'" I) implic.-I in Ih

M
""prL"'inn, uUIC ,in of tile jlt,Il.

"'''RT fw()
L f!t-rr",roino de Sohap'R. //&/oric 8"''''''01 de J", rose. de ]\'U"tl ['1"'00. MeLico
G '," p'-,rrii a. 1956. 1\0<,1 \ '11 , ell. 2

). II""''''' ,'" 1m .11<>1.-0"'" I""

nI.'

I""'",a" ell. 6 .

I . SaI,,,!:,in. 1100111 . CI,. S.

4.

Ibid. , . fP"",li x " I Flovl ll.

5.

Ib"l,Hnnl II.(Jl.24.

6. I bid" llool-. II. 0. S

7. IlmJ.. BvoL II, o; 24 .

s.

1I>1d., IIl" ,k II, o; 21.

9.

Ibid.. FI<,,>I< II. Ch. H .

10 .1001, Bov l.. II, o; 36.

1 l. IbiJ., FI<",k II. C1>. U .

12. 11wJ.. lk>ol.. "I, Ch. .11.

13.Il>iJ., Ilook \1,0,.:1.

"'pdf nO' ,h. ,'i..

11 I am I..

"f M.'Lel CT.Il." . ,,,1CeOl'g'" I)"''''-,j l.

IS. I ", ish t e. cmpha'i 'C a b"" i, fan, T he >ef",a!ion ufbeinl(' i' lim'le d lu lhe
re.1 unlet. It

j,

.'d';" " i' m .r!. It

",,1)' if I r"''''';" attached w the o"le r of ,h;fig. Ih.r rh"".,p-

u'" fac'

rwl, I" ll ",ha' i, 1t",1 i>e,umal. ''I n' imd' d )11 men

are one ."

If>.

I" ,h e

'''''l> tha.

,':",e u f d Ino,d"dg" o f the

d"',,,,,. It j,., been ""'d tbll th. ,

I 'ek, '" <h,,,,' a l1"j,'i.,- i"fI"""",. T h;, h)I""h",i.

"Trn, pCli m

16' to me . r he su bstance ot C hri <lian be lief, ;, ;, ,,,11 d, own t,om ,h" I"'''''io''.

'"

NOTCS

dlLd 11.. wurl.1 oI "pic,e" b}

inform.nt< h.. a

euberenc".l1 il. own. 1/ nttd be . the ...,lrlll' "I)

0 1 r".,,"u all in c Ollld

b,' ilLl e'p,eK-d.,.. CI"i"i onil ali on. But Ihi' OP'lLiOlL " pp"..... tIL
on a co"tr'mp! fa.- ,h,

i\zUT'.

whrc h. 1I must

nl<'

""'d,

10 1...- hd' ed

see m. lIol te>

h..., shared .

n . Sahagun. Enol VIJ, o, 20 .

Ill.

",.n_. 11" " l

IX. Ch. 4.

19. IW. , Iloo l iX. (.1,. 5.

20, ib id.. IJool, IX,i.;h. b.
2 I. Ib.n., Book IX. Ch. 10 .

n . l bkJ., Bouk IX, 0>. 7.

23. Ibid., Bouk IX. o, . I] "".I 14.
24 . Th"",
ill.

'act> . ,e dr.,"'n from

del,,, f.."lIlC el ,a("m

,I,,: dUlhori. atj,.,

ok l-ah""y.: <10", It> waifix arc}.,iquc,.

25. I ,et

In

rn<'

in

Ihe Annie

.. 11" GiJi : fuw. and ( ,,"'''om <f

\Ocl'OOaiq"e, 192324, PI" 30-186.

f MhnnlJ'.'

In M."d ,\ \au" . Cn",

"""', 10.-1<: Nor lon . 1% 7

Am"'",

indica'e he,e 11..1 Iht ,IUlI'e. ", I",....,

I am pu bl" hlnr, he,..,

C:ome Ollt o t'111)' u.d'ng o( ,he f,m, ru, k tIon . 1(, h 'gi rr "'ith , reflection OIl pot_

bteh l.,.j me
10

'0

t he I"" , of(/<1"",1<XfVIt)ffl.' . IIIL' ,t ",.y b<, of ime,e.t

mton"on . 'p"dal dillie ultt,

th., I ",. 1 h..n:1 pu' 10 ''''01, ...

r he ge["",,1 prin-

c iple. ,I.., I int ro<luced . "'hic h e""blt one to 'nte rpr el . I.rgr numbe r 0 11,,[ I,.

lef,
gin of Ihooe

d ,' men '.' in Ihe polla ld" " hiel, in m} min<! remained Ih e oriPod ,m -b u nnOl he uo,lal e rdllJ illlerpll, ed ev"....,mpt'on

v I' 'kh.... II i. onl} r",-"n d , th.t I

been . ble

l' ;'''' ,Ilt: pri 'oc;plt"" uf "gene ral

it comes d',"'n 'u ;.

'ha, ""Iuan<!..<'ng ot ene l"gl

il has bttn

, e[!lJt:e tI,t

"'!

r. ther :ombiguotJ' lou",t..,;on. \ \1..,

th ing, bu t i' enters im n u'n,i'!"r",,,,,

of th ing.,

to

i ' "lu-a" , he

0r!"i... d a

one" II ha, "mered imo the <l. de<

in. o ' hinfJ.

P\ln rrtRrr

I. [ mil e Dermcnr,br,,,,, Tim"'lI""'Y" tit-

rbi,,,,,,

er welk< dr /0 r"'''''''II,m musu/ma",,_ 'P ' 17 1 H7.

'91

.. '''T k. ,,,kUT.I

2. 'hd.. p. J11.

COU'""". Emi lf'

->On-,.\ookm ..,.,...,..
J. Of

''';nrd, ,.,........" . . .Ml p. 1ll'1). Onmawt....,,\

"""'<T' i'I

in l.L.nio

'If' ,,-.....km

I.. No< .. nit..., .-In,;r.tbl,

Ct>r"om-

001, m"'l!- '" qtot.. ........ u hi. d;flic.. lt, III

... i<."" ' ..-!

' o d.-fln<" f.,

o f >hi" f.... ht, or. .....

D " .. II

>"lIun ol

-to lbod.. pp. 1l (,.11.

5. i\\.ourio.e G.uddoo,. l J<

... 194 6

l.a

(}nl u l. ). P. 120.

fo.

""d,., P. 121.

1. 1Nd., pp. 121-22

8. I I. IkJlu \3.'''''''''''''.
9.

"",pIot,.o.. Am bo. 194 6. p. n _

1,..1" " . p. I{I(,II .

10 . Henri

N..,. c1c...>oc. a ,e""",,"b l,' .,'ide in .1.. vie"

/'Oo-o,'m'

(" I a f'O">i.. dr.>l", <!'An<!alo usi,' 0'1 " ' , rda'i<J'" poosibl Cli .",,,,1.> p",,\,e d"'Il""'-

b.to lnm.., ppo 10 1 )'0 Ih.. q,",,, Inl1 n f tho. Aooalu,ian inUucrw;:e. A<" ""li'\l. In
the .u.hnr, L1, t' quul 'OI' , ..,,,,,,, h.' ,lcCided cond""i,,,l, bul lh.. n>n l......""'
' e qui l.. prur M."..-N!. r I", ) ...OflCcm

bu.

not 001)'

. he

u",tn11, .....

bui<; . ht:mes.

II.. lu.m .,/ the ptl<:' 1}- n ", co i"""kno::" <:A ,I... &""'1 n:a "d An" pncll')'

of And.III'" (cl"''''''th

b inh of !,,,,,'to"';.! c.,...., ll por:ot.,'Io.-nd

I and

o f ,he M '.,n.h cenro., I .. .. n l i'!K' l-ur

Mml.,,.,, ....,..Id ....1' .... Owi>!'''' " ..... Id of ,

, <I.... ",lnion<

bet"..,n ,I... !ipoo'NI

North

o' h ......,.'

".on bo

euabh>hrd pr...-j,..l)-

el''''' Dalal Inmo. London, 1946-

II . '>if Chon""

to....... . he- M .Icm c:<lUflOies thtt .......

12. 11000,.0' " lot a

ri\r.\. ..,.J
....'YO'

...ban ..i,i l.u.""'. "ne ..... pre:) nI

t.l":r <n,

"'il """""lie.

of. .... f,ou <0 "'1.

....... e<jllilib-

..ho

,fter M -it'll: """""twown . bu ,mpn::

""-

11. S<:o R. Grou.."'., 15./0" "'" , ./ "',,",, r-u;", N an,

"""""""', I'p. 171-99

'94

.... """'... " d<'s

"

>T E S

Pun f o uR
I. Hi' famoo.". 'nodi.... on "the Prot"".mt ",hi<. .nd . Il, 'piri' "r Ur"al i, m ,"
IJI< p'"mwnno.dt< Ethik und dN G.i," <1<, Kapitul" ",m. fi"t l'ub1i,hnJ in

fiT SotiaJ"'i,,,,,r""'h,,j' "Tr<!

'uk XX

XXI, 1904 ""d 19(15 . j;-.,m

1911. J ' 01

, h" Ii ," ,01" ",,, 01 , he lMlfl""" <C7101oa",

2. R. H. T''' "cy. Rd 'p'M uaJ 1M

"",<I,,,.

R"" .,r Caprla/ism (2nd d.) . """. - Yor" . 1'l47.

J. IbM..p.xn' i. n. ll.
4.

IbM. r- 9').

S. Quat.d Iry Taw""}, Ibod.. p. lOS.

c.

Ibid.. p. 111.

7. Jhk/., 1'. 109.

8.

h n y,h ing ,h.. I.., nC) "''' abl,," rh.. rq """ i" " or bI'l;l!i "10: alld '''II. ..''''''}

is 'lui,, " ''''a,kabl" {"'... p.

,h,' action " I'<'<

On, rard)

" nic i"w , '

"t,' hem "n

'><' h"-dog,.

"" U""L"'" de...cr pc,c"I"i""

I" ,h I.

rid " I oorrprodua ll' pOV"," found

." lOr,.". of 'Il< authoritarian "'hie. h"'" Il.i'[,0fl

be)!)!"" , ho uld be .e""d amI m.de , Ia,e.

,ean"(p.

tel

"f

,hc hru .Ji'y "I

..s.ion in ,it< ha"h

..y ' Uf'.,g,,".'<l

'ha' "-StU' dy

the public ror a n"ai" ,e,nt of

no).

9. IbM., p. 1I3.
10. T1>t Olll} 0 "". Iha' i'. bl' "'hich 00<'

c." go to 'he limit' 0/ 'b" I"""hl..

1/. H" "" ,I", me<I,,,,,,1 '''pm,,,n'.. ',,n " ""I )' , ho' d"s,,>! f<'rm lrom " Il k h w,'
Ar"

",,,u,..,I I>TCf' ,,, ,I, I'l , I... Rd'"m. " ,,,, arKI ,t> lU""'''''' ''''''''''l"nu-'. fl,,'

tI", ""d.. " ,

repn ..""",. , ;"n<. ,he "de",.1 ,c p, e",,,,,,,;,,,,,. or ,he pd mithe re p

re,entAl ;"'" ha,, afn''''' th e ,;une m...ni rll(, or" purer

12. It

in om "j't'<.

be add"d: or " I' a ra'" mawr'al. indd ,ni teh .>o ibblc fi.>r ,I,,' u.e

of ,it< prod""", or merchant.

13. Wha. I mean 'pnifkaU}

"Mnn.'K a<:tio". mo ' i'.,cd b,'

.Ild ",,-k-

I"" entin,cnt.l ""i,f.uiotl, " "'nt i"g 10 d o. ill . " oro. Ih.ol ",hi, h nnn,,'
b<' dolle, ho ' " ,,1)'

,e ......"...l "" gr.on i.

in ,I,.. , oh-i",,,

CO " ... , ,, , " ".

11. All

pc"plc lurn,.hcd ii' ,he """'" furn'shed. " il l.

't:. 0" tl pn,,-;,

;"'''. d .. ,,,, 01 d ,e ",,,, f..c,, "ho "e, e ernpl,,)'e,! at sump'w" ...k,.

I.., E ACClJRS EO

I
1. JOITi' . I 'I f.R5.s. 10 krru' It, HOfHmt.' . Pari . 194 'i, p. 133.

2. Ibi<!.
J.

ChoW J k1lclod" in RIl.>ian.

Lo RIlSSJ<' T"",lut_ nalr' , Pari., 19 47. PI'. 168-69 .

4.

5. Ibid" , p- 254.
6 . V_A. Kr.lvdK'tl ku . 1

(ht:M f " " k;w,

th,. illlpo<.arli

i,

194(,. "If...

h",,, m..

.-.I

<"" i" " ,I ) I>i"",d 1\11' a" , hc n' k, <;on,i". in

ou' ........'" of ,1..-- "",hf<:1 ",fo",u. lOJ\ "

t.tilk.al n ,I,,,, . h o m

tho l I

i'. fJ agJ-..n' ddidl:od.""

III

k q ">lllJ: wnh

i', conn--.dic'ion"

<t1 1C'

its "'-'Jl<',lici.aUtie"

and , in gennal. hum the dmhor\ lac k of imeJlect llai so lidify, n,,{hinl( can bo'
n ",du,It,t!

am ocn ticil}. 11 i, a

, he,

ti k.. " fl}.

, ,,

h" "",d wi' h <olll ior., lit.: an} ot he r

7. lr. cI., p. 403.

8. 1/",1., p. 400.
I Jw Ruman hfllrrKJ , Ne....

9. \'Ii".ll.

1944, p. J 7 R.

10. K",.d",,,ku , PI" 4 71 J6 .

I I h ",",<;" i. P'-IT",",_, 1< Pk", .If.nT<h.,11 Of.' Jf ""'1'" J.k<uaH< a u mort<k, Pa ri., 1948.
I]. 1/,,,1., P 12/ . TI.... . ",h"r ' I'.;ifi.>._ I..w Ii"'" b ,c" T hu, dl1<s1cD1 h elt
h bo< l' , I... ,.,m< ",.,an ' 'l; , ha'

g i,-c< i' in the li",1

"f the G<>n-

CToJJ

13. 11-,.1. , p. 130 (i tal ic. in the o<igin al)_

14_ Ti,e <c" .llt o f
an "fk..t

'ba'

wd<

' .-.n",<;,iol1

IJ<c

vf ",v fo l. v r ,..." , lu " _. '

no' pru>-j .J"d for in it ,

w ,"'1',....,. Tbe I'dnd p lp

pl.,. ", roined I')' /".n

....
1c pa", . .... of ' emorbhl,- .,-tid.,. puhli4 cd ill

15. To V'I: t h,
j Dl".t: ';

i, unah ",

i'

.t1e"a, of Janual"l

15, Iii, l1.nd IR, 1949 .

indicat es, and as p.-ogt""""i", Amer ic:>n intel k """,I, ."nd

16. As
to lhint , on<: ca n

,i'Ufi<ln " f the

of rbe ,

u f 11K' in kl"<",1

SI.le. 11"0'"

. .....H' roc v i . . ...w pu lil;cal I",u:. ,1"'1

un ;",,, .

,,6

NorCS

Ian that the re

11. W ily de,l)'

p" ooence "'" m.,

b" a '''''' ini, iat " ..

no

,Q....

<>I count"", <>11><:. Ih"n til<: UW{ , .. ,h< I Jj,f\i 10 la,l! b<>l" ,.d

n" l""'E"r h... any

nccp< ill do) ' 0 d,,) pol e mici ,

J 8. W hir h i. f",."1,,,n in

moment , md ependent "f a t>, k

10 [,.,

c..<ri"d OlU .

19 . I do "",an fIIoba/' In Ihi....n...., ,ll..

;ndk.t"J in ' h"

PI""." i,

mOf<'

"r " 'IIl"UII puliC),

' n....ningl,,1 ,h.m the Marll1alf Plan

Il w in -...n' f"" li,h, of com ..., , ,, , ..... 'nfu' ion "I .h"

of

,,,,c'ion " ilh ,he", ecotlOl1"C mea'''''''. In ac"",f fac.,

m" ",e d in" ""io..", wOJ,

,oc")' 'm"fd on f)"

w.' in con-

ir 11,..)' w.. ... ' mple-

di mi " . ' ..

t1,,, """. "i'" no ' ,h.

I"",,,ibili,y. of war; but, wilb ,fl<: b.-lp uf II... 'C' ,ibl.. , h. ... , of , he- n" ",,,' ""'.p-

on" ,hat migh' " ,fii, e ill p.;nLi p1c. In .... co,.,.

nlOre cou ld "". Io n...

d ,. 2, "The Bourge<>i. World," p. 129.

) 0. l><:,' .h",.., Pa.,

) I. 1\01h;nl; b", 1""'>interi onl)'. " hic h i. nut .. 'hu,&.

n . The mo"",nt

wou ld arriw when f""" ion "'",,Id "" long", h ' all

agUI1

of

"""",,,,,;,,,,,,,-. It " 'ill b" said Ih"t " nil " m",ll11.n ro,,1<1 pt ', n';" , ,,>(,1. thill:'

ill

,h" I\.la",I",11

tl!;"

pf." J .m that

0p"':lfiOll ",m fail. u r tl,.. ",..1 -

ol lwo ' hinw:

,he,'c i'

I ' p". 1< <Jf. bee"",, rca,,,,, , !>e i'>g con-

man ", iJI aor;'.., a, the

!OciOll!it"'' . is r" ll) COn>ciotlS on l) if it ha,

' 0 il. f

(,,<

Ill' he ..0') pr ""i,e

an olJjct:{ tha' ,,!oid. i. no< ,educible

in' Totl"" " 'g """",k,r."",,,

,ha' ' '' /<'' 10 0 preci"" bet:

that in ", he r U_'ptTh ,Ix> .", ho. " I . h i, hoo k On economl i im ated (by . part
of hi. wo tt 1 in

fint; of mystic:> o f all ti mes (but he h """,.m.:J...,. br rrrno, ul

lTom alJ d ie p"'iupp<><it iot" of tI,.. "a rlu."

to ",hid, 1,,' " PI""'"

onl,. d ", luddi ' j' .,j ""!{-""",)<,,,.,...).

(
'97

Illi.
T,

d"" ign.,ll') IlnK"." Mau

h} I\,<"\'i.>at Ca' la,ljan C"m p", lt io n

n '" \,e.>'" {,""phin H"lI,<l",'

Prlnt..d an.! bound

using

P"P'"