Calculus PDF

Introduction
Functions
JuSaK
CalculusI
Course Plan
Introduction
Functions
Differentiation
Integration
Applications
Discretization
Conclusion
Introduction
Functions
JuSaK
CalculusI
Course Plan
Introduction
Functions
Differentiation
Integration
Applications
Discretization
Conclusion
Introduction
Functions
JuSaK
CalculusI
Outline
Introduction
Functions
Functions
A function can be visualized as a machine that takes in an
input and returns an output.
The collection of all possible inputs is called the domain,
and the collection of all possible outputs is called the
range.
This course deals with functions whose domains and
ranges are R or subsets of R (this is the notation for the
real numbers).
Functions
range.
real numbers).
Functions
range.
real numbers).
Functions
Example
1
Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

and range of f .
Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

and range for each of these.
Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

exponential.
The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

inverse of the exponential function. Give the domain and
range for ln x.
Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

make it into a function?
Functions
Example
1

and range of f .


exponential.

range for ln x.

Functions
Example
1

and range of f .


exponential.

range for ln x.

Functions
Example
1

and range of f .


exponential.

range for ln x.

Functions
Example
1

and range of f .


exponential.

range for ln x.

Functions
Example
1

and range of f .


exponential.

range for ln x.

Operations of Functions
Definition (Composition)
The composition of two functions, f and g, is defined to be the
function that takes as its input x and returns as its output g(x)
fed into f .
f g(x) = f (g(x)).
Example
1
1 x2 can be thought of as the composition of two
functions, f and g. If g = 1 x2 , f would be the function that
takes an input g(x) and returns its square root.
2
Compute the composition f f , i.e. the composition of f

1
with itself, where f (x) = x+1
.
fed into f .
f g(x) = f (g(x)).
Example
1
2

1
.
fed into f .
f g(x) = f (g(x)).
Example
1
2

1
.
fed into f .
f g(x) = f (g(x)).
Example
1
2

1
.
smi98485_ch06a.qxd
Definition
(Inverse)
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The inverse is the that undoes f . If you plug f (x) into f 1 , you
will get x. Notice that this function works both ways. If you plug
f 1 (x) into f (x), you will get back x again.
f 1 (f (x)) = x
f (f 1 (x)) = x.
NOTE: f 1 denotes the inverse, not the reciprocal: f 1 6=
6.2
f (x)
x
Domain { f }
Range { f }
g(x)
Figure 6.3
1
g(x)
= ff 1
(x)
g(x) =
(x).
1
f (x) .
INVERSE F
The notion of an inverse r

is only infrequently used.
one example, take the cas
nect a series of electrodes
on the surface of the body
the heart. This is referred
termine what inputs (i.e.,
served output (the measure
The mathematical not
Inverse Functions
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Page 490
That
verse
Example
of y
Figure 6.10
3
1
1/3
of th
y
=
x.
Reflection
through
Lets consider f (x) = x . Its inverse is f (x) = x .
graph
3 1/3
1Other Transcendental
1/3 3
ing t
490 f 1 (f
Chapter
6
Exponentials,
Logarithms
and
Functions
(x)) = (x ) = x
,
f (f (x)) = (x ) = x.
follo
x
In example 2.5, ywe saw a function that we

y x whenTheo
find that inverse algebraically. Even
we c
can say something graphically. Notice thatSupp
if (a
x 1/3since
f has an inverse, f11 ,y then
yx
a
(b, a)
y x3
we have that
1
(a, b)
x
1
1
x
b
Figure 6.10
Reflection through y = x.
b = f(
I
1
(
f 1 (b) = fExa
f
That is, (b, a) is a point on the graph of y =
Draw
verse function. In particular, we can immediate
of y = f 1 (x), Figure
simply 6.11
by inspection. Further,
Solu
y = x the
of the point (a,
(seesy
.
y =b)
x 3 through
x 1/3line
and y = the
Draw a graph of f (x) = x 3 and its inverse.
Inverse Functions
From
example
2.1, the inverse
Figure 6.11
Notice that
the graphs of f andSolution
f 1 are always
going
to be
the symmetry of their graphs shown in Figure 6
y = x 3 and y = x 1/3 .
symmetric about the line y = x. That is the line where the input
and the output are the same.
Observe that weycan use this symmetry

Weprin
us
tion, even when we dont have a formula for
y =th
yx
line y
1
y
yx
Exampley 2.7
f (x)
y f(x)
Drawing the Grap
1 and
Draw a graph of f (x) = x 5 + 8x 3 + x +
yf
1
1(x)
Figure 6.12
Graph of f and f 1 .
x
1
Solution
In example 2.5,
we showed thatW
y f 1(x)
to-on
one-to-one, but we were unable to find a formu
and
it
1
we can draw a graph
with ease. One
way
1 of f
tal),
1
on the graph of y = f (x) by hand, but we st
cal). dW
ting feature of your graphing utility. To write
Figure 6.13
y = f (x), we introduce
the parameter t and ob
Graph of f and f 1 .
x =t
Theo
and
y
Suppo
are parametric equations for y = f (x). Notice
f ( f t
Classes of Functions
Definition (Polynomials)
A polynomial P(x) is a function of the form
P(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn .
The top power n is called the degree of the polynomial. We can
also write a polynomial using a summation notation,
P(x) =
n
X
ck xk .
k=0
Example
1
x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.
5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.
3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.
P(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn .
P(x) =
n
X
ck xk .
k=0
Example
1
P(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn .
P(x) =
n
X
ck xk .
k=0
Example
1
P(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn .
P(x) =
n
X
ck xk .
k=0
Example
1
P(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn .
P(x) =
n
X
ck xk .
k=0
Example
1
Definition (Rational Functions)
Rational functions are functions of the form
P(x)
where both
Q(x)
P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

NOTE: Be careful of the denominator. When the denominator
takes a value of zero, the function may not be well-defined.
Example
3x 1
1
is a proper rational function.
x2 + x 6
x3 3x + 1
2
is a non-proper rational function.
x2 + 2
A non-proper rational function can be simplified (by doing
long division) into a sum of a polynomial and a proper
rational function. Simplify the given function.
P(x)
where both
Q(x)

Example
3x 1
1
x2 + x 6
x3 3x + 1
2
x2 + 2
P(x)
where both
Q(x)

Example
3x 1
1
x2 + x 6
x3 3x + 1
2
x2 + 2
P(x)
where both
Q(x)

Example
3x 1
1
x2 + x 6
x3 3x + 1
2
x2 + 2
P(x)
where both
Q(x)

Example
3x 1
1
x2 + x 6
x3 3x + 1
2
x2 + 2
Definition (Power Functions)
Power functions are functions of the form cxn where c and n are
constant real numbers.
Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22
What is x ? We are not yet equipped to handle this, but we

will come back to it later.
Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22

Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22

Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22

Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22

Example
1
What is x0 ?
What is x 2 ?
What is x 7 ?
22

Definition
A function f is periodic of period T if
f (x + T) = f (x)
for all x such that x and x + T are in the domain of f . The
smallest number T > 0 is called the fundamental period.
Remark
Unless otherwise noted, we always measure angles in radians.
Degrees
Radians
0
0
30
45
60
90
135
3
4
6= 180, = 3.1415 . . .
180
270
3
2
360
2
Theorem
f () = sin and f () = cos are periodic, of period 2.
Exercise (Trigonometric Functions)
1
What are the definitions of sin and cos.
Sketch the graph of y = sin x and y = cos x.
Pythagorean identity of trigonometric functions:
The functions cos and sin returns the x and y coordinates,
respectively, of a point on the unit circle with angle to the
x-axis:
Trigonometric Functions
You are likely already familiar wi

shown in Figures 0.48a and 0.48b, respe
Proof
Since a complete circle is 2 radians, adding 2 to any angle takes you all the way
around the circle and back to the same point (x, y). This says that
y
sin( + 2) = sin
xand sin x
0
0
w
cos x
1
cos( + 2) = cos ,
x
3
1
r
w
q
q
w
r
.
for
all
values
of
6
2
2
2
2
1
4
2
2
1 already familiar with the graphs of f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x
You 3are likely
3
2
2
Figure 0.48a
y = sin x
shown in Figures 0.48a and 0.48b, respectively.
1
0
y = sin x.
2
3
1
2
y
3 y 2
2
Notice that you could slide the graph o
3
2
2
x
sin x
cos x
1
exact
copy of the graph of y = cos x. Sp
4 1
2
2
3
5
1
0
0
1
6
2
2

3
1
x sin x
x
6
0
1
2
2
2p
p
p
2p
q
q
w
r
3
2
2
1
0
2
2
2
4
21
Figure 0.48a
y = sin x.
3
2
1
2
1 should also observe from Figure

You
familiar identity
Figure
0.48b
y = cos
x
y = cos x.
Trigonometric Functions
Definition
The tangent function is defined by tan =
sin
.
cos
The cotangent function is defined by cot =

The secant function is defined by sec =
cos
.
sin
1
.
cos
The cosecant function is defined by csc =
1
.
sin
NOTE: All four of these have vertical asymptotes at the points

where the denominator goes to zero.
Exercise
Sketch the graph of each of the above trigonometric functions.
give graphs of these functions in Figures 0.49a, 0.49b, 0.49c and 0.49d. Notice in each
TrigonometricWe
Functions
graph the locations of the vertical asymptotes. For the co functions cot x and csc x, the
division by sin x causes vertical asymptotes at 0, , 2, and so on (where sin x = 0). For
tan x and sec x, the division by cos x produces vertical asymptotes at /2, 3/2, 5/2 and
y
y
_ch00b.qxd
44
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AM
2p
w 10:46
p q
Page 44q
x
2p w
2p
p
Figure 0.49a
Chapter 0 Preliminaries
q
2p w
2p
y y== cot
cot
x. x
y
1
q 1
Figure 0.49b
y y== tantan
x. x
y
p
q
p
q
0.49c
yFigure
sec
y=
= sec
x. x
x
w
2p
2p w
p
1
1
x
q
2p
0.49d
yFigure
csc
y=
= csc
x. x
so on (where cos x = 0). Once you have the vertical asymptotes in place, the graphs are rel-
1
to
sin1 hard =
2 cal
your
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
radians
arcsin
y
q
1
q

Figure 6.35
[1, 1] 7 1 2 , 2
y = sin
x.
Judging by the preceding two examples, yo

way of defining a function.
arccos If so, youve got the id
that what we know about the inverse sine Exam
functio
y
sine function. We will not have any other definiti
formulas for this function.
(These things Evaluate
are true
p
should recall from our discussion in section 6.2
Solutio
x on t
simply by reflecting the graph of y = sin

through the line y = x (see Figure 6.35). cos 3
q
4
Turning to y = cos x, can you think of how to
one-to-one? Notice that restricting the domain to
inverse sine function will not work here. (Why n
x [0, ] (see Figur
strict its domain
to the interval
1
1
verse cosine function by
Figure 6.37
y = cos x.
1
[1, 1] 71[0, ]
y = cos
Onc
cosc
if and only
y=
of if
y
y
Note that here, we have
1
Figure 6
We
For y =
= tan1 x if and onlyFunctions

if tan y = x and 2
Inversey Trigonometric
<y<
.
2
(7.4)
he graph of y = tan1 x is then as seen in Figure 6.39, found by reflecting the graph in
gure 6.38 through the line y = x .
arctan
y
q
6
4
2
q

Figure 6.39
(, ) 71 2 , 2
y = tan
x.
5
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
We now turn to defining

have indicated, there are an
trigonometric functions in or
there has been an obvious ch
mathematicians on the choic
are several reasonable ways
restrict
these

differently. W
0, 2 2 , . You might i
You need only think about th
x = 2 . See Figure 6.40 for a
x = 2 .) Consequently, we d
10
Figure 6.40
y = sec x on [0, ].
arcsec
y
p
y = sec1 x
10
5
1 1
x
5
Figure 6.41
(,
) 7
[0, ]
1
y = sec
x.
10
A graph of sec1 x is shown

Example 7.6
Evaluate sec1 ( 2).

Solution
You must lo
Exponentials and Logarithmic Functions

Definition
For any constant b > 0, the function f (x) = bx is called an
exponential function. Here, b is called the base and x is the
exponent.
The most common exponential function, referred to as the
exponential, is ex . This is the most common because of its
nice integral and differential properties.
The number e is an irrational number defined by

1 n
e = lim 1 +
2.718281828459 . . . .
n
n
Algebraic properties of the exponential function
ex ey = ex+y
(ex )y = exy
Exponential and Logarithmic Function

Definition
For any positive number b 6= 1, the logarithm function with base
b, written logb x, is defined by
y = logb x x = by .
As with exponential functions, the most useful bases turn
out to be 2, 10, and e.
We usually abbreviate log10 x by log x.
Similarly, loge x is usually abbreviated ln x (for natural
logarithm).
The functions ex and ln x are inverse of each other
eln x = x for any x > 0,
and, by definition,
ln(ex ) = x for any x.

Theorem
For any positive base b 6= 1 and positive numbers x and y,
(i) logb x is defined only for x > 0,
(ii) logb 1 = 0,
(iii) logb (xy) = logb x + logb y,
(iv) logb (x/y) = logb x logb y,
(v) logb (xy ) = y logb x.
Exercise
Write each as a single logarithm:
(a) log2 27x log2 3x
(b) ln 8 3 ln(1/2)
Using the rules of exponents and logarithms, notice that

we can rewrite any exponential as an exponential with
base e, as follows. For any base a > 0, we have
x
ax = eln(a ) = ex ln a .
Using these same properties we can rewrite any logarithm
in terms of natural logarithms, as follows. For any positive
base b (b 6= 1), we have
logb x =
ln x
.
ln b
Eulers Formula
The relation between trigonometric and exponential
functions is given by the Eulers formula
eix = cos x + i sin x.
The i in the exponent is the imaginary number i 1,

i.e. i2 = 1.
In many engineering
areas, the symbol i = 1 is often
replaced by j = 1.
Imaginary numbers are part of complex numbers, C.
Real numbers are also part of complex numbers.
Exercise
1
2
Show that eix = cos x i sin x.

Use Eulers formula to prove the following trigonometric
identities: (i) cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y, and
(ii) sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y.
Exercise
Exercise
1
Find the domain of

f (x) =
1
x2
3x + 2
Find the domain of

f (x) = ln(x3 6x2 + 8x).
The Exponential
What is the exponential function ex ?
We know e0 = 1, but what is e ? or ei ?
Definition (The Exponential ex )
The exponential function is defined using the following series
(i.e. long polynomial)
ex = 1 + x +
=
x2 x3 x4
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
k
X
x
k=0
k!
where k! k(k 1)(k 2) . . . 3 2 1, and 0! 1.

When x = 0 we get the expected result e0 = 1.
Note that the true value of e = 1 + 1 +
1
2!
1
3!
+ .
The Exponential
The exponential function has the following properties
ex+y = ex ey
exy = (ex )y
d x
e
Rdx
= ex
ex dx = ex + C
Example

x2 x3 x4
+
+
+
1+x+
2!
3!
4!
2x 3x2 4x3
= 0+1+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
x2 x3 x4
= 1+x+
+
+
+ = ex
2!
3!
4!
d x
e =
dx
d
dx
Eulers Formula
Recall the imaginary number i is defined by i 1.

So i2 = 1, i3 = i, i4 = 1, and this continues cyclically.
Recall the Eulers Formula:
eix = cos x + i sin x,
and using the series definition of the exponential function
eix = 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix

x2
=
1
2!
|
(ix)2 (ix)3 (ix)4

+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
i2 x 2 i3 x 3 i4 x 4
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
x2
x3 x4
x5
i +
+ i +
2!
3! 4! 5!

x4
x3 x5
+
+i x
+

4!
3!
5!
{z
} |
{z
}
cos x
sin x
Eulers Formula

eix = 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix

x2
=
1
2!
|
(ix)2 (ix)3 (ix)4

+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
i2 x 2 i3 x 3 i4 x 4
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
x2
x3 x4
x5
i +
+ i +
2!
3! 4! 5!

x4
x3 x5
+
+i x
+

4!
3!
5!
{z
} |
{z
}
cos x
sin x
Eulers Formula

eix = 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix +
= 1 + ix

x2
=
1
2!
|
(ix)2 (ix)3 (ix)4

+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
i2 x 2 i3 x 3 i4 x 4
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
x2
x3 x4
x5
i +
+ i +
2!
3! 4! 5!

x4
x3 x5
+
+i x
+

4!
3!
5!
{z
} |
{z
}
cos x
sin x
Eulers Formula
The series definition of cos function is
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
The series definition of sin function is
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1
Note: These formulas should be memorized, both in their

long polynomial form and their summation notation form.
Example
1
Use Eulers formula to show that ei = 1.
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
satisfies the property ex+y = ex ey .
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Eulers Formula
X
x2 x4 x6
x2k
cos x = 1
+
+ =
(1)k
2!
4!
6!
(2k)!
k=1
cos x = x
X
x2k+1
x3 x5 x7
+
+ =
(1)k
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=1

Example
1
Compute 1
Verify that
Show that
d
dx
ex
2
2!
4
4!
6
6!
+ .
sin x = cos x.
Series definition of ex
f0 (x) = 1
f1 (x) = 1 + x
f2 (x) = 1 + x +
f3 (x) = 1 + x +
..
.
x2
2
x2
2
x3
6
Each polynomial in the sequence is, in a sense, the best

approximation possible of that degree.
The more terms included, the better the approximation.
This is how calculators compute the exponential function
(without having to add up infinitely many things).
Taylor Series
The long polynomial definition of ex is called a Taylor
series about x = 0.
We have found the Taylor series for ex , cos x, and sin x.
Q: Is every function has a Taylor series?
A: Most reasonable functions have a Taylor series, i.e.
every reasonable function f can be written as
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + .
k=0
Now, we will learn how to compute the coefficients ck for a

given function f .
Taylor Series
series about x = 0.
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + .
k=0

given function f .
Taylor Series
series about x = 0.
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + .
k=0

given function f .
Taylor Series
series about x = 0.
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + .
k=0

given function f .
Taylor Series
series about x = 0.
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + .
k=0

given function f .
Taylor Series
Definition (Taylor Series)
Taylor series at x = 0 (also known as Maclaurin series) is
f (x) = f (0) +
X f (k) (0)
f 0 (x)
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
x+
x +
x + =
xk ,
1!
2!
3!
k!
k=0
where f (k) (x) is the kth derivative of f evaluated at x = 0. In

other words, the coefficient ck is given by

f (k) (0)
1 dk f
ck =
=
.
k!
k! dxk 0
The definition only actually requires information about the
function at a single point (in this case, 0).
It is best to think of the Taylor series as a way of turning a
function into a long polynomial (series).
Taylor Series
f (x) = f (0) +
X f (k) (0)
f 0 (x)
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
x+
x +
x + =
xk ,
1!
2!
3!
k!
k=0


f (k) (0)
1 dk f
ck =
=
.
k!
k! dxk 0
Taylor Series
f (x) = f (0) +
X f (k) (0)
f 0 (x)
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
x+
x +
x + =
xk ,
1!
2!
3!
k!
k=0


f (k) (0)
1 dk f
ck =
=
.
k!
k! dxk 0
Taylor Series
Example
1
Compute the Taylor series for ex using the above definition

to see that it matches the given series from the last lecture.
Compute the Taylor series for sin x using the above

definition, and verify it matches the series found using
Eulers formula.
Compute the Taylor series for f (x) = x2 5x + 3.
Some functions are hard (or even impossible) to express

using combinations of familiar functions. Nevertheless,
these functions can often be understood by computing
their Taylor series. For example, the Bessel function,
denoted J0 , is best defined by its Taylor series
J0 =
X
(1)k
k=0
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
Example
1


Eulers formula.

J0 =
X
(1)k
k=0
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
Example
1


Eulers formula.

J0 =
X
(1)k
k=0
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
Example
1


Eulers formula.

J0 =
X
(1)k
k=0
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
Example
1


Eulers formula.

J0 =
X
(1)k
k=0
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
It turns out that the Bessel function describes many physical
phenomena, including the shape of a hanging chain as it is
rotated, and the shape of the waves formed after a stone is
thrown into a pool of water.
J0 =
X
k=0
(1)k
1
1
1
x2k
= 1 2 x2 + 4
x4 6
x6 +
2k
2
2
2 (k!)
2
2 (2!)
2 (3!)2
Taylor Series
Taylor series is useful because it turns a potentially
complicated function into something simple: a polynomial.
Granted, this polynomial is infinitely long in general, but in
practice it is only necessary to compute the first few terms
to get a good, local approximation of the function.
The more terms one includes, the better the polynomial
approximates the function.
Particle with position p(t).
At t = 0, the position is 5:
p0 (t) = 5.
At t = 0, the velocity is 3:
p1 (t) = 5 + 3t.
At t = 0, the acceleration is 4:
p2 (t) = 5 + 3t 2t2 .
Taylor Series
Exercise
1
2
x sin(x ) by substitution.
3
ex by substitution.
Find the Taylor series for
Find the Taylor series for f (x) = cos2 x by combining terms.
Use the trigonometric identity

cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
2
and substitution to find the series for cos2 x. Try to give the
series in summation notation (other than the first term).
Taylor Series
Exercise
1
2
3
ex by substitution.

cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
2
Taylor Series
Exercise
1
2
3
ex by substitution.

cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
2
Taylor Series
Exercise
1
2
3
ex by substitution.

cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
2
Taylor Series
Exercise
1
2
3
ex by substitution.

cos2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
2
Hyperbolic Functions
Definition
The hyperbolic sine function is defined by
sinh x =
ex ex
2
The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by

sinh x =
ex + ex
2
The hyperbolic tangent function is defined by

tanh x =
sinh x
ex ex
= x
cosh x
e + ex
Definition
sinh x =
ex ex
2

sinh x =
ex + ex
2

tanh x =
sinh x
ex ex
= x
cosh x
e + ex
Definition
sinh x =
ex ex
2

sinh x =
ex + ex
2

tanh x =
sinh x
ex ex
= x
cosh x
e + ex
Definition
sinh x =
ex ex
2

sinh x =
ex + ex
2

tanh x =
sinh x
ex ex
= x
cosh x
e + ex
Exercise
Verify the following:
(a) cosh2 u sinh2 u = 1.
(b)
d
dx
sinh x = cosh x.
Exercise
(b)
d
dx
sinh x = cosh x.
Exercise
(b)
d
dx
sinh x = cosh x.
The hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine give the x and y
coordinates, respectively, for points on the hyperbola
x2 y2 = 1.
[Compare this to the sine and cosine functions which give the x
and y coordinates for points on the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1.]
Example
1
Using the Taylor series for ex and substitution, show that

the Taylor series for cosh and sinh are
cosh x = 1 +
X x2k
x2 x4
+
+ =
,
2!
4!
(2k)!
k=0
sinh x = x +
x3
3!
x5
5!
+ =
X
k=0
x2k+1
.
(2k + 1)!
Example (cont.)
S: Using the Taylor series for ex and substitution
ex + ex
2

1
x2
x2
=
1+x+
+ + 1 x +

2
2!
2!

1
x2
x4
=
2 + 2 + 2 +
2
2!
4!
x2 x4
=1+
+
+
2!
4!
X
x2k
=
(2k)!
cosh x =
k=0
Example (cont.)
S: Using the Taylor series for ex and substitution
ex ex
2

1
x2
x2
=
1+x+
+ 1 x +

2
2!
2!

1
x3
x5
=
2x + 2 + 2 +
2
3!
5!
x3 x5
=x+
+
+
3!
5!
X
x2k+1
=
(2k + 1)!
sinh x =
k=0
Example
2
By differentiating the Taylor series for sinh & cosh, show that
d
sinh x = cosh x,
dx
d
cosh x = sinh x.
dx
Example (cont.)
S: Differentiating hyperbolic sine gives
k=0
k=0
X
x2k
d
d X x2k+1
(2k + 1)
sinh x =
=
dx
dx
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!
X
x2k
=
= cosh x
(2k)!
k=0
Differentiating hyperbolic cosine gives
X
d
d X x2k
x2k1
cosh x =
=
(2k)
dx
dx
(2k)!
(2k)!
=
k=0
X x2k1
k=1
(2k 1)!
k=0
k=0
x2k+1
= sinh x
(2k + 1)!
Example (cont.)
k=0
k=0
X
x2k
d
d X x2k+1
(2k + 1)
sinh x =
=
dx
dx
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!
X
x2k
=
= cosh x
(2k)!
k=0
X
d
d X x2k
x2k1
cosh x =
=
(2k)
dx
dx
(2k)!
(2k)!
=
k=0
X x2k1
k=1
(2k 1)!
k=0
k=0
x2k+1
= sinh x
(2k + 1)!
Example (cont.)
k=0
k=0
X
x2k
d
d X x2k+1
(2k + 1)
sinh x =
=
dx
dx
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!
X
x2k
=
= cosh x
(2k)!
k=0
X
d
d X x2k
x2k1
cosh x =
=
(2k)
dx
dx
(2k)!
(2k)!
=
k=0
X x2k1
k=1
(2k 1)!
k=0
k=0
x2k+1
= sinh x
(2k + 1)!
Higher Order Terms in Taylor Series

Example
1
Find the first two non-zero terms of the Taylor series for
2
f (x) = 1 2xesin x .
S: Beginning with the innermost function, in this case sin x2 ,
we find that
sin x2 = x2
1
1 2 3
(x ) + HOT = x2 x6 + HOT.
3!
6
Then plugging this into the series for ex gives

2
1 6
1 2
sin x2
2
x + HOT
e
= 1 + x x + HOT +
6
2!

1 2
3
+
x + HOT + HOT
3!

Example
1
2
we find that
sin x2 = x2
1 2 3
1
(x ) + HOT = x2 x6 + HOT.
3!
6

2
1 6
1 2
sin x2
2
x + HOT
e
= 1 + x x + HOT +
6
2!

1 2
3
+
x + HOT + HOT
3!

Example
1
2
we find that
sin x2 = x2
1 2 3
1
(x ) + HOT = x2 x6 + HOT.
3!
6

2
1 6
1 2
sin x2
2
x + HOT
e
= 1 + x x + HOT +
6
2!

1 2
3
+
x + HOT + HOT
3!

Example
1
2
we find that
sin x2 = x2
1 2 3
1
(x ) + HOT = x2 x6 + HOT.
3!
6

2
1 6
1 2
sin x2
2
x + HOT
e
= 1 + x x + HOT +
6
2!

1 2
3
+
x + HOT + HOT
3!

Example (cont.)
Continuing from previous page
sin x2

1 4
1 1 6
= ... = 1 + x + x +
x + HOT
2
6 6
1
= 1 + x2 + x4 + HOT
2
2
Then to complete the answer, plug this into the original

function to find

1 4
2
f (x) = 1 2x 1 + x + x + HOT
2
= 1 2x 2x3 x5 + HOT

Example (cont.)
sin x2

1 4
1 1 6
= ... = 1 + x + x +
x + HOT
2
6 6
1
= 1 + x2 + x4 + HOT
2
2

function to find

1 4
2
f (x) = 1 2x 1 + x + x + HOT
2
= 1 2x 2x3 x5 + HOT

Example (cont.)
sin x2

1 4
1 1 6
= ... = 1 + x + x +
x + HOT
2
6 6
1
= 1 + x2 + x4 + HOT
2
2

function to find

1 4
2
f (x) = 1 2x 1 + x + x + HOT
2
= 1 2x 2x3 x5 + HOT

Example
2
Compute the Taylor series (at 0) for sin2 x up to and

including terms of order 6. Try to give the full Taylor series
in summation notation.
S: Using the Taylor series definition for sin x and substitution

x3 x5
x3 x5
2
+

x
+

sin x = x
3!
5!
3!
5!

1 1 4
1
1
1
2
=x +
x +
+
+
x6 +
3 3
5! (3!)2 5!
2
1
= x2 x4 + x6 .
3
45

Example
2


x3 x5
x3 x5
2
sin x = x
+

x
+

3!
5!
3!
5!

1 1 4
1
1
1
2
=x +
x +
+
+
x6 +
3 3
5! (3!)2 5!
2
1
= x2 x4 + x6 .
3
45

Example
2


x3 x5
x3 x5
2
sin x = x
+

x
+

3!
5!
3!
5!

1 1 4
1
1
1
2
=x +
x +
+
+
x6 +
3 3
5! (3!)2 5!
2
1
= x2 x4 + x6 .
3
45

Example (cont.)
S: To get the full Taylor series, one can use the identity
sin2 x =
1 cos(2x)
2
to find that

1
1 cos(2x)
(2x)2 (2x)4
=
+

sin x =
1 1
2
2
2!
4!

1 (2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6
=
+
+
2
2!
4!
6!
(2x)2k
1X
(1)k1
=
2
(2k)!
2
k=1

Example (cont.)
S: To get the full Taylor series, one can use the identity
sin2 x =
1 cos(2x)
2
to find that

1
1 cos(2x)
(2x)2 (2x)4
=
+

sin x =
1 1
2
2
2!
4!

1 (2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6
=
+
+
2
2!
4!
6!
(2x)2k
1X
(1)k1
=
2
(2k)!
2
k=1
Convergence
There are two main issues of Taylor series expansion:
1
2
A function may not have a Taylor series at all;

A functions Taylor series may not converge everywhere,
even within the functions domain.
Functions without a Taylor series

Some functions cannot be expressed in the form
f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0
Examples: tan which has vertical asymptotes, and ln which

is not defined for x 0. Polynomials are not able to capture
these sorts of discontinuities and asymptotes.
2
Taylor series might be well behaved for some values of x

and non-nonsensical for other values of x.
Example: Geometric series
1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
only holds when |x| < 1.
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
1
2


f (x) =
ck xk = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
k=0

2

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + =
1
1x
Convergence
Every Taylor series has a convergence domain, called
interval of convergence, where the series is well-behaved,
and outside that domain the series will not converge.
For many functions, the domain is the whole real number
line (e.g. the series for ex , sin x, cos x, sinh x, and cosh x all
converge everywhere).
Convergence
Every Taylor series has a convergence domain, called
interval of convergence, where the series is well-behaved,
and outside that domain the series will not converge.
For many functions, the domain is the whole real number
line (e.g. the series for ex , sin x, cos x, sinh x, and cosh x all
converge everywhere).
Convergence
Example
A beam of light of intensity L hits a
pane of glass. Half of the light is
reflected, and a third of the light is
transmitted; the rest is absorbed.
When a beam of light of intensity L
hits two parallel panes with an air gap
between them, how much light is
transmitted through both panes? (The
following figure shows how the light
gets reflected and rereflected. The
first transmitted and reflected beams
of light are labeled with their
respective intensities. The question
asks for the total of the beams of light
emerging on the right side of the right
pane of glass).
Convergence
Example (cont.)
Note that each beam is 14 the previous
beam. Thus the total light emerging on the
right side of the right pane of glass is
L
L
L
+
+
+
9
36
144

L
1
1
=
1+ +
+
9
4
16
!
1
L
=
9 1 14
=
L4
4L
=
,
93
27
by using the geometric series formula.
Taylor Series
Example
Use the Taylor series of
Hint: recall that
S: Note that
1
1x
to derive the Taylor series of ln(1 + x).

Z
1
ln(1 + x) =
dx.
1+x
1
1
=
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
1+x
1 (x)
Integrating both sides

Z
dx
=
1+x
(1 x + x2 x3 + x4 ) dx
ln(1 + x) + C = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Plugging x = 0 shows that C = 0, and so
ln(1 + x) = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Taylor Series
Example
Hint: recall that
S: Note that
1
1x

Z
1
ln(1 + x) =
dx.
1+x
1
1
=
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
1+x
1 (x)

Z
dx
=
1+x
(1 x + x2 x3 + x4 ) dx
ln(1 + x) + C = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
ln(1 + x) = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Taylor Series
Example
Hint: recall that
S: Note that
1
1x

Z
1
ln(1 + x) =
dx.
1+x
1
1
=
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
1+x
1 (x)

Z
dx
=
1+x
(1 x + x2 x3 + x4 ) dx
ln(1 + x) + C = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
ln(1 + x) = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Taylor Series
Example
Hint: recall that
S: Note that
1
1x

Z
1
ln(1 + x) =
dx.
1+x
1
1
=
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
1+x
1 (x)

Z
dx
=
1+x
(1 x + x2 x3 + x4 ) dx
ln(1 + x) + C = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
ln(1 + x) = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Taylor Series
Example
Hint: recall that
S: Note that
1
1x

Z
1
ln(1 + x) =
dx.
1+x
1
1
=
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
1+x
1 (x)

Z
dx
=
1+x
(1 x + x2 x3 + x4 ) dx
ln(1 + x) + C = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
ln(1 + x) = x
X
x2
x3
xk
+
=
(1)k1
2
3
k
k=1
Taylor Series
Example
Use the fact that
Z
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2
to find the Taylor series for arctan x.

S: Using the fact, and the geometric series,
Z
Z
1
1
arctan x =
dx
=
dx
1 + x2
1 (x2 )
Z
= (1 x2 + x4 x6 + ) dx, (|x| < 1)
=x
x5
x7
x3
+
+ + C.
3
5
7
Plugging in x = 0 gives C = 0, since arctan 0 = 0. Thus,
arctan x = x
X
x3
x5
x2k+1
+
=
(1)k
,
3
5
2k + 1
k=0
(|x| < 1).
! arctan x is defined for all x, but its Taylor series only converges for |x| < 1.
Taylor Series
Example
Use the fact that
Z
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2

Z
Z
1
1
arctan x =
dx
=
dx
1 + x2
1 (x2 )
Z
= (1 x2 + x4 x6 + ) dx, (|x| < 1)
=x
x5
x7
x3
+
+ + C.
3
5
7
arctan x = x
X
x3
x5
x2k+1
+
=
(1)k
,
3
5
2k + 1
k=0
(|x| < 1).
Taylor Series
Example
Use the fact that
Z
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2

Z
Z
1
1
arctan x =
dx
=
dx
1 + x2
1 (x2 )
Z
= (1 x2 + x4 x6 + ) dx, (|x| < 1)
=x
x5
x7
x3
+
+ + C.
3
5
7
arctan x = x
X
x3
x5
x2k+1
+
=
(1)k
,
3
5
2k + 1
k=0
(|x| < 1).
Taylor Series
Example
Use the fact that
Z
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2

Z
Z
1
1
arctan x =
dx
=
dx
1 + x2
1 (x2 )
Z
= (1 x2 + x4 x6 + ) dx, (|x| < 1)
=x
x5
x7
x3
+
+ + C.
3
5
7
arctan x = x
X
x3
x5
x2k+1
+
=
(1)k
,
3
5
2k + 1
k=0
(|x| < 1).
Taylor Series
Example
Use the fact that
Z
arctan x =
dx
1 + x2

Z
Z
1
1
arctan x =
dx
=
dx
1 + x2
1 (x2 )
Z
= (1 x2 + x4 x6 + ) dx, (|x| < 1)
=x
x5
x7
x3
+
+ + C.
3
5
7
arctan x = x
X
x3
x5
x2k+1
+
=
(1)k
,
3
5
2k + 1
k=0
(|x| < 1).
Taylor Series
Exercise
Another important function is the binomial series (1 + x) , where is
some constant. Show that
( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + x +
x +
x +
2!
3!

X
k
=
x
k
k=0
where

( 1)( 2) ( k + 1)
.
=
k
k!
! The series also only holds for |x| < 1.
Taylor Series
Exercise
( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + x +
x +
x +
2!
3!

X
k
=
x
k
k=0
where

( 1)( 2) ( k + 1)
.
=
k
k!
Taylor Series
Exercise
( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + x +
x +
x +
2!
3!

X
k
=
x
k
k=0
where

( 1)( 2) ( k + 1)
.
=
k
k!
Taylor Series: Summary

The following hold for all x:
x
e =
cos x =
sin x =
cosh x =
sinh x =
k
X
x
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
The following hold for |x| < 1:
X
1
=
xk
1x
k!
k=0
(1)k
(1)k
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
ln(1 + x) =
(1)k+1
k=1
arctan x =
(1 + x) =
(1)k
k=0

X
k=0
xk
k
x2k+1
2k + 1

k
x
k

x
e =
cos x =
sin x =
cosh x =
sinh x =
k
X
x
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
1
=
xk
1x
k!
k=0
(1)k
(1)k
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
ln(1 + x) =
(1)k+1
k=1
arctan x =
(1 + x) =
(1)k
k=0

X
k=0
xk
k
x2k+1
2k + 1

k
x
k

x
e =
cos x =
sin x =
cosh x =
sinh x =
k
X
x
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
k=0
X
1
=
xk
1x
k!
k=0
(1)k
(1)k
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
x2k
(2k)!
x2k+1
(2k + 1)!
ln(1 + x) =
(1)k+1
k=1
arctan x =
(1 + x) =
(1)k
k=0

X
k=0
xk
k
x2k+1
2k + 1

k
x
k

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Introduction

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Polynomials, e.g. f (x) = x3 5x2 + x + 9. Give the domain

Trigonometric functions, e.g. sin, cos, tan. Give the domain

Exponential function, ex . Give the domain and range for the

The natural logarithm function, ln x. Recall that this is the

Is sin1 a function? If so, why? If not, is there a way to

Compute the composition f f , i.e. the composition of f

Compute the composition f f , i.e. the composition of f

Compute the composition f f , i.e. the composition of f

Compute the composition f f , i.e. the composition of f

NOTE: f 1 denotes the inverse, not the reciprocal: f 1 6=

The notion of an inverse r

In example 2.5, ywe saw a function that we

Draw a graph of f (x) = x 3 and its inverse.

Observe that weycan use this symmetry

Drawing the Grap

x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.

3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.

x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.

3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.

x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.

3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.

x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.

3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.

x5 2x4 + 4x2 1 is a polynomial of degree 5.

5x2 + 4x 3 is of degree 2, a.k.a. quadratic function.

3x 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, a.k.a linear function.

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

What is x ? We are not yet equipped to handle this, but we