Outline

Fundamentals of Magnetic Resonance

Imaging
-- Pulse Sequence & Safety

Image formation

Basic Pulse Sequence

Safety

Gradients

Image Formation

Start, 16/2 8:18pm

A gradient is simply a deliberate change in the magnetic field

Gradients are used in MRI to linearly modify the magnetic field from
one point in space to another

Gradients are applied along an axis (i.e. Gx along the x-axis, Gy

along the y-axis, Gz along the z-axis)

What happens to the frequency of precession when we turn on a

gradient?

Effect of Gradient on Rate of Precession

Effect of a Gradient

Spatial Localization

Slice Selection

Gradients, linear change in magnetic field, will provide

additional information needed to localize signal
Makes imaging possible/practical
Couldnt spatially localize MRI signal instead moved
subject to get each voxel
Nobel prize awarded for this idea!

Use magnetic gradient to modify

frequency of the protons
precession
A slice will be selected with the
protons precess with the same
frequency as that of the RF
pulse.
Slice location vs slice thickness

As we need to know where

the signal come from

The slice selection gradient is

always applied perpendicular to
the slice plane.

Slice Orientation

Just like a tuning fork!

Only the same thing will resonance

Inplane Spatial Localization

An example

Apply gradient in one direction

Frequency encoding

Could be
the other
way round!

Phase Encoding

1. Initial state

Protons decrease or increase their

rate of precession

Turn off the gradient

All of the protons will again precess
at the same rate

2. Gradient turned on

Difference is that they will have

different phase from each other
3. Gradient turned off

Phase encoding

A 2D Scenario

Phase encoding in practice

Frequency encoding

Phase
encoding
gradient of
signal 1

Before slice selection (only spin) At selected slice (precess with Larmor frequency)

Phase
encoding
gradient of
signal 128

Phase encoding

Phase
encoding
gradient of
signal 256

phase encoding gradient is applied phase encoding gradient is turned off

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

in 2003

Frequency Encoding
Apply gradient in one direction to modify the rate at which the
protons spin based on location of the proton

for discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging

Make MRI applicable to imaging human

Leave it on
Result:

Protons that experience a decrease in the net magnetic field
precess slower

Protons that experience an
increase in the net magnetic
field precess faster

Paul C. Lauterbur
USA

Sir Peter Mansfield

UK

= xG

Frequency offset from the center

position relative to center

frequency encoding gradient

Before frequency
encoding

Frequency encoding
turned on

Introduced frequency and phase

encoding principle in the magnetic field
for spatial localization in MRI

Developed a mathematical
process to speed the image
reading, i.e., EPI

Signal Detection

Detecting Net Magnetization using Coil

Electromagnetic Induction!

K-Space

k-space is what is actually measured in MRI (i.e.,

the signal from M0 is transformed into x and y
values via k-space)

K-Space and MR Image

Mxy signal does not become 0 instantly, the spins merely diphase

Can rephase spins to form a symmetrical MR signal -> echo

MR data (k-space) from scanner is a line by line acquisition of echoes

Inverse Fourier Transform of the data gives required image

kPE

k-space lines
Inverse Fourier

transform

Echo
Rane SD. Texas A&M University, 2005.

Imaging and K-Space

K-Space and MR Image

Center of k-space

original image

full k-space data

high
signal

Imaging and K-Space

Everything else

Imaging and K-Space

Full Frequency Half Phase

Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1991

Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002

For his development of nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy for determining
the three-dimensional structure of
biological macromolecules in solution"
Honorary Professor, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong

for the development of Fourier

Transform nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy and
the development of multidimensional NMR techniques

Kurt Wthrich
Switzerland

Richard Robert Ernst

Switzerland

Timing Diagram for an Imaging Sequence

as a function of time

Basic Pulse Sequences

a 90o slice selective pulse

a slice selection gradient pulse
a phase encoding gradient pulse
a frequency encoding gradient pulse
a signal
time
Repeat it!
TR: Repetition Time (the time between repetitions)
Phase encoding gradient changes: magnitude varies in equal steps between
the maximum amplitude of the gradient and the minimum value.

Spin Echo (SE)

Free Induction Decay (FID)

The simplest signal form generated in MRI
The magnetization component has a non-zero component in
the xy plane
The precessing magnetisation will induce a corresponding
oscillating voltage in a detection coil surrounding the sample
Tissue 1

very flexible and allow the user to acquire images in

which either T1 or T2 (dominantly) influences the signal
intensity displayed in the MR images.

Gs
G

Tissue 2

Gf

Higher induced voltage can

give a brighter signal

TI
TE
TR

MR signal intensity

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dFp2Z3wjrmo&list=PLCD41685D8499AAB1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMh11VtUA5o&list=PLCD41685D8499AAB1

TE= only can give

you one piece of
data

TR =repetition time for if 3D image is needed

Gradient Echo (GE)

For SE, relatively long imaging times

But not for GE, due to
flip angle is typically smaller than 90 (i.e., 20 ~ 60)
They have no spin-echo because there is no 180 pulse
Rephasing is done by means of gradient reversal only

Echo planar imaging (EPI)

The fastest 2D imaging sequence currently available

Could be a SE or a GE sequence, multiple echoes are generated in one
excitation
Acquisition time TA for one image is 100ms and even lower
Acquisition time TA2D =Nph*TR/ETL (Nph is inplane phase encoding steps)
ETL is the Echo Train Length (i.e., the number of echoes per excitation)
Used in functional MRI, diffusion and perfusion imaging

Gs
G
Gf

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rvpa1gqG06g&list=PLAE12114468910462

Major Pulse Sequence Parameters

Echo Time (TE) time after 90o RF pulse until readout. Determines
how much transverse relaxation will occur before reading one row
of the image.

Repetition Time (TR) Determines how much longitudinal

relaxation will occur before constructing the next row of the image.
In spin echo, TR is the time between two successive 90o RF
pulses
In gradient echo, TR is the time between centers of two small
angle pulse

Contrast in MRI: T1-Weighting

500ms

3000ms

Contrast in MRI: T2-Weighting

Biological Effect of MRI and Safety

50ms
30ms
30ms

50ms

180ms
180 ms

Safety Concerns
1. Static Magnetic Field Bo
2. Gradient Magnetic Fields
3. Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields

Safety Concern 1 -- Static Magnetic Field

The main magnetic field of a 1.5 T magnet is about 30,000
times the strength of the earth's magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic Objects Projectile Effect
Effect on implants
pacemakers is disturbed
intracranial aneurysm clips could be ferromagnetic and experience a
torque or twisting in a magnetic field
aneurysm clip might experience a fatal hemorrhage
heart valves (e.g., Star-Edwards) could be torqued in a magnetic field,
but not necessarily

Recall: Magnetic Properties of Material

iron, nickel, or cobalt

e.g., aneurysm clips, parts of pacemakers, shrapnel, etc.
large positive magnetic susceptibility
remain magnetized after an external magnetic field is removed

magnetic susceptibility between ferromagnetic and paramagnetic

e.g., iron containing contrast agents for bowel, liver, and lymph
node imaging.
Contrast agent

oxygen and ions of various metals like Fe, Mg, and Gd

positive magnetic susceptibility
Contrast agent

no intrinsic atomic magnetic moment

small negative magnetic susceptibility
e.g. water, copper, nitrogen, barium sulfate, and most tissues are
diamagnetic

Safety Concern 1 -- Static Magnetic Field

Safety

The whopping strength of the magnet makes safety

essential.
Things fly Even big things!

Safety Concern 2 Varying Gradient Fields

Safety Concern 1 -- Static Magnetic Field

Safety

Changing magnetic field induce electrical currents in conductors.

Effect:
For surgical metal implant, the potential exists for electrical currents being
induced in the metal with subsequent heating

Safety Concern 3 -- Radio Frequency

Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

defined as the power absorbed per mass of tissue

Unit: W/kg
the heating is normally insignificant
But EPI and MRS are possible of over heating tissue

Proportional to
the square of Bo !

Solution:

Shorter ETL
Longer TR
Less slices
Revise the RF sequence to reduce the energy

Burn from looped cables

Very rapidly changing magnetic fields as may be achieved with EPI

could cause nerve stimulation, which can affect motor nerves -muscle contraction

Guidelines to Observe

Safety

Anyone going near the magnet subjects, staff and visitors

must be thoroughly screened:
Subjects must have no metal in their bodies:
pacemaker, aneurysm clips, metal implants (e.g.,
cochlear implants), interuterine devices (IUDs)
some dental work (fillings okay) Functional MRI not
suggest
Subjects must remove metal from their bodies
jewellery, watch, piercings, coins, wallet, etc.
any metal that may distort the field (e.g., underwire
bra)
Subjects must be given ear plugs (acoustic noise can reach
120 dB)

What does radiologist say?

What
the radiologist say

Reference
Reference

http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/photocat/ga
llery3.cfm?image=mr-safetyexplained.jpg&pg=sfty_mr

The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging by Bushberg et al.

(Basics).
The Basics of MRI, Joseph P. Hornak, Ph.D. (principle)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging by Stark and Bradley, second
edition (Artifacts, Basics, Instrumentation, Pulse Sequences).
Safety Considerations in MR Imaging by Kanal et al. Radiology
176:593-606, 1990 (Safety).