EG5111 Advanced Technology, Planning & Production

Advanced Foundations
1 Piling - Introduction

What is piling?

Why so popular?

Factors affecting choice

Piles can be made from steel or timber although in most housing work
piles are made from insitu or pre-cast reinforced concrete. They are
used either to transmit loads from the building through soft or
compressible ground to firmer strata below (end bearing pile), or to
distribute loads into the subsoil along the length of the pile (friction
pile). In housing, a concrete beam across the top of the piles
distributes the load from the load bearing brickwork into the piles
themselves. In framed buildings the piles usually support concrete or
steel columns.
20 or 30 years ago piling was comparatively rare for housing (other than
medium and high rise flats). Since then, several factors have led to an
increase in the use of piled foundations. These include:

the increased pressure to re-develop 'brownfield' sites, where

strip foundations may not always be appropriate

increased costs of 'carting away' and tipping surplus excavation

from foundation trenches (particularly in cities)

the development and easy availability of smaller piling rigs and

piling systems which are, nowadays, cost effective for house
foundations

greater understanding of piling in general (partly through better

building education).

There are literally dozens of piling companies in the UK each offering a

number of different piling systems. In many cases more than one piling
system will suit a particular set of circumstances. However, when
choosing a piling system there are four main criteria to consider:

building load

the nature of the ground (ie, the subsoil)

local environmental or physical constraints (noise restrictions,

height restrictions)

cost

Pier foundations, sometimes called pad and stem, are not dissimilar to
end-bearing piles in their function. However, their construction is very
different. Piling is carried out from the surface, by drilling or driving
down into the ground. When building piers, individual pits are usually
excavated and then backfilled once the piers have been constructed.
What are piers?

2 Piling - The Choice

Pile types

There are basically three types of pile:

driven piles which are preformed - usually steel or precast concrete (displacement)

driven piles which are cast

insitu (displacement)

bored or augered piles which

are cast in situ (replacement)

NB: a displacement pile forces the

ground out of the way as the pile is
driven. A replacement pile
removes it first.

In recent years a new piling system has

been introduced by Roger Bullivant. It's
called a bored displacement pile and is
described later in this section.

Piles can be supported

through their end-bearing or
through friction (or a
combination of the two)

Reasons for choosing piling

Choice of piling system

End bearing piles are generally used

where rock or dense granular material
underlies a softer stratum.
Friction piles, where most of the
support comes from friction between
the pile sides and the soil, are more
likely to be used in clay.

The decision to choose piled

foundations rather than strip or spread
foundations may not always be
straightforward. However, if firm
ground is some distance below the
surface (2 metres or more), piling may
be more economical. Other situations
which might make piling a preferred
choice include:

a high water table

expensive cart-away costs (very

high in some of the larger cities
where tips are not close)

where soils such as clay are

likely to swell or shrink with
changes in moisture content

where trenches are not very

stable and are likely to collapse

In many cases more than one piling

system is appropriate for any given set
of ground conditions. Different piling
contractors have their preferred
systems, often developed in-house over

Click here for a clip showing precast driven piles.

a number of years. Advice, therefore,

from two contractors may differ, yet
both both may provide suitable
solutions. The list below identifies a
number of factors to be considered
when choosing a piling system. We
have tried to keep this section a simple
as possible; this web site is mainly
concerned with providing an illustrated
introduction to house construction - not
ground engineering.
Some factors affecting
choice...

If the length of the piles is

known and the site is readily
accessible with no noise or
vibration restrictions, driven
pre-cast piles may be the most
economical choice.

Where noise and vibration is a

problem augered piles may be
the best solution.

If piles are close to existing

buildings the risk of
displacement piles causing soil
heave must be taken into
account.

Shell piles, (driven in sections)

can be used where lengths are
uncertain and where 'waisting
or necking' might occur.

On restricted sites there may

be problems handling long precast piles and large piling rigs.

Ground obstructions can be a

problem but steel piles can
sometimes be driven through
them.

Bored or augered piles are

normally used for housing in
clay soils subject to shrinkage
or swelling.

3 Pre-cast Piles (with insitu ground beam)

In loose granular soils the act of

driving can actually help to
compact the soil.
In clays, driven piles tend to 'whip'
as they are driven - augered or
bored piles are often preferable.

On this site, formerly a power

station and docks, the nature
of the ground varied. In some
parts of the site, mostly away
from the water's edge, strip
foundations were acceptable.
In others, in particular along
the quayside, piles had to be
used. Here, there was a
sloping stratum of rock
(mudstone and sandstone)
some 6 to 18 metres below the
ground's surface. The material
above the rock included soft
clay, silt, fill, and a number of
man made obstructions from
previous use of the site.
Pre-cast reinforced concrete
piles were chosen for this site;
it was the engineer's view that
these offered the fastest and
cheapest solution. The piles
were driven into the ground by
a crane mounted drop hammer
- vibration etc was not an issue
as the site was fairly isolated. A
wooden insert under the driving
head helped cushion the piles
and prevent cracking in the pile
itself. Where obstructions in
the ground prevented the precast piles from being driven
into the ground or forced them
out of position, steel piles were
driven alongside.
In one or two places the piles
had to be jointed (ie, to make
them longer). Have a close look
at the photo on the left - the
metal plates on the pile ends
were joined using steel pins.
The excess lengths of pile were
removed by a hydraulic
'crusher' mounted on the back
of a JCB. Further 'trimming'
was carried out by compressed
air tools to expose the steel
bars in the piles.
The photo on the left shows a
steel pile nearing its 'set'. This
had already been determined
by the engineer, taking into
account the building load and
the nature of the ground. If 10
hammer blows produced
downward movement of not
more than 5mm in the pile the
'set' had been reached.

The plan on the left shows part

of the pile cap and ground
beam layout. The reinforced
ground beam was poured
monolithically (ie, at the same
time - from the Greek meaning
'single stone') with the pile caps
and floor slab. In the right hand
picture you can see the
exposed steel of the piles and
some blockwork walls - these
walls are in fact formwork
designed to contain the
concrete when it is poured.
The left hand photograph
shows the view from the
adjacent scaffolding. The line
of the ground beam can clearly
be seen - the intermittent
projections or the pile caps.
The two concrete cylinders are
large inspection chambers (to
be topped with cast-iron
covers). The right-hand
photograph was taken a few
days later and shows the steel
in position, and ready for
concreting.
The concrete for the ground
beam and pile caps was
delivered to site ready-mixed
and placed with the help of a
track mounted excavator. To
ensure the beam was dead
level (for the steel framed
superstructure) a spinning laser
('Laserplane') provided a
benchmark- by deducting the
reading on the staff from the
known height of the laser, the
exact level, or height, of the
beam can be worked out.

4 Augered Piles
Continuous Flight Auger

Augered piles (replacement

piles) are suitable for many
types of ground, particularly
clays. Piles can be formed
up to 750mm in diameter
(depending on type of rig)
with safe working loads up
to 3500kN (350 tonnes). A
200 mm diameter pile has
an SWL of about 600kN. Pile
lengths of up to 25 metres
can be constructed. The
insitu concrete pile is
reinforced, the exact details
of the reinforcement will
depend on the nature of the
loading. A standard detail
comprises a single, centrally
positioned, reinforcement
bar; reinforcement cages
will be required to
withstand horizontal or
bending moment
loadings.
CFA piles are formed using
hollow stem augers boring
techniques (in most cases
this will produce spoil
'arisings' which require
disposal). Once the correct
depth is reached, concrete
is injected down the hollow
stem of the auger. As the
auger is extracted, the
concrete fills the void, thus
forming an insitu pile. The
reinforcement is positioned
once the auger has been
removed.
Sectional Flight Auger

In principle this system is

the same as the one above.
It differs in that the augers
are in short lengths (or
sections) thus permitting the
rig to be used in confined
spaces with limited
headroom, ie, inside
buildings. Additional augers
can be added to achieve the
correct depth. Solid stem or
hollow stem augers can be
used. The former are easier
and cheaper, but only if it is
considered that the bore
will stay open at the correct
cross sectional area. Hollow

stem augers are essential

where the side wall material
is unstable and might
collapse. Reinforcement is
usually installed
immediately after
concreting the bore. A
starter bar cage can also be
installed in the top of the
pile to connect to the
ground beam or pile cap
above.

5 Continuous Helical Displacement Piles

This piling system is quite unusual in that it is a bored
displacement pile; most bored piles are replacement
piles - in other words the ground is removed before
concreting takes place. The advantage of this pile is
that there is minimal 'cart away' and, unlike most
displacement piles, it is quite and vibration free.

On the left you can see a small part of a much larger

drawing showing the pile layout. The whole contract
comprised nearly 1000 piles, all with a safe working
load of 300kN (approx. 90 tonnes). On the right you can
see some of the more important notes which qualify the
piling plan.
In most ground conditions this is an ideal alternative to
continuous flight augers (CFA). During boring the ground
is compacted as the rotary head 'drills' into the ground.
At the appropriate depth concrete is pumped under
pressure down the hollow shaft to the boring head while
the shaft is reverse rotated and withdrawn from the
bore.

Reinforcement in the form of a cage and/or single bar is

lowered into the bore when the concrete operation is
complete. Reinforcement projects from the top of the
pile to form a strong connection with a pile cap or
ground beam.

Once the piles are complete the ground beam or pile

caps can be cast. The example shown here is a
continuous ground beam. The photo on the left shows
the shallow excavation along the line of the piles for
the ground beam. On the right you can see the weak
concrete blinding (laid to form a clean, level working
surface) and the reinforcement cage partly in position.

Test piles are loaded to assess their loadbearing

capability. The test rig comprises three steel beams
anchored to four deep corner piles. A hydraulic jack
loads the test pile under the centre of the beam. On
this site a safety factor of 2.5 was required. So, if the
design load is say, 300kN, the test pile should carry
750kN.

6 Insitu Ground Beams

This page shows how a ground
beam can be formed. The first
stage is to cut the piles to the
right length and dig a trench
between them. This has been
blinded with a thin layer of
concrete to provide a level,
clean surface for the next stage
- building the reinforcement
cages. Before constructing the
ground-beam cage the the
integrity of the piles is checked.
The steel cage is made from a
series of preformed and bent
reinforcement rods. the size of
the rods is calculated by an
engineer. The ground beam,
when it is complete, will take the
loads from the walls and
distribute them into the piles
(you can just see the top of the
pile in the right-hand photo). The
load from the beams is not
carried by the ground below the
beam.
The yellow plastic is a
proprietary permanent formwork.
This prevents concrete from
being wasted. On some sites this
formwork, or shuttering, is built
in blockwork. If there is danger
of ground swell, for example in
clay soils, a special type of
formwork can be used which
incorporates a collapsible layer.
This is often required under the
beam (in between the piles) as
well as at the sides. Click here
for another example

Click here to see a video clip

7 Piers

8 Foundation Case Studies

Case Study One

Roger Bullivant Ltd provided its pre-cast house foundations package, consisting of segmental pre-cast piles, precast ground beams and suspended pre-cast floors to two major house developers on the same site in Cheddar,
Somerset. The developments were undertaken on a greenfield site which suffers from high ground water table
problems. The majority of ground levels needed to be raised by as much as 750mm across the area. It was also
anticipated that localised flooding of the site during work would be experienced. A solution to overcome all of
these difficulties was needed to enable work to proceed, as conventional foundations would be difficult and
costly to construct.
The use of segmental pre-cast piles, Tee-beam system and suspended pre-cast floors, helped overcome the poor
ground conditions. The segmental pre-cast piles provided a cost effective solution which eliminated both
excavation and spoil disposal.

Sacrificial probe piles were installed prior to final negotiations to determine the
actual pile lengths so that a fixed price package could be agreed. In total 560, 175
x 175mm square segmental pre-cast piles were installed to a maximum depth of
7m. Each pile was capable of carrying loads to 350kN and comprised 3m and 4m
segments with single T16 bar reinforcement. The piles were cropped to the required
level and either pre-cast caps or cast in-situ concrete caps positioned on top.
Approx. 2000 metres of pre-cast Tee-beams were installed, together with
2500metres of pre-cast beam joist floors.
Both projects were completed using purpose-built piling rigs, designed to undertake
work of this nature where piles ranging in size from 150 200mm are required, with
loads from 100 400 kN. The rigs use 2 3 tonne hydraulic hammers to drive in the
piles. As the gross weight of each rig is only 17 tonnes, it can be mobilised onto site
without the need for police escorts or movement orders. The size and weight of the
rig also reduces on-site problems resulting from noise and vibration.
Case Study Two

Roger Bullivant Ltd provided pre-cast concrete piling for the construction of a new
housing development in Burnham-on Sea, Somerset. The project involved
foundation piling on a section of a new development of timber-framed homes.
Three of the planned houses presented a particular challenge, as they were situated
in close proximity to a hedgerow, with the added complication of a ditch around the
perimeter where the ground was soft and wet. The plots were also very close to
existing adjacent housing which was being developed and therefore any work had to
be carefully contained.
The contractor (RB) proposed the installation of pre-cast segmented piles together
with pre-cast Tee beams. The system offers a cost-effective solution to installations
in close proximity to existing buildings or structures and, in addition, overcomes
problems of poor ground conditions without the need for soil disposal or excavation.

The area of the site was prepared to a reduced level of 650mm below floor slab
level. Investigations of the soil revealed eight distinct layers; these varied from
topsoil, firm clay, clayey and laminated silt of various types, down to fine-medium
sand. This dictated that piling would need to be to a depth of approx 17m. As the
ground compaction was good, no hardcore was needed for piling platform.
The segmental pre-cast concrete piles were installed with a top-driven hydraulic
hammer rig to depths ranging from 1 5.5 1 6.4m . The pre-cast piles were 250mm
square capable of loadings up to 600kN. The segments were each 4m with single bar
reinforcement to reduce costs and minimise wastage.

Case Study Three

This housing development was being constructed on the site of a former sand quarry
which had been filled before the Second World War. A school was then built on the
site, incorporating underground air raid shelters constructed from very thick, highdensity concrete. The site over the disused shelters had subsequently been
developed by the addition of extra classrooms and playgrounds etc.
The exact location of the air raid shelters, the degree of fill and precise depth of
the underlying bedrock were all unknown. It had been identified that on an
adjacent piece of land, homes constructed post-war had needed to be demolished
because of major subsidence.

The developers had already completed the first six houses on one section of the
site, using vibrated concrete columns and very deep foundations. As these initial
properties had sold immediately, they were looking for an alternative solution that
would speed up the construction programme and also avoid the high cost of such
deep foundations. The solution comprised a combination of steel tubular piles and
pre-cast concrete piles both followed by pre-cast pile caps, pre-cast tee-beams and
pre-cast concrete floor slabs. The combination of both pile types enabled the
differing conditions on the site to be accommodated, with only minimal need for
spoil removal. On the section of the site where it had been identified that air raid
shelters had not existed, the ground conditions were sound and pre-cast concrete
piles 200mm to a depth of 6m were used. On the more difficult parts of the site,
170mm diameter steel piles were used, installed down to 8m and in some cases
down to 16m. The use of steel piles ensured that they could be driven through any
concrete structures forming part of the old shelters. Where any major obstructions
were identified, local excavations were carried out to assess and re-plan the piling
as required.
Installation was followed by pile cropping which ensured a sound connection
between the pile and the pre-cast cap. Over 1500metres of pre-cast reinforced
concrete tee-beams were then installed directly onto the pile caps to carry the wall
and floor loads.

Case Study Four

This housing development is on a site formerly used as a tramway depot. The site
was bounded by two roads, a railway and a nearby underground line. Vibration was
perceived as a major constraint, as was the need to minimise traffic, and keep
noise to a minimum. Continuous helical displacement piles were used and the whole
project (nearly 500 piles) was completed in four weeks.

The piles were founded into clayed silt at depths down to 18.50 metres. The piles
had designed working loads of up to 300kN.
The first test pile was toed into boulder clay at a depth of 17.60 metres and gave a
settlement of 15mm at 1200kN. A second test pile, founded in clayed silt at a depth
of 15.50 metres provided an ultimate load of 600kN, giving a safety factor of 2.

9 Repair Systems - Roger Bullivant

This repair system (shown in
isometric on the left, and in section
on the right) is suitable for many
types of shallow foundation
stabilisation, especially where
access is restricted. A series of
piers, at centres of up to
1.5ometres, transfer the loads from
the wall down to a firmer stratum.
Loadings of up to 100kN per metre
can be achieved, individual piers
are generally rated at about 50kN. a
300mm by 300mm pocket in the
brickwork is removed to make way
for the reinforced concrete
'knuckle'. This system is less
disruptive than traditional piling,
it's ideal for restricted situations,
and possibly most important of all,
it only requires access from one side
of the wall - occupants do not have
to be moved out.

This system, the pier and beam

system, is slightly more complex
than the one above and is used
where lateral, as well as vertical,
restraint is required. A typical
situation might be where poor
quality underground brickwork
requires lateral restraint between
supports. The longitudinal ground
beam can be seen in the graphic on
the left. As in the above example
the piers can be driven or augered.

This system requires the installation

of pairs of piles, one in compression
and one in tension, as shown in the
graphics. A reinforced concrete
beam on top of the piles cantilevers
into the wall to provide support.
This piling repair method can be
economic where the bearing
stratum is deeper than 1.5metres.
Pile sizes range from 90mm to
250mm diameter; the piles
themselves can be drilled, driven or
augered. Again, the work can be
carried out from one side.
Angle piles can be single or double
as shown in the left-hand graphic.
Piles are normally installed both
sides of the foundation although
they can be installed from one side
if there is suitable lateral restraint.
Permanently cased steel driven
piles, or solid or hollow stem
augered piles, are then installed
through the pre-drilled hole with
the casing terminated at the
underside of the existing
foundation. The pile is then
concreted and reinforced up
through the existing foundation.
This is a fast piling system with high
load capability.

10 Rafts
Raft foundations were sometimes used as far back as the 1920s and 1930s. This example is a house designed in
1936 - the site was a drained marsh. In the 1940s and 1950s raft foundations were quite common, particularly
beneath the thousands of prefabricated pre-cast concrete or steel buildings erected during the years following
the Second World War. Most of these houses were built on good quality farm land where the soil was generally of
modest to high bearing capacity. Rafts (or foundation slabs as they were sometimes called) were often used
because they were relatively cheap, easy to construct and did not require extensive excavation (trenches were
often dug by hand). In 1965 national Building Regulations were introduced for the first time (London still had its
own building controls), but these did not contain any 'deemed to satisfy' provisions for raft foundations (as they
did for strip foundations) - consequently each had to be engineer designed. As a result they quickly fell out of
favour.
In modern construction rafts tend to be used:

Where the soil has low load bearing capacity and varying compressibility. This might include, loose sand,
soft clays, fill, and alluvial soils (soils comprising particles suspended in water and deposited over a flood
plain or river bed).

Where pad or strip foundations would cover more than 50% of the ground area below the building.

Where differential movements are expected.

Where subsidence due to mining is a possibility.

Flat slab rafts (right hand graphic) offer a number of

advantages over strip foundations, no trenching is
required, they are simple and quick to build, there is
less interference with subsoil water movement, and
there are no risks to people working in trenches.
Detailing needs careful thought, - the example on the
right for instance may be subject to frost attack around
the edges, the edges themselves are exposed, and
there is the risk of cold bridging around the perimeter.
They are generally suitable for good soils of consistent
bearing capacity.
Flat slab rafts (ie no perimeter or internal beams - see
below) have been recommended in some mining areas.
These rafts will flex if ground movement is
considerable so the superstructure needs to be
designed accordingly.

Shallow rigid rafts for 1, 2 and 3 storey housing can be

cheaper than piles. On poor ground the raft must be
stiff enough to prevent excessive differential
settlement. This usually requires perimeter and
internal ground beams to help stiffness and minimise
distortion of the superstructure. Some, overall,
settlement of the house will inevitably occur but
differential settlement should be kept within
acceptable limits.
In this country rafts have to be designed on a one-byone basis, in other words there are no 'deemed to
satisfy' provisions in the Building Regulations as there
are with strip foundations. In practice, engineers are
advised to consider local practice with regard to raft
design. Some typical dimensions of the various
elements are shown in the graphic on the right (upper)
The lower graphic shows the nature of the perimeter
and internal beams.

On filled sites rafts can, depending on the fill depth,

be a cost effective alternative to piling. They can also
be used on sloping sites as an alternative to stepped
strip foundations. A well compacted (in shallow layers),
graded granular fill can form a suitable base. Designing
the fill and the raft is obviously specialist work and
many speculative house builders would probably prefer
'tried and tested' stepped strip foundations.

2007 University of the West of England, Bristol

except where acknowledged