INTRODUCTION:

Coordination of body functions are accomplished

by chemical messengers. Hormones are the chemical
messengers secreted by endocrine gland. The thyroid
gland is one of the largest endocrine gland in the body
and consists of two connected lobes. The thyroid is
found in neck, below the thyroid cartilage. The thyroid
gland controls how quickly the body uses energy,
makes proteins, and controls how sensitive the body is
to other hormones.

MORPHOLOGY:
The thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped organ and is
composed of two cones like lobes or wings, lobus dexter
(right lobe) and lobus sinister (left lobe), connected
isthmus.
Normally, it weighs about 20 to 40 gm in adult but, it is
subjected to variations physiologically.
The organ is situated on the anterior side of the neck,
lying against and around the larynx and trachea,
reaching the carotids oesophagus and carotid sheath.

HISTOLOGY OF THE THYROID

GLAND:
Thyroid gland is composed of large number of
closed follicles.
The follicles are lined with cuboidal epithelial
cells. These epithelial cells are called the
follicular cells.
The follicular cavity is filled with a colloidal
substance known as thyroglobulin which is
secreted by the cuboidal epithelial cell. Actually,
the synthesis of thyroid hormone takes place in
the thyroglobulin.
In between the follicles, the parfollicular cells
are present

HORMONES
GLAND:

OF

THE

THYROID

A.The follicular cells synthesize two principle iodine containing

hormones which are:

1. Thyroxine which is 3. 5. 3'. 5' Tetra iodothyronine refferd to a

T4. Daily
secretion is about 80g.

2. Triiodothyronine or 3. 5. 3'. Triiodothyronine reffered

to a T3. Daily secretion is about 4g

B.The
parafollicular
cells
produce
calcitonine(thyrocalcitonine) which influence calcium
metabolism.It is a polypeptide hormone. The release of
hormone is stimulated by high levels of ionized calcium
in the blood.

SYNTHESIS OF THYROID
HORMONES:
Iodine and tyrosine are essential for the
formation of thyroid hormones. Iodine is consumed
through diet. It is converted into iodine and absorbed
from gastrointestinal tract. Tyrosine is also consumed
through diet and, is absorbed from the gastrointestinal
tract.
For the synthesis of normal quantities of thyroid
hormones, approximately an amount of 1mg of iodine is
requried per week or 50 mg per year. To prevent iodine

deficiency, common table salt is iodized with one part

of sodium iodide to every 100,000 parts of sodium
chloride.

STAGES OF SYNTHESIS OF THYROID

HORMONES:
Various steps are involved in the formation of thyroid
hormones. Thes are:

Thyroglobulin secretion
Thyroglobulin is synthesized in endoplasmic
reticulum and follows the secretory path way to
enter the colloid of thyroid follicle by exocytosis.

Iodide trapping or Iodide pump

The basal membrane of the thyroid cells has a

specific ability to transport the iodide from the
blood into the interior of the cell. A sodium iodide
Na/I symporter pumps iodide actively into the cells.
Then this iodide enters the follicular lumen by the
transporter pendrin. Thus, the process by which
the iodide is transported is called iodide trapping
or iodide pump.
Oxidation

of the iodide
Iodine has to be oxidized to elementary iodine. The
oxidation of iodide into iodine occurs inside the
cells. And the process of oxidation is promoted by
the enzyme Peroxidases.

Iodination of tyrosine

Iodine has very reactive and iodinate the

thyroglobulin at tyrosol residues in its protein
chain. In conjugation, adjacent tyrosol residues are
paired together. The entire complex re-enters the

follicular cell by endocytosis. Proteolysis by various

proteases liberates thyroxine and tri iodothyronine
molecules which enters the blood.

Iodination of tyrosine occur in several stages. Tyrosine

is iodized first into mono iodotyrosine. Two molecule of
mono iodotyrosine combine to form di iodotyrosine.
One mono iodotyrosine and one di iodotyrosine
combine to form tri iodothyronine (T3). Two di
iodotyrosine combine to form tetra iodothyronine (T 4)
which is thyroxine.

STORAGE OF THYROID HORMONE:

After synthesis, the thyroid hormones
remain in the form of vesicle along with
thyroglobulin.
Each
thyroglobulin
molecule
contains 5 or 6 molecule of thyroxine. There is also
an average 1 triiodothyronine molecule for every
10 molecule of thyroxine. In this way, i.e., in
combination with thyroglobulin, the thyroid
hormones can be stored for several months. And,
thyroid gland is unique in this, as it is the only
endocrine gland which can store its hormones for a
long period.

TRANSPORT OF THYROID
HORMONES IN THE BLOOD:

The thyroid hormones are transported in blood

in combination with the plasma proteins. The normal
plasma level of total (tri-iodothyronine) T3 is 8g/dl and
the total (tetra-iodothyronine) T4 is 0.15g/dl. There are
three types of plasma protein for the transport in
thyroid hormones in the blood. These are:
1. Thyroxine binding globulin (TBG)
This is a glycoprotein and in concentration in
blood is 1 to
1.5 mg%. It has a great affinity of
thyroxine and about one third of the hormone combines
strongly with this protein.
2. Thyroxine binding prealbumin
This protein transports one fourth of the thyroid
hormones.
3. Albumin
About one tenth of the thyroid hormones is
transported by means of albumin.

FUNCTION OF THYROID
HORMONE:
Effect on basal Metabolic rate
Thyroxine increases the metabolic activities of
almost all tissues of the body except brain,
retina, spleen and lungs. The basal metabolic
rate (BMR) can increase to as much as 60 to
100% above the normal level when, large
quantity of thyroxine secreted. And, the BMR can
fall by 20 to 40% below the normal level when
less quantity of thyroxine is secreted. This is
because, thyroxine Increase the rate of food stuff
in the peripheral cells.
Effect on growth

Thyroid hormones have general and specific

effects on growth. Lack of thyroxine can arrest
the growth and increase in thyroxine secretion
can accelerate the growth of the body
especially in growing children.
Effect on body weight
Thyroxine is also essential for maintaining
the weight of the body. Increase in thyroxine
decreases the body weight and decrease in
thyroxine increases the body weight.
Effect on respiration
Thyroxine increases the rate and force of
respiration indirectly. The increased
metabolic rate caused by thyroxine increases
utilization of oxygen and formation of carbon
dioxide. The two factors stimulate the
respiratory centers to increase the rate and
force of respiration.
Effect on gastrointestinal tract
Thyroxine generally increases the appetite
and food intake. It also increases the
secretions and the movements of
gastrointestinal tract. So, the lack of
thyroxine causes constipation and increased
secretion of thyroxine causes diarrhea.
Effect on skeletal muscle
Thyroxine is essential for the normal activity of the
skeletal muscles. Slight increase in thyroxine can
make the muscle to work with more vigor. But,
excessive secretion can cause weakness in the
muscle due to catabolism of proteins. The muscles
relax very slowly after the contraction.
Hypothyroidism can also cause fine muscular

tremor. The tremor can occur at the frequency of 10

to 15 times per second. This is due to thyroxine
induced excessive neuronal activity, which controls
the muscle. And, the lack of thyroxine can make
muscles more sluggish.
Effect on sleep
Hyper secretion of thyroxine causes excessive
stimulation of the muscles and central nervous
system. So, the person feels tired and exhausted
and feels like sleeping. But, the person cannot
sleep because of the stimulatory effect of thyroxine
neurons. On the other hand, hyposecretion of
thyroxine causes excessive sleep. The condition
with excessive sleep is called the somnolence
Lactation
In hypothyroidism, milk secretion is decreased.
Administrations of thyroid hormones increase
lactation.

Effect on other endocrine gland

Because of its effects on metabolism, thyroxine

increases the demand for secretions of other
endocrine gland.

REGULATION OF SECRETION OF THYROID

GLAND
The secretion of thyroid hormone is controlled
through the feedback mechanism. Thyrotropic releasing
hormone (TRH) is secreted from hypothalamus. As a
result, anterior pituitary is stimulated and Thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) is produced. TSH stimulates
the thyroid gland to synthesize and release thyroxine.
When the blood level of thyroid hormone increases, the

release of TRH is suppressed, leading to stoppage of

the release of thyroid hormones.

EFFECT ON THYROID
STIMULATING HORMONE
ON THYROID GLAND:

(TSH )

Thyroid stimulating hormone is necessary for the

growth and the secretory activity of the thyroid gland.
Its actions on thyroid gland are as follows:
It increases the number of thyroid cells, which
are cuboidal in nature, and then it converts
these cuboidal cells into columnar cells and
causes the development of thyroid follicles.
It increases the size and secretory activity of
the cells.
It increases the iodide pump and iodide
trapping in the cells.

 It increases the thyroglobulin secretion into

the follicles.
It increases proteolysis of thyroglobulin, by
which, release of hormone is enhanced and
the colloidal substance is decreased.

DISORDER OF THYROID GLAND:

1. HYPERTHYROIDISM
It is also called as over activity of thyroid gland. It is a
condition in which the thyroid gland produces and secretes
excessive amount of thyroxine and triiodothyronin.

Causes of hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism occurs due to presence of TSH like
substances in the blood. This is proved by radio immunoassay
studies. The concentration of TSH was found to be less or
almost zero in the plasma of the most of the hypothyroid
patients. These TSH like substances are immunoglobulin
antibodies, which bind with same membrane receptors of TSH.
These activate the cyclic AMP system of the cells and cause in
hyperthyroidism.

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism

 Increase in basal metabolic rate(BMR) and

appetite
Excessive sweating occurs due to vasodilatation
Muscular weakness
Eye balls are protruded
Mental growth is very sharp and patient feels
restless
Emotional and nervous excitability
There is enlargement of the thyroid gland, which
is called the toxic goiter

2. Hypothyroidism
Reduced activity of thyroid gland causes
hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism leads to myxedema in
adults and cretinism in children.

Myxedema
It is a condition that appears in the adult life due
to deficiency in the secretions of thyroxine.

Symptoms

Skin becomes swollen, puffy, and dry

Bagginess under the eye
Hairs become scarce, brittle and coarse
Low BMR, low blood sugar and iodine
Appetite is reduced
Body temperature becomes lower and body
weight increases.

Cretinism
Hypothyroidism in children leads to a condition known
as cretinism. Cretinism may occur due to congenital
lack of thyroid gland, genetic disorder or lack of iodide
in the diet

Symptoms

 Stunted growth
Low intelligence
Slow heart rate
Slow bone growth
The patient is mentally
retarded and a sterile one.

CONCLUSION

Thyroid is the only gland of the

body which has has the capacity
to store and utilize iodine. It is
very essential for growth and
development of the body. So, it
is a important endocrine gland,
and we should take proper
nutrient by which the gland
remain well.