X-Ray Prod Tube Gen-060803d

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5
3 and 10 August 2006
X-rays the Basic Radiological Tool

X-ray Production, XX-ray Tubes
and Generators Chapter 5
Brent K. Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Professor, Radiology and Medical Education
Director, Diagnostic Physics
Roentgens experimental apparatus (Crookes tube)

that led to the discovery of the new radiation on 8
Nov. 1895 he demonstrated that the radiation was
not due to charged particles, but due to an as yet
unknown source, hence x radiation or xx-rays
a copy of this lecture may be found at:

http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse.html
Known as the radiograph of Bera

Roentgens hand taken 22 Dec. 1895
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP
The Bremsstrahlung Process (1)
Chapter 5 Lecture Objectives
How xx-rays are produced, what spectrum results and

what radiographic technique factors affect the spectrum?
What elements comprise an xx-ray tube and how they
work together to generate xx-rays?
How are xx-rays collimated and the exposure timed?
What is an xx-ray generator, how does it assist in the
production of xx-rays and how does its design affect the
resulting output spectrum?
How does the xx-ray tube heat loading and cooling affect
the duration and number of radiographic exposures?
X-rays are produced by the conversion of e- KE into EM radiation Bremsstrahlung (G: braking radiation)
A large potential difference is applied across the two electrodes
electrodes in
an evacuated envelope
Neg. charged electrode (cathode): source of ePos. charged electrode (anode): target of eElectrochemistry
Anode
UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98.
Cathode
e- released from the cathode are accelerated towards the anode

with a gain in KE as the e drops through the applied potential
difference (kilovoltage potential - kVp)
About 99% of the KE converted to heat via collisioncollision-like interactions

About 1% of the KE converted into xx-rays via strong Coulomb
(electrostatic) interactions Bremsstrahlung
Target nucleus positive charge (Z

(Zp+) attracts incident e
Deceleration of an incident e occurs in the proximity of
the target atom nucleus
E lost by e gained by the EM photon (x(x-ray) generated
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential

Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98.
The unfiltered Bremsstrahlung spectrum (intensity)

contains a large number of very low E photons and
approx. linearly as photon E due to the higher
probability of a large impact parameter distance
Atom diameter 10-10 m

Nucleus diameter 10-14 m
Volume Ratio 1:1012
Creates a
polychromatic
spectrum

The impact parameter distance, the closest approach to the

nucleus by the e determines the amount of E loss
The Coulomb force of attraction varies strongly with distance (
(
2
1/r ); distance deceleration and E loss photon E
Direct impact on the nucleus (rarest event) determines the
maximum xx-ray E (Emax)
The peak voltage (kVp) applied across the electrodes of the xxray tube determines the highest xx-ray E (Emax)
The lowest E of the unfiltered xx-ray spectrum is not easily
determined, due to severe attenuation of these photons by the
material and thickness of the xx-ray tube envelope
X-ray production efficiency is influenced by the target Z

and acceleration potential (kVp)
Electronic Structure Electron Binding Energy

Eb Z2
I(E) = k Z (Emax-E)
X-ray efficiency Emax Z 10-6
Eavg - kVp
Highly suggested, very nice detailed description - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html

c.f. http://astro.uhttp://astro.u-strasbg.fr/~koppen/discharge/
Characteristic XX-ray Spectrum (1)
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p.22.
10
e- of the target atom have a

binding energy (BE) that
depends on atomic Z (rem:
BEK Z2) and the shell (BEK >
BEL > BEM > ... )
When e-(KE) incident on the
target exceeds the target atom
e-(BE), its energetically
possible for a collisional
interaction to eject the bound
electron and ionize the atom

11
Unfilled shell energetically

unstable - an outer shell e- with
lesser BE fills vacancy
As e- transitions to a lower E
state, the excess E can be
released as a characteristic xxray photon with E equal to the
difference between the BE of
the e- shells
As BE are unique to a given
element (Z), the emitted xx-rays
have discrete energies
characteristic of that element

12
The target materials used in xx-ray tubes for diagnostic medical

imaging include: W (Z=74), Mo (Z=42) and Rh (Z=45): BE Z2
As the E of the incident e- increases above the threshold E for
characteristic xx-ray production, the % of char. xx-rays (5% @ 80
kVp vs. 10% @ 100 kVp for W)
A variety of E transitions occur from adjacent (
() and nonnon-adjacent
() e- shells discrete E lines superimposed on the continuous
bremsstrahlung spectrum

13
c.f. http://www.ktfhttp://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/
G36.
G36. The ratio of heat to xx-rays (heat : xx-rays) produced
in a typical diagnostic target is:

14
Raphex 2000 General Question
Within each shell (other than

K) there are discrete E orbitals
( = 0, 1, ... , nn-1)
characteristic xx-ray fine E
splitting
Characteristic xx-rays other
than those generated through
K-shell transitions are
unimportant in Dx imaging
almost entirely attenuated by
the xx-ray tube window or
added filtration

15
A. 1 : 99
B. 10 : 90
C. 50 : 50
D. 90 : 10
E. 99 : 1
16
G37.
G37. Consider an atom with the following binding energies: KK-shell,
30 keV; MM-shell, 0.7 keV. An electron with a kinetic energy of 25.3
keV is ejected from the MM-shell as an Auger electron following L to K
transition. The binding energy of the LL-shell electron is _______ keV.
A. 1.4
e- 25.3 keV
B. 4
M
-0.7 keV
C. 4.7
L
? keV
D. 15
? keV
E. 29.3
K
G40. Tungsten has the following binding energies: K = 69 keV, L =

12 keV, M = 2 keV. A 68 keV electron striking a tungsten target
could cause emission of which of the following photons?
-30 keV
E = 25.3 + 0.7 = 26 keV where E is equal to the difference

between the binding energies of the KK- and LL-shells.
26 keV = BEK - BEL = 30 keV - BEL; BEL = 4 keV.
1. 66 keV characteristic xx-ray.

2. 57 keV bremsstrahlung.
A. 1, 2, 3 and 4
B. 1, 3
C. 2, 4
D. 4 only
17
18
X-ray Tubes
-75 kV
+75 kV

19

20
X-ray Tube Cathode
X-ray Tube Cathode: Focusing Cup
Cathode: e- source - a helical

tungsten wire filament
surrounded by a focusing cup
Filament circuit: 10V, 7A
Electrical resistance heats the
filament and releases e- via
thermionic emission (also
lights up incandescence
light bulb)
Filament current adj. controls
tube current (rate of e- flow
from cathode to anode - mA)

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 104104-105.
21

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 104.
X-ray Tube Cathode: Space Charge Cloud
Filament current (A) filament temperature (T) thermionic emission rate

When kVp = 0 an e- cloud (space charge cloud) forms around filament
Space charge cloud shields the electric field for tube voltages of 40 kVp
only some e- are accelerated towards the anode: space charge limited
40 kVp the space charge cloud effect overcome by kVp applied and tube
current (mA) limited only by the emission of e- from the filament: emissionemissionlimited operation
Tube current about 55-10 times less than the filament current in the
emissionemission-limited range

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 105.
22
X-ray Tube Anode Configuration
Shapes e- distribution when at

same V as filament (unbiased)
Isolation from filament and
application of a negative bias
V constrains e- distribution
further (biased)
Focusing cup slot width
determines the focal spot width
Filament length determines
focal spot length
Small and large focal spot
filaments (usu. 0.6 and 1.2
mm)
23
Tungsten anode disk

Mo and Rh for mammography
Stator and rotor make up the
induction motor
Rotation speeds
Low: 3,000 3,600 rpm
High: 9,000 10,000 rpm
Molybdenum stem (poor heat
conductor) connects rotor with
anode to reduce heat transfer to
rotor bearings
Anode cooled through radiative
transmission (Stefan(Stefan-Boltzmann
law: radiance T4)
Focal track area (spreads heat out
over larger area than stationary
anode configuration)

24
Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size (1)
Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size (2)
Anode angle (
(): angle of the
target surface wrt central axis
of the xx-ray output field
range: 7
7 - 20
20
Why are anodes beveled?
1. Line focus principle
(foreshortening of focal spot
length)
sin(0
sin(0) = 0, sin(30
sin(30) = 0.5
For small angles (< 30

30):
xcos()
xsin()
Effective
Effective focal spot size =
length and width of the focal
spot projected along the
central axis of the xx-ray field
Effective focal length = actual
focal length sin(
sin()
xcos()
sin(
sin() (/57
/57)
1. apparent focal spot size (compare B and C)

2. heat loading: FS length true = xcos(); x = FSLT/cos()
3. field coverage (compare B and C)
Actual used a tradetrade-off of these factors
xsin()
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108108-109.
25

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108108-109.
Heel Effect
SelfSelf-filtration by the anode and

the anode bevel causes
Greater intensity on the
cathode side of the xx-ray field
Can use to advantage, e.g.,

PA chest exposure
Orient chest to anode side

Abdomen to cathode side
Less pronounced as SID

26
X-ray Filtration
Reduction of xx-ray beam

intensity towards the anode
side of the xx-ray field
Although xx-rays generated
isotropically (4
(4 steradians)
27
Filtration: xx-ray attenuation as

beam passes through a layer
of material
Inherent (glass or metal insert
at xx-ray tube port) and added
filtration (sheets of metal
intentionally placed in the
beam)
Added filtration absorb lowlowenergy xx-rays and reduce
patient dose (
( beam quality)
HVL half value layer (mm Al)
c.f.: Curry, et al., Christensens Physics of

Diagnostic Radiology, 4th ed., pp. 89, 91.
28
Collimators
Collimators adjust size and

shape of xx-ray beam
ParallelParallel-opposed lead shutters
Light field mimics xx-ray field
Reduces dose to patient;
ALARA: as low as reasonably
achievable
Reduced scatter radiation to
image receptor: better image
contrast
Positive beam limitation (PBL)
automatic beam collimation

G35. Two filaments are found in some xx-ray tubes. The

purpose is to:
29
A. Function as a spare in case one filament burns out.

B. Produce higher tube currents by using both filaments
simultaneously.
C. Double the number of heat units that the target can accept.
D. Enable the smallest focal spot to be used, consistent with the
the
kVp/mA setting.
30
EM Induction
From Maxwells EM equations

A time changing magnetic field
(dB/dt) induces a potential
difference (voltage) in a coil of
wire (solenoid) which causes a
current (I) to flow in the coil:

I dB/d
B/dt Faradays Law
Causing a potential (voltage)

difference between the ends of
the solenoid causes a current
(I) to flow which produces a
static magnetic field (B):
B I Ampere
Amperes Law

31
c.f.: http://www.physics.hmc.edu/courses/Ph51/maxwell.gif UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

32
Voltage Transformation
A time varying V (
( timetime-varying
I) through the primary winding
creates a timetime-varying B
If sinusoidal, then
Vp(t) = Vpsin(2
sin(2ft) and
B(t) = B
Bsin(2
sin(2ft)
Vs(t) = Vssin(2
sin(2ft)
Magnitudes of Vp and Vs depend

on the ratio of the number of
primary (Np) and secondary (Ns)
transformer windings

Law of transformers:
StepStep-up transformer:
Isolation transformer:
StepStep-down transformer:
Equality of power output:
Rem: f = 1/T
sin(2
sin(2ft) =
sin(2
sin(2t/T) =
sin(360
sin(360 t/T)
33
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP c.f.: http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-3.gif
An iron core wrapped with a

single wire
SelfSelf-induction rather than
mutual induction
Conducting taps allow the
input to output turns to vary,
resulting in small incremental
change between input and
output voltages
A switching autotransformer
allows a greater range of input
to output values

Ns = Np
Ns < Np
Vp Ip = Vs Is
34
X-ray Generator Components
Ns > Np
c.f. Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 118.
Autotransformer
Vp / Vs = Np / Ns or
Ns = Np (V
(Vs / Vp)
If the timetime-varying B lines are

channeled through a
ferromagnetic core, then a timetimevarying V is induced in the
secondary winding:
Transformer Relationships
HighHigh-Voltage power circuit
35
Low input voltage

High output voltage
Autrotransformer allows kVp
selection
c.f. Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

Filament circuit
mA sets the tube current

sec sets the exposure duration
manual exposure or
phototimed
36
Generator Circuit Designs

SingleSingle-phase (Half(Half-wave & FullFull-wave)
Rectifier Circuit
Operator Console (Technologist)
Diodes either vacuum tube or solidsolid-state device: eflow in only a single direction (cathode to anode only)
The operator selects the peak kilovoltage (kVp), the tube

current (mA), the exposure time (sec) and focal spot size
The kVp determines the xx-ray beam quality
(penetrability) which plays a role in subject contrast
The xx-ray tube current (mA) determines the xx-ray fluence
rate (photons/cm2-sec) emitted by the xx-ray tube at a
given kVp
mAs = mA sec (exposure time) photons/cm2 (fluence)
Low mA selections allow the small focal spot size to be
used and higher mA settings require the use of large
focal spot size due to anode heating considerations
37
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of

Complete SingleSingle-Phase TwoTwo-Pulse Rectifier Circuit
SingleSingle-phase generator
high voltage,
low current
low voltage, high current
39
Tube current for specific

filament current nonnon-linear
below 40 keV due to space
charge effect: inefficient and
contributes to patient dose
Cable capacitance smoothes
Minimum exposure time =
1/120th sec
ThreeThree-phase generator
38
SingleSingle-Phase and ThreeThree-Phase Generators

Three single phase waveforms

Out of phase by 120 degrees
Higher effective voltage
Greater control over exposure
timing

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 127127-128.
40
10
HighHigh-frequency Inverter Generator
Voltage Ripple and RootRoot-MeanMean-Square Voltage
Contemporary, statestate-ofof-the art

High frequency alternative
waveform (up to 50 kHz)
Most efficient, more compact
and less costly to manufacture
Induced voltage in a
transformer also a function of
the frequency
V (dB/dt) fNarea
not as many windings
needed smaller form factor
Also constantonstant-potential generator
Provides nearly constant
voltage to the xx-ray tube

% voltage ripple =
(Vmax - Vmin)/ Vmax 100%
RootRoot-meanmean-square voltage:
(Vrms)
41
As %VR , the Vrms

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 132 and 138.
Phototimers
42
Factors Affecting XX-ray Emission
Although a technologist can

manually time the xx-ray exposure
(set filament mA and exposure
time or the mAs), phototimers help
provide a consistent exposure to
the image receptor
Ionization chambers produce a
current that induces a voltage
difference in an electronic circuit
Tech chooses kVp; the xx-ray tube
current terminated when this
voltage equals a reference voltage
Phototimers are set for only a
limited number of exposure levels,
thus +/+/- settings

The constant voltage that

would deliver the same power
as the timetime-varying voltage
waveform
Quantity = number of xx-rays in

beam
Quality = penetrability of xx-ray

beam and depends on:
kVp
generator waveform (%VR)
tube filtration (mm Al)
Exposure depends on both

quantity and quality
43
Ztarget (kVp)2 mAs
Equal transmitted exposure:

(kVp1)5 mAs1 = (kVp2)5 mAs2

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 136 and 137.
44
11
G41.
G41. All of the following affect the shape of the xx-ray
spectrum except:
except:
A. The added filtration.

B. The type of rectification used in the xx-ray circuit.
C. The speed of rotation of the anode.
D. The energy of the electrons hitting the target.
E. The composition of the xx-ray target.
G41. The quality of an x-ray beam cannot be

characterized only in terms of the kVp, because beams
with the same kVp may have different _________ .
45
Generator Power Ratings and

X-ray Tube Focal Spots
47
HU = kVp mA sec factor

HU = kVp mAs factor
factor = 1.00 for singlesingle-phase generator
factor = 1.35 for threethree-phase and highhigh-frequency generators
factor = 1.40 for constant potential generator
Energy (J) = Vrms mA sec
Radiography: 0.6 and 1.2 mm

Mammography: 0.1 and 0.3
mm
c.f., Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of

Heat Unit (HU)
100 kW = 100 kVp 1000 mA

@ 100 ms exposure
Amax limited by the focal spot:

focal spot power rating
Generally range between 10
kW to 150 kW
Typical focal spots
46
X-ray Tube Heat Loading
Power (kW) = 100 kVp Amax

(for a 0.1 second exposure)
A. Filtration
B. HalfHalf-value layers
C. Maximum wavelengths
D. Target materials
E. All of the above
Vrms = 0.71 (1(1-phase),

phase), 0.950.95-0.99 (3
(3-phase & HF) and 1.0 (CP)
Heat input (HU) 1.4 Heat input (J)
48
12
SingleSingle-exposure Rating Chart
Anode Heat Input and Cooling Chart

4
StefanStefan-Boltzmann law: radiance T
With a tube relatively cold (low number of HU), can I take a 100 kVp shot at 70 mA
and 200 ms with tube (a), (b) or (c)? How about (a) for 35 mAs for another t?
49

Housing Cooling Chart
A CT scanner is operated at 120 kVp and 200 mA. Scans are 1

second in duration. If the anode heat storage capacity of the xx-ray
tube is 2.4 MJ, how many consecutive CT slices can be taken
without overheating the tube?
50
RaphexRaphex-like Diagnostic Question

51
A. 40
B. 60
C. 80
D. 100
E. 120
1 slice = 120 kVp 200 mA 1 sec = 24,000 J = 24 kJ

2.4 MJ = 2400 kJ; 2400 kJ/24kJ = 100 slices
52
13
G39.
G39. In an xx-ray machine with a tungsten target,
increasing the kVp from 100 to 150 will increase all of
the following except:
except:
A. The total number of xx-rays emitted.

B. The maximum energy of the xx-rays.
C. The average energy of the spectrum.
D. The energy of the characteristic xx-rays.
E. The heat units generated (for the same mAs).
53
14

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5

3 and 10 August 2006

X-rays the Basic Radiological Tool

Brent K. Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Roentgens experimental apparatus (Crookes tube)

a copy of this lecture may be found at:

Known as the radiograph of Bera

The Bremsstrahlung Process (1)

Chapter 5 Lecture Objectives

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

How xx-rays are produced, what spectrum results and

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5

3 and 10 August 2006

The Bremsstrahlung Process (2)

The Bremsstrahlung Process (3)

e- released from the cathode are accelerated towards the anode

About 99% of the KE converted to heat via collisioncollision-like interactions

Target nucleus positive charge (Z

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

The Bremsstrahlung Process (4)

The unfiltered Bremsstrahlung spectrum (intensity)

Atom diameter 10-10 m

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

The Bremsstrahlung Process (5)

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

The impact parameter distance, the closest approach to the

X-ray production efficiency is influenced by the target Z

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5

3 and 10 August 2006

The Bremsstrahlung Process (6)

Electronic Structure Electron Binding Energy

Highly suggested, very nice detailed description - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Characteristic XX-ray Spectrum (1)

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

Characteristic XX-ray Spectrum (2)

e- of the target atom have a

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Unfilled shell energetically

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5

3 and 10 August 2006

Characteristic XX-ray Spectrum (3)

The target materials used in xx-ray tubes for diagnostic medical

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Characteristic XX-ray Spectrum (4)

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP