Phonation +

Laryngeal Physiology

January 14, 2010

The Aerodynamics of Speech

Note: all sounds are created by the flow of air

Most (but not all) speech sounds are produced by a

pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.

= air flows out of the lungs

Note: air flows naturally out of
the lungs when they are
compressed
air always flows from areas
of high pressure to low

Lung Compression
In speech, lung compression is typically a passive
process.
The linkage between the lungs and the thoracic (rib)
cage tends toward an equilibrium- at which the lungs are larger than they would be
alone
and the rib cage is smaller than it would be alone.
When the linked pair is expanded beyond the
equilibrium point, it will naturally contract back to it.
(and vice versa)

Lung Expansion
The expansion of the lungs is primarily driven by the
contraction of the muscles in the diaphragm.
This increases volume in the vertical dimension.
Contraction of the
external intercostal
muscles also pulls
out the rib cage in the
front-back and sideto-side dimensions.
intercostal =
between the ribs

Riding the Wave

Speech is normally produced on the passive expiration
that follows an expansion of the lungs.
Airflow may be fine-tuned by contraction of the
internal intercostal muscles.
Active contraction
results in:
higher airflow
higher intensity
greater
perceived stress

Back to Aerodynamics

Remember: sounds are created by the flow of air

but speech often becomes interesting when that flow

of air is interrupted.

E.g., aerodynamic method #1: Stops

A. start air flow
B. stop air flow
C. release air flow

Heres an example of aerodynamic method #2.

What kind of sound was that?

Trills
A: a Trill. A Bilabial Trill:
Examples from Kele and Titan (spoken on the island of
Manus, north of New Guinea)

Any volunteers?
Does anyone else know how to produce a bilabial trill?
And would anyone like to demonstrate?
How fast do your lips open and close when you make a
bilabial trill?
Lets take a look at the waveform in Praat
Waveform = representation of the change in air
pressure over time.

Some Terminology
Frequency is the rate at which the lips are opening and
closing
measured in Hertz (cycles per second)
Period is the length of time between cycles
Frequency = 1 / Period
Some questions:
In a bilabial trill, do we close and relax our lips on each
cycle?
When air blows the lips apart, why dont they stay apart?

Bernoulli Effect
In a flowing stream of particles:
the pressure exerted by the
particles is inversely
proportional to their velocity
Pressure = constant
velocity
P=k/v
the higher the velocity, the
lower the pressure
the lower the velocity, the
higher the pressure

Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782)

Bernoulli Examples
Airplane wing
Shower curtain

Pieces of paper
Bilabial trills!

A Trilling Schematic
Lips are closed
adducted = brought together
Fad = adductive force
Fad

outside
of mouth

upper lip

inside of
mouth

Fad

lower lip

Trilling: Stage 1
Pressure builds up inside mouth from compression of lungs
Pin = Air Pressure inside mouth
Outside pressure remains constant
Pout = Air Pressure outside mouth
Fad

Pout = k

Pin
Fad

Trilling: Stage 1
Pressure differential between inside and outside builds up
P = (Pin - Pout )
This exerts force against the lips
Fad

Pout = k

Pin
Fad

Trilling: Stage 2
Pressure differential blows open lips
Air rushes from high to low pressure

Fad

Pout = k

air

Fad

Pin

Trilling: Stage 2

The opening of the lips means:

1. P decreases slightly
2. High velocity of air flowing between lips
3. Air pressure decreases between lips (Bernoulli Effect)
Fad

Pout = k

Pbl

Fad

Pin

Trilling: Stage 3

Lips get sucked back together

Fad

Pout = k

Pin
Fad

Trilling: Back to Stage 1

If air is still flowing out of lungs, pressure will rise again

within mouth

Process will repeat itself as long as air is pushed up from

lungs and lips are held lightly against each other
Fad

Pout = k

Pin
Fad

Trilling: Back to Stage 1

Air rushes through the lips in a series of short, regular

bursts

Fad

Pin
Fad

Trill Places

Phonation
Glottal trilling is known as phonation.
It distinguishes between voiced and voiceless sounds.
[z] vs. [s]; [v] vs. [f], etc.
Glottal trilling is made possible by the presence of two
vocal folds within a complicated structure known as the
larynx.
When the vocal folds are:
1. open: air passes cleanly through (= voiceless sound)
2. closed: air does not pass through (= no sound)
3. lightly brought together: vocal folds vibrate in passing air
(= voiced sound)

Voicing, Schematized

Voiceless (folds open)

(= abducted)

Voiced (folds together)

(= adducted)

Laryngoscopy

Source: http://homepage.mac.com/changcy/endo.htm

Voicing, in Reality

Creaky Voicing
The flow of air from the lungs forces the vocal folds to
open and close.
The slowest type of voicing is called creaky voice.

Modal Voice
In normal, or modal voicing, the rate of glottal trilling is
considerably faster.

How fast do you think the vocal folds open and close in
normal voicing?

Vocal Fold Specs

In bilabial trills, lips open and close 20-25 times a second
In modal voicing, the glottal trill cycle recurs, on average:
120 times a second for men
220 times a second for women
300+ times a second for children
For voiced speech sounds, this rate is known as the
fundamental frequency (F0) of the sound.
Lets check it out

Vocal Fold Specs

Air rushes through vocal folds at 20 to 50 meters per
second
= between 72 and 180 kph (45 ~ 120 mph)
Due to Bernoulli Effect, pressure between vocal folds when
this occurs is very small
Speed of glottal trill cycle depends on:
thickness of vocal folds
tenseness of vocal folds
length of vocal folds

Vocal Fold Specs

In men, vocal folds are 17-23 millimeters long
In women, vocal folds are 12-17 millimeters long
Adult male vocal folds are 2-5 millimeters thick
Adult female vocal folds are slightly thinner
Thicker, longer folds vibrate more slowly
Think: violin strings vs. bass strings
Tenseness of vocal folds can be changed to alter the
speed of glottal opening and closing.
Like tuning a violin or a guitar

The Larynx
The larynx is a complex structure consisting of
muscles, ligaments and three primary cartilages.

1. The Cricoid Cartilage

The cricoid cartilage sits on top of the trachea
from Greek krikos ring
It has
facets which
connect it to
the thyroid
and arytenoid
cartilages.

cricoid
cartilage

2. The Thyroid Cartilage

The thyroid cartilage sits on top of the cricoid cartilage.
from the Greek thyreos shield
The thyroid cartilage has horns!
Both lower (inferior) and upper (superior) horns
The lower horns connect with the cricoid cartilage at the
cricoids lower facet.
The upper horns connect to the hyoid bone.

Thyroid Graphic
thyroid
cartilage

cricoid
cartilage

Thyroid Angles
The two broad, flat front plates of the thyroid--the
laminae--meet at the thyroid angle.
The actual angle of the thyroid angle is more obtuse in
women.
...so the Adams Apple juts out more in men.

3. The Arytenoid Cartilages

There are two arytenoid cartilages.
from Greek arytaina, ladle
They are small and pointy, and sit on top of the back
side, or lamina, of the cricoid cartilage.

arytenoid
cartilages
cricoid
cartilage

The Vocal Folds

These three cartilages are connected by a variety of
muscles and ligaments.
The most important of these are the vocal folds.
They live at the very top of the trachea, in between
the cricoid and thyroid cartilages.
The vocal folds are a combination of:
The vocalis muscle
The vocal ligament
The vocal folds are enclosed in a membrane called the
conus elasticus.

Vocal Fold View #1

Just above
the true vocal
folds are the
false (!)
vocal folds,
or ventricular
folds.
The space
between the
vocal folds is
the glottis.

Vocal Fold View #2

The vocal ligaments
attach in the front to
the thyroid cartilage.
...and in the back to
the arytenoid
cartilages.
The glottis consists
of:
the ligamental
glottis
the cartilaginous
glottis

Things Start to Happen

Note that the arytenoid cartilages can be moved with
respect to the cricoid cartilage in two ways.

#1: rocking

#2: sliding

The Upshot
The arytenoids can thus be brought together towards
the midline of the body.
Or brought forwards, towards the front of the thyroid.
The rocking motion thus abducts or adducts the glottis.
The sliding motion shortens or lengthens the vocal folds.
Check out the arytenoids in action.

 When the vocal folds are abducted:

air passes through the glottis unimpeded and
voicelessness results.
The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles are primarily
responsible for separating the arytenoid cartilages.

 Voicing may occur when the vocal folds are adducted

and air is flowing up through the trachea from the lungs.
Two muscles are primarily responsible for adducting the
vocal folds.
The first is the lateral crico-arytenoid muscle.

 Note that the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles only

adduct the ligamental glottis.
The transverse arytenoid muscles pull together the
arytenoid cartilages themselves.
Thereby closing the cartilaginous glottis.

The Consequences
The combined forces drawing the vocal folds towards
each other produce adductive tension in the glottis.
Adductive tension is increased by:
lateral cricoarytenoid muscles
transverse arytenoid muscles
Adductive tension is decreased by:
posterior cricoarytenoid muscles
Adduction vs. abduction determines whether or not
voicing will occur.
But we can do more than just adduce or abduce the
vocal folds...

Factor Two
We can also change the
longitudinal tension of the
vocal folds.
I.e., tension along their
length, between the thyroid
and arytenoid cartilages.
Higher tension = higher F0
Lower tension = lower F0
Q: How is this possible?

 A: We can rotate the thyroid cartilage up and down on its

connection with the cricoid cartilage.
...like the visor of a knights helmet.
This either stretches or relaxes the vocal folds.